作者感谢惠特曼学院比较心理学实验室的成员在数据收集方面的帮助, 包括马克 Arand, 迈克尔巴克, Eva 戴维斯, Kuba 杰弗斯, 布雷特兰伯特, 塔拉麻将, 普拉特, Tvan 陈, 莱拉瓦迪亚, 和帕特里夏 Xi。

这里描述的程序是按照实验室动物福利办公室和美国公共卫生服务政策的人道护理和使用实验动物, 并批准了惠特曼学院的机构动物护理和使用委员会。
1. 减少鸽子的重量
注意: 鸽子的体重减少到 80-85%, 他们的免费喂养体重33 , 以确保鸟类是健康的, 并充分的动机, 为食物工作。
<ol><li>把天真的小鸟放在单独的笼子里, 用无限的水、砂砾和食物。</li>
	<li>每只鸽子在大约同一时间每天2到4周的体重, 或直到每一个鸟的免费喂养重量已稳定。</li>
	<li>计算每只鸽子的目标重量, 相当于其稳定的自由喂养重量的85%。</li>
	<li>限制食物逐渐减少每只鸽子的重量, 直到目标体重达到34。鸽子仍应无限制地获得水和砂砾。 注: 使用此协议29、30、31、32发布的实验在每一个条件下使用4和6只鸽子取得了显著的结果。相似的数字应该是足够的直接复制或微妙的变化。改变失明效应幅度的变化可能需要更大的样本。</li>
</ol>2. 训练鸽子在操作室的反应键上显示出的刺激, 并从食物料斗中进食谷物
注: 训练和实验课程需要精确的计算机控制, 时间分辨率不到1毫秒. 使用灵活的编程语言 (见材料表) 通过 i/o 中继控制操作室。
<ol><li>在每一天的会议开始, 称鸽子, 并把它们放进操作室 (见材料表)。天真的鸽子可能需要时间来适应处理, 权衡和运输到和从操作室。 在那之前, 要格外小心, 轻轻地处理鸟儿, 观察它们是否有压力的迹象。</li>
	<li>每天100次的试验。每项试验:<ol>
<li>随机选择一个视觉刺激元素 (如颜色或线条) 和三键 (见材料表) 在操作室中的一个。使用兼容的刺激投影仪 (参见材料表), 在相关键上照亮选定的刺激元素。 注意: 在许多操作室中标准的白炽灯泡的起始和偏移时间太慢, 不宜用于这种方法。用较快的 LED 当量替换操作室中的任何白炽灯泡, 然后确认显示器显示为预期状态, 刺激的开始是清脆的 (小于1毫秒, 从起始到峰值亮度)。</li>
		<li>等到鸽子啄刺激的钥匙。不要将啄确认为其他任何键。 注: 经验丰富的鸽子可以立即知道啄灯的响应键。天真或较少经验的鸟啄可以使用 handshaping 或 autoshaping35程序, 因为他们将是其他实验室任务的形状。</li>
		<li>在一个单一的啄到正确的反应键, 清除刺激显示, 并提供粮食从食品漏斗 2-3 秒。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>每届会议结束时, 将鸽子从操作室中移除, 并在返回他们的笼子前称重。调整疗程之间的食物进入时间, 以保持鸟类的个体运行重量在 80-85% 的自由喂养重量。</li>
	<li>继续训练前的课程, 直到鸽子迅速和一致地响应所有的刺激因素, 包括在实验中, 所有三反应键。</li>
</ol>3. 训练鸽子在响应键上搜索和啄出变化
<ol><li>在每一天的会议开始, 称鸽子并把它们放进操作室。</li>
	<li>在每天的100次试验的开始, 确定即将到来的刺激显示的细节。实验控制软件可以随机选择每个试验的细节。运行每日实验会话的示例程序包括作为补充文件 (change.cpp);存在的元素也可用于在步骤2中执行更简单的操作。<ol>
