This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health Grant HL127711 to AVK.

<ol>
	<li>Pollard, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+and+Actin-Binding+Proteins.">Actin and Actin-Binding Proteins.</a> Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 8 (8), (2016).</li><li>Hansen, M. D., Kwiatkowski, A. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+actin+dynamics+by+allosteric+regulation+of+actin+binding+proteins.">Control of actin dynamics by allosteric regulation of actin binding proteins.</a> Int Rev Cell Mol Biol. 303, 1-25 (2013).</li><li>Lappalainen, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin-binding+proteins:+the+long+road+to+understanding+the+dynamic+landscape+of+cellular+actin+networks.">Actin-binding proteins: the long road to understanding the dynamic landscape of cellular actin networks.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 27 (16), 2519-2522 (2016).</li><li>Mullins, R. D., Hansen, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+studies+of+actin+filament+and+network+dynamics.">In vitro studies of actin filament and network dynamics.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 25 (1), 6-13 (2013).</li><li>Miller, P. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Danio+rerio+alphaE-catenin+is+a+monomeric+F-actin+binding+protein+with+distinct+properties+from+Mus+musculus+alphaE-catenin.">Danio rerio alphaE-catenin is a monomeric F-actin binding protein with distinct properties from Mus musculus alphaE-catenin.</a> J Biol Chem. 288 (31), 22324-22332 (2013).</li><li>Wickline, E. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=alphaT-Catenin+Is+a+Constitutive+Actin-binding+alpha-Catenin+That+Directly+Couples+the+Cadherin.Catenin+Complex+to+Actin+Filaments.">alphaT-Catenin Is a Constitutive Actin-binding alpha-Catenin That Directly Couples the Cadherin.Catenin Complex to Actin Filaments.</a> J Biol Chem. 291 (30), 15687-15699 (2016).</li><li>Simpson, R. J., Adams, P. D., Golemis, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Basic methods in protein purification and analysis : a laboratory manual. , (2009).</li><li>Laemmli, U. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cleavage+of+structural+proteins+during+the+assembly+of+the+head+of+bacteriophage+T4.">Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4.</a> Nature. 227 (5259), 680-685 (1970).</li><li>Dyballa, N., Metzger, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+and+sensitive+colloidal+coomassie+G-250+staining+for+proteins+in+polyacrylamide+gels.">Fast and sensitive colloidal coomassie G-250 staining for proteins in polyacrylamide gels.</a> J Vis Exp. (30), (2009).</li><li>Pollard, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+guide+to+simple+and+informative+binding+assays.">A guide to simple and informative binding assays.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 21 (23), 4061-4067 (2010).</li><li>Hansen, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=alphaE-catenin+actin-binding+domain+alters+actin+filament+conformation+and+regulates+binding+of+nucleation+and+disassembly+factors.">alphaE-catenin actin-binding domain alters actin filament conformation and regulates binding of nucleation and disassembly factors.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 24 (23), 3710-3720 (2013).</li><li>Perrin, B. J., Ervasti, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+actin+gene+family:+function+follows+isoform.">The actin gene family: function follows isoform.</a> Cytoskeleton (Hoboken). 67 (10), 630-634 (2010).</li><li>Tondeleir, D., Vandamme, D., Vandekerckhove, J., Ampe, C., Lambrechts, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+isoform+expression+patterns+during+mammalian+development+and+in+pathology:+insights+from+mouse+models.">Actin isoform expression patterns during mammalian development and in pathology: insights from mouse models.</a> Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 66 (10), 798-815 (2009).</li><li>Prochniewicz, E., Janson, N., Thomas, D. D., Dela Cruz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cofilin+increases+the+torsional+flexibility+and+dynamics+of+actin+filaments.">Cofilin increases the torsional flexibility and dynamics of actin filaments.</a> J Mol Biol. 353 (5), 990-1000 (2005).</li><li>Kuhn, J. R., Pollard, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+measurements+of+actin+filament+polymerization+by+total+internal+reflection+fluorescence+microscopy.">Real-time measurements of actin filament polymerization by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy.</a> Biophys J. 88 (2), 1387-1402 (2005).</li><li>Hansen, S. D., Zuchero, J. B., Mullins, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytoplasmic+actin:+purification+and+single+molecule+assembly+assays.">Cytoplasmic actin: purification and single molecule assembly assays.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 1046, 145-170 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The actin co-sedimentation assay is a straightforward technique that can quickly determine if a protein binds F-actin. With some modifications, the technique can also be used to measure the affinity of the interaction. In addition to points raised in the protocol above, the following issues should be considered when designing, conducting, and interpreting the assay.
Protein of Interest
Freshly prepared or frozen protein can be used in the assay. If frozen protein is used, it is highly recommended that the results be compared with fresh (never frozen) protein to ensure that freezing does not affect F-actin binding.