<li>随机选择250毫秒或0毫秒的间刺激间隔 (ISI) (每个). </li>
		<li>随机确定要呈现的更改重复次数, 无论是1、2、4、8或 16 (每个都有p = 0.2)。</li>
		<li>定义一个原始的刺激显示, 由一个或多个元素组成 (在 pretraining 期间呈现的颜色或线条) 在每个响应键上。</li>
		<li>更改原始的刺激显示, 通过在一个键上添加、删除或更改一个元素来定义修改后的显示。有关原始和修改的刺激显示的示例, 请参见图 1 。</li>
		<li>确保鸽子不会看到所有可能的刺激显示在训练期间。如有必要, 请指定一个用于传输的显示子集 (步骤 4), 并在培训过程中避免演示。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>提出一个 5 s 之间的审判间隔 (houselight), 与所有的反应键黑暗, 以分离每个试验从前面的审判。</li>
	<li>使用为步骤3.2 中的当前试用确定的值呈现刺激显示。<ol>
<li>照亮构成250毫秒的原始显示的刺激元素。</li>
		<li>清除刺激显示, 等待0或 250 ms 的 ISI。</li>
		<li>阐明了为 250 ms 组成修改后的显示的刺激元素。</li>
		<li>清除刺激显示, 等待0或 250 ms 的 ISI。</li>
		<li>重复步骤3.4.1 到 3.4.4, 直到完成先前为当前试用确定的重复次数。全部重复, 并忽略任何 keypecks 在刺激表现。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>用白光照亮所有三个响应键, 然后等待一只鸽子啄三响应键之一。考虑在刺激演示完成后, 对任何响应键的第一个啄是对该试验的响应。如图2所示, 有或没有 ISI 的试验的示意图说明。</li>
	<li>清除所有密钥并以增强或错误信号结束试用:<ol>
<li>如果一只鸟的反应是在显示变化的关键, 提供粮食从食品漏斗 2-3 s。</li>
		<li>如果一只鸟的反应不在被改变的键上, 则每0.5 秒之间切换 houselight 10 秒钟以表示错误的响应。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>每届会议结束时, 将鸽子从操作室中移除, 并在返回他们的笼子前称重。调整疗程之间的食物进入时间, 以保持鸟类的个体运行重量在 80-85% 的自由喂养重量。</li>
	<li>继续每天的训练, 直到鸽子反应的准确性稳定, 并且可靠地比机会准确性33%。提供了一个示例文件 (更改. xlsx), 分析原始数据以显示 ISI 存在的影响和重复次数。</li>
</ol>4. 在日常会议中提出新的转移审判
<ol><li>按照步骤3中概述的步骤进行操作, 但不排除任何潜在的显示 (请参见步骤 3.2.5)。 注: 有大量的潜在刺激显示, 没有必要排除潜在的显示器在训练和介绍他们以后。在这些情况下, 只需继续正常的训练, 因为从未见过的显示器自然会发生。</li>
	<li>分析新的, 从未见过的刺激显示的准确性, 不包括鸽子以前遇到的任何显示。比机会的准确性更好地证实鸽子已经学会了一个一般的变化检测规则, 而不是依靠记忆的熟悉刺激显示。</li>
</ol>

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autoshaping+of+the+pigeon's+keypeck.">Autoshaping of the pigeon's keypeck.</a> J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 11, 1-8 (1968).</li><li>Smilek, D., Eastwood, J. D., Merikle, P. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Does+unattended+information+facilitate+change+detection?.">Does unattended information facilitate change detection?.</a> J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 26, 480-487 (2000).</li><li>Herbranson, W. T., Call, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+and+divided+attention+in+comparative+psychology.">Selective and divided attention in comparative psychology.</a> APA handbook of comparative psychology. , 183-201 (2017).</li></ol>

作者没有什么可透露的。

这里提出的方法是由认知心理学家通常使用的所谓的 "闪烁范式" 来研究人类的改变失明9。在这项人类研究中, 改变失明在操作上被定义为由 ISI 的存在打断了刺激显示之间的转变而产生的变化检测中的损害。这里描述的鸽子的实施也是如此。此外, 人类倾向于使用串行搜索策略来处理闪烁任务, 考虑一次可能的位置, 并在每个位置成功地识别更改或拒绝该位置并移动到另一个。这里提出的方法产生的结果与相同的解释一致。鸽子的变化检测精度提高了额外的重复32, 因为你会期望从一个从一个可能的变化位置到下一个从一个串行搜索。但是请注意, 虽然主要结果与串行搜索过程一致, 但这并不是唯一的逻辑可能性。应考虑交替解释 (如有限容量并行搜索), 甚至可能会激发程序的变化。例如, 如果鸽子确实从事一个按位置搜索的过程, 他们应该能够利用基准速率的差异, 通过有选择地在高概率位置发起搜索 (提高准确性的高概率位置, 同时降低其他人的准确性)。并行搜索过程不会做出这样的预测。
尽管有这些重要的相似之处, 但也有一些显著的差异必须得到承认。虽然人类研究经常利用复杂的视觉刺激, 如摄影图像, 这里提出的方法依赖于更简单的元素, 可以投射到反应键在操作室。这种差异的一个结果是, 标准操作室中可能发生的更改位置的数量仅限于三 (响应键的数量), 而这个数字比照片中无数可能的更改位置小得多。显示。因此, 虽然鸽子和人类都可以使用串行搜索策略来定位变化, 但这里描述的过程的准确性能可以通过更简单的搜索过程来支持。第二, 人类研究经常测量反应时间来评估变化检测。更难找到的更改 (如 ISI 所遮蔽的) 需要额外的搜索时间, 并产生更长的响应时间。这鸽子方法使用准确性作为反应时间的一个备用, 因为它几乎不可能防止鸽子啄刺激显示在展示期间 (大概在他们有机会发现任何变动之前)。计算这些刺激啄作为响应导致持续快速但无意义的响应时间和不可接受的低变化检测精度。然而, 将精确性解释为性能指标的逻辑与解释响应时间类似。容易发现的变化可以在短时间内被识别 (即使在少量重复之后也能产生良好的精确度), 而更困难的变化需要更长 (在多次重复之后才达到较高的精确度)。因为该方法要求所有重复都在记录响应之前全部显示出来, 所以没有办法精确精确地指出在刺激演示过程中, 鸽子是如何确定变化的。据推测, 在记录的反应之前, 有些变化是很好的, 而另一些则只是在以前才发现的。这就破坏了任何产生的响应时间的用处, 而不是基于准确性的分析的用处。
执行此任务时需要考虑几个实际问题。虽然该方法已显示为可复制, 但有些方案虽然总体精度良好 (见图 4, 顶部面板), 但并未产生任何改变失明的效果。因此, 应谨慎选择刺激细节, 以最大限度地提高产生虚拟效应的可能性。特别是, 很短的 ISI 持续时间可能削弱甚至消除了改变失明30。该协议中指定的 250 ms ISI 应该是有效的, 但请注意, 还可以使用更短的工期;一项改变盲效应已证实与 ISI 短至7毫秒32。还注意到 isi 试验的困难随着 isi 的持续时间而增加。因此, 如果动物努力学习的过程, 缩短 ISI 的持续时间可能是一个简单的方法来提高准确性, 特别是早期的训练。反之, 延长 ISI (甚至超出推荐的250毫秒) 可能是提高效果大小的一种方法。最有力的因素之一可能是变化的突出性, 这是真实的两个人36和鸽子29,31。更大或更显著的变化更容易检测, 但对比无 isi 试验更困难的 ISI 试验的影响更大。最后, 我们应该考虑的数量, 可以产生的刺激, 提供的设备。随着大量的变化检测刺激, 鸽子可能会看到新颖的, 从未见过的刺激, 在每一个会话, 所以一般的变化检测规则是唯一的策略, 可以产生一贯良好的准确性。另一方面, 随着可用的刺激数量减少, 记忆成为一种可行的方法, 因为同样的刺激可能会反复出现, 甚至在会话中。在这种情况下, 保留对转移的刺激特别重要, 以证明结果是由于规则学习而不是记忆29。请注意, 即使是少量的可用刺激元素也可以组合起来, 以产生一组相对较大的可能显示。例如, Herbranson 和杰弗斯29 (实验 1), 只使用四种不同的颜色元素, 产生 43 = 64 唯一的原始显示。然后, 每个原始显示器可以与九个独特的修改显示之一配对, 产生一个整体训练集576配对的变化显示。以更多元素来更加可能的陈列。Herbranson 和同事32在每三个键上使用八行方向元素的组合, 以生成一组4亿个独特的配对显示器。
最后, 闪变范式令人兴奋, 因为它产生了一个强大的效果, 突出了选择性注意力的显著失败。这里提出的协议可以使用现成的操作室来实现, 从而在与人类先前证明的非人类动物中产生结果。鉴于操作性设备是广泛可用的, 并没有专门限于鸽子, 这种方法可能被证明是同样有用的其他物种的动物, 可以控制注意力的过程。虽然对动物注意力的研究不是新的37, 但它的大部分 (相当可以理解) 侧重于成功或适应性的注意方面。改变失明突出了一贯和系统性的失败的关注, 值得同样的审查水平。因此, 改变失明不仅仅是人类视觉关注的一个引人入胜的怪癖。它意味着例如, 我们的大部分视觉体验依赖于比我们预期的要少得多的表示10。鸽子的平行效应的存在进一步表明, 这种稀疏的表现可能是进化相当古老和广泛。因此, 改变失明可能是选择性注意的一般结果, 它可以对注意力的来源以及其局限性和缺陷的原因提供一些有价值的见解。