G-actin Source
Many pelleting experiments use G-actin isolated from muscle because of its relative abundance. There are three main actin isotypes in mammals &#8211; alpha, beta and gamma &#8211; that are remarkably similar (&#62;90% sequence identity). Nonetheless, there are functional differences between the isotypes12,13. If possible, the G-actin isotype used in the binding assay should match the in vivo isotype. For example, if testing a protein expressed in skeletal muscle, alpha-actin is the best choice; if examining a protein expressed in fibroblasts, beta-actin is recommended.
Phalloidin Use
Since phalloidin binds F-actin, it can interfere or even block the binding of some F-actin binding proteins (e.g., phalloidin blocks cofilin from binding to actin filaments)14. Thus, phalloidin should be used with caution and the results compared to non-phalloidin-treated samples when possible.
High Background
It is not uncommon for proteins to sediment in the absence of F-actin (Figure 1A, no F-actin pellet samples). However, high levels of background sedimentation can mask true actin co-sedimentation and make it difficult, if not impossible, to determine if a protein binds F-actin or to measure the affinity of the interaction. Adding polidicanol to the reaction buffer (step 4.1) can significantly reduce the background and is an easy solution. If that does not reduce the background, adjusting the reaction buffer, salt concentration, and/or incubation temperature may help.
Binding Curve
To generate a binding curve, it is necessary to vary the concentration of either the protein of interest or the F-actin over a series of reactions. In practice, it is easier and preferable to maintain F-actin at a fixed concentration and to vary the concentration of the protein of interest. Maintaining F-actin at a fixed concentration (e.g., 2 &#181;M) in the pelleting assay limits non-specific trapping at higher concentrations of F-actin and prevents depolymerization at lower (&#60;0.5 &#181;M) concentrations of F-actin. Depolymerization can be prevented using phalloidin, although this introduces a potential complicating factor into the system (see step 3.3 and above). Maintaining F-actin at a fixed concentration also allows one to compare (and normalize) the F-actin pellet across samples and to identify failed experiments (i.e., where the F-actin pellet is highly variable, preventing analysis across concentrations). Finally, maintaining F-actin at a fixed concentration allows one to determine if the binding to the actin filament is cooperative (Figure 1C).
Saturated Binding
As in all binding experiments, it is critical that the binding to F-actin is saturated and that the concentration of protein plus F-actin plateaus (Figure 1C). Without a plateau, it is not possible to calculate an accurate dissociation equilibrium constant. Thus, it is important to carefully plan the dilution series to be tested and to always include higher concentrations of protein (i.e., at least 5- to 10-fold higher than the expected Kd).
Binding Analysis
In order for the measured dissociation constants to be conclusive, the assay should be performed using an F-actin concentration that allows the concentration of binding sites on F-actin for the protein of interest to be much lower than the affinity. To check whether this criterion was met, estimate the concentration of binding sites from Bmax. For example, if [F-actin] was 2 &#181;M and Bmax = 0.5, then [binding sites] &#8776; 1 &#181;M. The Kd should be at least 5- to 10-fold greater than [binding sites]. If the measured Kd is of the same order of magnitude as [binding sites], then it is possible that the observed binding curve represents a titration of high-affinity binding sites rather than a true binding isotherm. If this is observed, repeat the assay using a 10-fold lower F-actin concentration to measure an accurate affinity. For high-affinity interactions, phalloidin stabilization (step 3.3) may be necessary to achieve an F-actin concentration low enough to accurately measure affinity.
Finally, there are fundamental limitations with the co-sedimentation assay that researchers should be aware of when performing and evaluating the assay. Most importantly, the co-sedimentation assay does not produce a true equilibrium constant. The products of binding (i.e., protein plus F-actin) are separated from the reactants during centrifugation, whereupon the products can then dissociate to create a new equilibrium. As a result, the co-sedimentation assay can miscalculate or fail to detect low-affinity interactions. Since many actin-binding proteins have a low (i.e., micromolar) affinity for F-actin, a negative result (i.e., no detectable binding) in the assay does not necessarily mean that a protein does not bind F-actin. As an alternative, TIRF microscopy-based, single-filament binding assays are more sensitive and more accurate for determining a dissociation constant (for reviews on this technique, see references15,16). Despite these limitations, the pelleting assay is within the means of most researchers and is an effective tool to determine if a protein binds F-actin and to measure the affinity of the interaction.

Actin is an essential cytoskeletal protein that plays a critical role in multiple cellular processes, including motility, contraction, adhesion, and morphology1. Actin exists in two forms: monomeric globular actin (G-actin) and polymerized filamentous actin (F-actin). Within cells, F-actin organization is controlled by a large collection of proteins that regulate the nucleation, growth, cross-linking, and disassembly of actin filaments2,3,4. However, how multiple actin-binding proteins function in concert to regulate actin network organization is still largely unclear.