认知心理学在我们的认知过程中反复表现出惊人的、常常令人惊讶的缺陷。一些比较显著的例子包括但不限于错误记忆1、次优决策启发式2和错误统计推理3。最近添加的这个列表是改变失明的现象。改变失明是一个持续的注意力不集中的问题, 在这种情况下, 你没有注意到对环境的显著变化。在一个示范4, 实验者有一个邦联的方法, 个人要求的方向。在他们的谈话中, 工人们在两人之间传递了一扇门, 短暂中断了视觉接触, 并提供了一个机会去交换邦联的另一个人。在这次偷偷摸摸的交流之后, 大多数个人没有注意到他们的谈话搭档不再是同一个人。这种失败是令人惊讶的, 因为瞬间的变化似乎是可能引起我们注意的重要事件的信号。
为了更好地了解改变失明发生的方式和原因, 研究人员把它带进实验室, 并开发了几个巧妙的程序5,6,7,8研究它在更多的受控条件。一个特别成功的方法被称为 "闪烁任务"9。在这个过程中, 实验者通过删除一个特征来编辑照片, 然后将图像呈现给参与者, 在原始版本和修改版之间快速交替。参与者很快发现了差异。但是, 如果在连续的图像之间插入了一个简短的空白字段 (生成一个为其命名过程的闪烁显示), 则更改检测难度更大, 从而导致精度和响应时间变慢。这个过程是有吸引力的, 因为它提供了一个精确的测量变化盲目性, 很容易操作的具体方面的显示, 如大小, 突出, 或时间的变化。
闪烁范式已被证明是一个强大的工具, 学习的知觉和注意在人类10。效果惊人的强大和持久。对于简单动画11中唯一对象的更改, 以及直接查看更改位置12, 可能会发生更改失明。即使经验与改变失明和知觉的现象不消灭它13。此外, 改变失明是相当多样的, 可以诱发的一些不同的事件, 如眼睛扫视5, mudsplashes14, 电影削减7, 或视觉闭塞4。在听觉15和触觉16模式中出现了一个平行现象, 表明它可能不是唯一的视觉刺激, 可能是一个更普遍的关注现象。
当然, 人类不是唯一利用注意力的动物。举个例子, 鸽子展示了许多人类同样的注意力能力。他们可以选择特定的特点, 以优先处理 (当他们使用搜索图像来寻找特定的食物目标)17,18。他们可以直接注意到特定区域或空间位置19。他们可以转移他们的注意力在组织20,21层级层次。他们还可以在刺激显示的不同方面,22,23之间划分注意力。看来, 鸽子拥有许多同样的能力, 使人们对人类的注意力很有用。如果改变失明与某些固有的注意力限制有关, 我们可能会期望看到鸽子 (或者其他动物) 的平行改变失明效应。此外, 最近有多次成功的研究使用鸽子进行的变化检测, 实施广泛不同的方法24,25,26,27, 28。
最近的研究29,30,31,32已经适应了闪变范式调查鸽子的改变失明, 并产生了平行人类改变失明的结果。本报告描述了在操作室中实现此过程的简单方法。与人类版本的任务一样, 很容易分离和操作刺激演示的特定方面, 以调查它们对改变检测和改变失明的影响。因此, 这一程序应成为研究鸟类注意的局限性的宝贵工具, 以及它们与人类关注的局限性的相似程度。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Small Environment Cublicle</td>
			<td>BRS/LVE</td>
			<td>SEC-002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pigeon Intelligence Panel</td>
			<td>BRS/LVE</td>
			<td>PIP-016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Grain Feeder</td>
			<td>BRS/LVE</td>
			<td>GFM-001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pigeon Pecking Key</td>
			<td>BRS/LVE</td>
			<td>PPK-001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stimulus projector</td>
			<td>BRS/LVE</td>
			<td>IC-901</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED Lamp</td>
			<td>Martek Industries, Cherry Hill NJ</td>
			<td>1820</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>I/O module</td>
			<td>Acces IO</td>
			<td>USB-IDIO-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Personal Computer</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Optiplex 3040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual C++</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>White Carneau pigeons</td>
			<td>Double-T Farm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a method for investigating change blindness in pigeons (columba livia)

改变失明是一种视觉注意的现象, 在某些特定情况下, 视觉显示的变化会被忽视。虽然已经制定了许多实验室程序来产生人类的改变失明, 但闪变范式已经成为一种特别有效的方法。在闪变范式中, 两个可视显示相互交替呈现。如果连续显示通过短的相互刺激间隔 (ISI) 隔开, 则更改检测将受到损害。程序的简单性和清晰的、基于性能的变化盲操作定义使闪变范式非常适合使用非人类动物进行比较研究。事实上, 已经制定了一个变种, 可以实施在操作室, 以研究改变失明的鸽子。结果表明, 如果两个连续的显示器在时间上被空白 ISI 所分离, 鸽子和人类一样, 在检测变化的位置时会更差。此外, 鸽子的变化检测与一个活跃的, 按位置的搜索过程是一致的, 需要选择性的注意。因此, 闪烁任务有可能有助于调查鸽子的选择性空间注意的动态与人类相比。这也说明了改变失明现象并不排斥人类的视觉知觉, 而是可能是选择性注意的一般结果。最后, 虽然人们普遍赞赏和理解注意的有用方面, 但也必须承认, 它们可能伴随着诸如改变失明等具体缺陷, 而且这些缺陷在广泛的上下文范围。

兴趣的主要结果是在与没有 ISI 的试验之间的准确性差异。特别是, 在闪变范式中, 改变盲的操作定义大大降低了与 isi 相对于没有 isi 的试验相比的试验的变化检测准确性。此效果可以在图 3中看到, 显示以前发布的数据29。在这个实验中, 鸽子发现了由颜色元素组成的刺激 (图 1左侧所描述的类型) 的变化。如图所示, 鸽子看到了10种刺激, 不同的基础上的变化重复次数 (2, 4, 8, 16, 或32在 x 轴) 和存在的 250 ms ISI (单独的线)。与 isi (m = 79.6%)、 F(1、3) = 11.338、 p = 043、部分η2 =. 791 的试验相比, 平均准确度 (m = 76.4%) 更差。这一数字还表明, 这种准确性的差异指示的变化失明的每一个重复次数测试。
图 3还显示了感兴趣的次要结果: 更改检测精度受所提供重复次数的影响。特别是, 变化检测精度随重复次数的增加而增大, F(4, 12) = 11.104, p = 001 部分η2 =. 787。这种模式与鸽子参与串行搜索的解释是一致的, 这与人类在类似的变化检测任务9中所做的一样, 并且支持更改检测需要一个主动搜索过程的可能性, 要求注意。额外的重复提供了更多的机会来考虑更多的潜在变化地点, 并注意到不同的空间位置相应。低重复试验的准确度可能很大程度上是由于没有足够的时间来考虑在刺激演示完成之前的实际变化位置。
图 4以并行方式总结了同一实验室30中以前发布的其他结果。实验给鸽子带来了由线段 (图 1右侧所示的类型) 所构成的刺激, 再次为固定数量的重复 (1、2、4、8或 16), 并有或没有 ISI。请注意, 底部面板中描述的条件显示了图 3中上述两种效果。与 isi (m = 45.6%)试验的准确性比没有 isi (米= 75.8%), F(1, 3) = 60.571, p = 004 部分η2 =. 953 的试验差。此外, 准确度随重复次数增加, F(1, 3) = 23.452, p < 001 部分η2 =. 887。因此, 使用相同的一般程序, 但使用不同类型的刺激因素, 也获得了与改变失明相关的发现模式。
图 4的顶部面板显示了同一实验的不同条件下的结果 , 在这种情况下 , 更改显示的时间纵。这种情况没有发现改变失明的效果。即, 在试验之间没有区别 (m = 66.1%) 和没有 (m = 67.4%) ISI, F(1, 3) = 0.189, p =. 693 部分η2 =. 059。这一负面结果表明, 改变失明可以依赖于刺激表现的具体细节, 而对时间和显著性等因素的调查在将来可能是有信息的。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig1.jpg"> 图 1: 构成更改检测显示的配对 (原始和修改) 刺激显示的示例.左侧显示由颜色元素组成 (代表来自 Herbranson & 杰弗斯的显示, 201729)。右边的显示器由线段组成 (代表来自 Herbranson & 戴维斯的显示器, 201630)。在这两个示例中, 更改都在最左边的键上。
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig2.jpg"> 图 2: 与 (左) 或无 (右) ISI 一起试用的示意性描述.顶部部分表示试验的刺激演示部分。左边的序列包括每个连续显示之间的 ISI。右边的序列没有。在两个序列中, 更改位于中心键 (红绿色) 上。底部面板阐释了试验的后续选择部分。正确的响应是中心键, 对应于更改的位置。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig3.jpg"> 图 3: 从实验 1 Herbranson 和杰弗斯, 201729的精确变化检测率.该实验使用250毫秒显示时间和 250 ms 或 0 ms 的伊希斯。错误条表示一个标准错误。改变失明的操作定义是对试验的更坏的变化发现与 isi (被填装的圈子) 相对于试验没有 isi (开放圈子)。还要注意, 精确度随着重复次数的增加而提高, 这表明了串行搜索。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig4.jpg"> 图 4: 在两个条件下, 从实验 2 Herbranson 和戴维斯, 201630的准确变化率检测.错误条表示一个标准错误。在底部面板中所代表的条件产生了显著的改变盲效应 (在没有 ISI 的试验中的精确度更好), 而在顶部面板中所表示的条件却没有。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56677/56677fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia at JoVE.com

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia

一种调查鸽子变盲的方法 (科伦巴)

改变失明是一种视觉注意的现象, 在某些特定情况下, 视觉显示的变化会被忽视。该协议描述了在闪烁范式上的变化, 用于调查与鸽子研究有关的变化盲。

Change blindness is a phenomenon of visual attention, whereby changes to a visual display go unnoticed under certain specific circumstances. While many ...

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Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons (Columba Livia)

6.3K 次观看.  Whitman College. 改变失明是一种视觉注意的现象, 在某些特定情况下, 视觉显示的变化会被忽视。该协议描述了在闪烁范式上的变化, 用于调查与鸽子研究有关的变化盲。

视频: A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia

Measuring Sensitivity to Viewpoint Change with and without Stereoscopic Cues

The speed and accuracy of object recognition is compromised by a change in viewpoint; demonstrating that human observers are sensitive to this transformation. Here we discuss a novel method for simulating the appearance of an object that has undergone a rotation-in-depth, and include an exposition of the differences between perspective and orthographic projections. Next we describe a method by which human sensitivity to rotation-in-depth can be measured. Finally we discuss an apparatus for creating a vivid percept of a 3-dimensional rotation-in-depth; the Wheatstone Eight Mirror Stereoscope. By doing so, we reveal a means by which to evaluate the role of stereoscopic cues in the discrimination of viewpoint rotated shapes and objects.

We discuss a novel method forviewpoint-rotation of visual stimuli, and demonstrate using a mirror stereoscopethe three-dimensional percept of rotation-in-depth. The technique can be used to investigate the role of stereoscopic cues in encoding viewpoint-rotated figures.

The speed and accuracy of object recognition is compromised by a change in viewpoint; demonstrating that human observers are sensitive to this ...

科研

行为学

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

针对调查中的认知控制网络与关联维度变化卡片分类性能的功能连通性年龄相关性差异的方法

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Investigating Causal Brain-behavioral Relationships and their Time Course

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe, non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses a strong electromagnet in order to temporarily disrupt information processing in a brain region, generating a short-lived &#8220;virtual lesion.&#8221; Stimulation that interferes with task performance indicates that the affected brain region is necessary to perform the task normally. In other words, unlike neuroimaging methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that indicate correlations between brain and behavior, TMS can be used to demonstrate causal brain-behavior relations. Furthermore, by varying the duration and onset of the virtual lesion, TMS can also reveal the time course of normal processing. As a result, TMS has become an important tool in cognitive neuroscience. Advantages of the technique over lesion-deficit studies include better spatial-temporal precision of the disruption effect, the ability to use participants as their own control subjects, and the accessibility of participants. Limitations include concurrent auditory and somatosensory stimulation that may influence task performance, limited access to structures more than a few centimeters from the surface of the scalp, and the relatively large space of free parameters that need to be optimized in order for the experiment to work. Experimental designs that give careful consideration to appropriate control conditions help to address these concerns. This article illustrates these issues with TMS results that investigate the spatial and temporal contributions of the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG) to reading.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique for non-invasively disrupting neural information processing and measuring its effect on behavior. When TMS interferes with a task, it indicates that the stimulated brain region is necessary for normal task performance, allowing one to systematically relate brain regions to cognitive functions.

经颅磁刺激对调查因果脑 - 行为关系及其时间进程

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe, non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses a strong electromagnet in order to temporarily ...

A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate drug-seeking behavior and prompt relapse in abstinent drug users. We have developed a procedure to study the behavioral and neural processes that mediate the impact of context on alcohol-seeking behavior in rats. Following acclimation to the taste and pharmacological effects of 15% ethanol in the home cage, male Long-Evans rats receive Pavlovian discrimination training (PDT) in conditioning chambers. In each daily (Mon-Fri) PDT session, 16 trials each of two different 10 sec auditory conditioned stimuli occur. During one stimulus, the CS+, 0.2 ml of 15% ethanol is delivered into a fluid port for oral consumption. The second stimulus, the CS-, is not paired with ethanol. Across sessions, entries into the fluid port during the CS+ increase, whereas entries during the CS- stabilize at a lower level, indicating that a predictive association between the CS+ and ethanol is acquired. During PDT each chamber is equipped with a specific configuration of visual, olfactory and tactile contextual stimuli. Following PDT, extinction training is conducted in the same chamber that is now equipped with a different configuration of contextual stimuli. The CS+ and CS- are presented as before, but ethanol is withheld, which causes a gradual decline in port entries during the CS+. At test, rats are placed back into the PDT context and presented with the CS+ and CS- as before, but without ethanol. This manipulation triggers a robust and selective increase in the number of port entries made during the alcohol predictive CS+, with no change in responding during the CS-. This effect, referred to as context-induced renewal, illustrates the powerful capacity of contexts associated with alcohol consumption to stimulate alcohol-seeking behavior in response to Pavlovian alcohol cues.

A procedure to study the capacity of an alcohol associated environmental context to trigger the renewal of alcohol-seeking behavior in rats is described.

一个过程来观察大鼠巴甫洛夫空调酒精寻求行为的背景下引发的重建

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate ...

A Pressure Injection System for Investigating the Neuropharmacology of Information Processing in Awake Behaving Macaque Monkey Cortex

The top-down modulation of feed-forward cortical information processing is functionally important for many cognitive processes, including the modulation of sensory information processing by attention. However, little is known about which neurotransmitter systems are involved in such modulations. A practical way to address this question is to combine single-cell recording with local and temporary neuropharmacological manipulation in a suitable animal model. Here we demonstrate a technique combining acute single-cell recordings with the injection of neuropharmacological agents in the direct vicinity of the recording electrode. The video shows the preparation of the pressure injection/recording system, including preparation of the substance to be injected. We show a rhesus monkey performing a visual attention task and the procedure of single-unit recording with block-wise pharmacological manipulations.

Here, we show the pressure injection of neuropharmacological substances during single-cell recording in an awake, behaving macaque monkey. This procedure allows pharmacological manipulation in the direct vicinity of a cortical recording site.

对调查信息处理的神经药理学清醒行为猕猴皮质压力喷射系统

The top-down modulation of feed-forward cortical information processing is functionally important for many cognitive processes, including the modulation ...

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

心理跟踪方法来衡量儿童和成人的口味偏好

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

Investigating Motor Skill Learning Processes with a Robotic Manipulandum

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be time-intensive and ambiguous to quantify beyond simple success rates. Here, we describe the training procedure for reach-and-pull tasks with ETH Pattus, a robotic platform for automated forelimb reaching training that records pulling and hand rotation movements in rats. Kinematic quantification of the performed pulling attempts reveals the presence of distinct temporal profiles of movement parameters such as pulling velocity, spatial variability of the pulling trajectory, deviation from midline, as well as pulling success. We show how minor adjustments in the training paradigm result in alterations in these parameters, revealing their relation to task difficulty, general motor function or skilled task execution. Combined with electrophysiological, pharmacological and optogenetic techniques, this paradigm can be used to explore the mechanisms underlying motor learning and memory formation, as well as loss and recovery of function (e.g. after stroke).

A paradigm is presented for training and analysis of an automated skilled reaching task in rats. Analysis of pulling attempts reveals distinct subprocesses of motor learning.

调查运动技能的学习过程与机器人Manipulandum

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be ...

A Method to Test the Effect of Environmental Cues on Mating Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

An individual's sexual drive is influenced by genotype, experience and environmental conditions. How these factors interact to modulate sexual behaviors remains poorly understood. In Drosophila melanogaster, environmental cues, such as food availability, affect mating activity offering a tractable system to investigate the mechanisms modulating sexual behavior. In D. melanogaster, environmental cues are often sensed via the chemosensory gustatory and olfactory systems. Here, we present a method to test the effect of environmental chemical cues on mating behavior. The assay consists of a small mating arena containing food medium and a mating couple. The mating frequency for each couple is continuously monitored for 24 h. Here we present the applicability of this assay to test environmental compounds from an external source through a pressurized air system as well as manipulation of the environmental components directly in the mating arena. The use of a pressurized air system is especially useful to test the effect of very volatile compounds, while manipulating components directly in the mating arena can be of value to ascertain a compound's presence. This assay can be adapted to answer questions about the influence of genetic and environmental cues on mating behavior and fecundity as well as other male and female reproductive behaviors.

A Method to Test the Effect of Environmental Cues on Mating Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

We demonstrate an assay to analyze the environmental and genetic cues that influence mating behavior in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.

测试环境线索对交配行为的影响的方法<em&gt;黑腹果蝇</em

An individual's sexual drive is influenced by genotype, experience and environmental conditions. How these factors interact to modulate sexual behaviors ...

A Behavioral Assay for Investigating the Role of Spatial Memory During Instinctive Defense in Mice

Evolution has selected a repertoire of defensive behaviors that are essential for survival across all animal species. These behaviors are often stereotyped actions elicited in response to innately aversive sensory stimuli, but their success requires enough flexibility for adapting to different spatial environments, which can change rapidly. Here, we describe a behavioral assay to evaluate the influence of learned spatial knowledge on defensive behaviors in mice. We have adapted the widely used Barnes maze spatial memory assay to investigate how mice navigate to a shelter during escape responses to innately aversive sensory stimuli in a novel environment, and how they adapt to acute changes in the environment. This new assay is an ethological paradigm that does not require training and exploits the natural exploration patterns and navigation strategies in mice. We propose that the set of protocols described here are a powerful means of studying goal-directed behaviors and stimulus-triggered navigation, which should be of interest to both the fields of instinctive behaviors and spatial memory.

This protocol describes a behavioral assay, based on the Barnes maze test, to study how instinctive defensive actions are modified by the knowledge of spatial environment.

一种研究空间记忆在小鼠本能防御中作用的行为分析法

Evolution has selected a repertoire of defensive behaviors that are essential for survival across all animal species. These behaviors are often ...

A New Method for Inducing a Depression-Like Behavior in Rats

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is no existing format for studying the mechanism of action, prevention, containment, and treatment of contagious depression. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to establish the first animal model of contagious depression.
Healthy rats can contract depressive behaviors if exposed to depressed rats. Depression is induced in rats by subjecting them to several manipulations of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) over 5 weeks, as described in the protocol. A successful sucrose preference test confirmed the development of depression in the rats. The CUS-exposed rats were then caged with na&#239;ve rats from the contagion group (1 na&#239;ve rat/2 depressed rats in a cage) for an additional 5 weeks. 30 social groups were created from the combination of CUS-exposed rats and na&#239;ve rats.
This proposed depression-contagion protocol in animals consists mainly of cohabiting CUS-exposed and healthy rats for 5 weeks. To ensure that this method works, a series of tests are carried out - first, the sucrose preference test upon inducing depression to rats, then, the sucrose preference test, alongside the open field and forced-swim tests at the end of the cohabitation period. Throughout the experiment, rats are given tags and are always returned to their cages after each test.
A few limitations to this method are the weak differences recorded between the experimental and control groups in the sucrose preference test and the irreversible traumatic outcome of the forced swim test. These may be worth considering for suitability before any future application of the protocol. Nonetheless, following the experiment, na&#239;ve rats developed contagion depression after 5 weeks of sharing the same cage with the CUS-exposed rats.

This protocol describes a new model by which healthy rats could contract depression over a given time periodthrough contagion by exposure to chronic unpredictable stressed (CUS) rats.

一种诱导大鼠抑郁症状行为的新方法

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is ...