The measurement of protein-protein interactions is an important approach for understanding how proteins exert their effects on cellular behavior at the biochemical level. Many different assays can be used to detect interactions between purified proteins. Common approaches for soluble proteins include pull-downs, fluorescence polarization, isothermal titration calorimetry, and surface plasmon resonance. Importantly, all of these assays require proteins to be soluble, and are thus difficult to adapt for use with a polymeric, filamentous protein such as F-actin. Here, we describe a technique &#8211; the actin co-sedimentation, or pelleting, assay &#8211; to determine if a protein or protein domain binds F-actin and to measure the affinity of the interaction.
The actin pelleting assay is a relatively straightforward technique that does not require specialized equipment, aside from an ultracentrifuge. All reagents can be made, assuming knowledge of basic biochemistry, or purchased. Once binding to F-actin is established, the assay can be used to measure the apparent affinity (i.e., the dissociation equilibrium constant)5. Also, once an affinity is established, the pelleting assay is a useful tool to measure how changes to the protein of interest (i.e., post-translational modifications, mutations, or ligand binding) affect its interaction with F-actin6. The technique does have limitations (see the Discussion) that the researcher should be aware of before attempting the assay.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="842">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Sorvall MTX 150 Micro-Ultracentrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">46960</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">S100-AT3 rotor</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">45585</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Ultracentrifuge tubes - 0.2 ml</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">45233</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Actin, rabbit skeletal muscle</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Cytoskeleton</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AKL99</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A8531</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Polidicanol (Thesit)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">88315</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Phalloidin</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P3457</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0862</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A2383</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Imidazole</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">O3196</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP358</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M33</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P217</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Ethylene glycol-bis(&#946;-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N&#39;,N&#39;-tetraacetic acid (EGTA)</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3779</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Odyssey CLx Imaging System</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">LI-COR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:499px;">Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 Dye</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20278</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Colloidal Blue Staining Kit</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">LC6025</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring protein binding to f-actin by co-sedimentation

Filamentous actin (F-actin) organization within cells is regulated by a large number of actin-binding proteins that control actin nucleation, growth, cross-linking and/or disassembly. This protocol describes a technique &#8211; the actin co-sedimentation, or pelleting, assay &#8211; to determine whether a protein or protein domain binds F-actin and to measure the affinity of the interaction (i.e., the dissociation equilibrium constant). In this technique, a protein of interest is first incubated with F-actin in solution. Then, differential centrifugation is used to sediment the actin filaments, and the pelleted material is analyzed by SDS-PAGE. If the protein of interest binds F-actin, it will co-sediment with the actin filaments. The products of the binding reaction (i.e., F-actin and the protein of interest) can be quantified to determine the affinity of the interaction. The actin pelleting assay is a straightforward technique for determining if a protein of interest binds F-actin and for assessing how changes to that protein, such as ligand binding, affect its interaction with F-actin.

We examined &#945;E-catenin homodimer binding to F-actin in the co-sedimentation assay. Since past experiments have shown that the affinity of &#945;E-catenin homodimer for F-actin is around 1 &#181;M and the Bmax near 111, we performed the assay with a low concentration of F-actin (0.2 &#181;M rather than 2 &#181;M; see the Discussion). Since 0.2 &#181;M is below the critical concentration, phalloidin was added to stabilize the F-actin polymerized from rabbit skeletal muscle G-actin (step 3.3). Increasing concentrations of &#945;E-catenin homodimer (0.125-12.0 &#181;M) were incubated in the presence or absence of 0.2 &#181;M F-actin. The samples were centrifuged, and the resulting pellets were analyzed (Figure 1A). As expected, the &#945;E-catenin homodimer co-sedimented with F-actin above background (Figure 1A, compare the F-actin pellet samples to the no-F-actin pellet samples). BSA was run as a negative control (Figure 1B). Bound protein was quantified and plotted over free protein to calculate the affinity of the interaction (Figure 1C). The plotted data best fit a Hill equation. The calculated Kd was 2.9 &#181;M, the Bmax was 0.2, and the Hill coefficient (h) was 4.8. Thus, &#945;E-catenin homodimer binds F-actin cooperatively with a low micromolar affinity, consistent with previous work (a Kd of 2.9 &#181;M versus ~1.0 &#181;M)11.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55613/55613fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: High-speed F-actin co-sedimentation assay. (A) Increasing concentrations (0.125-12.0 &#181;M) of &#945;E-catenin homodimer were incubated with (left panels) or without (right panels) 0.2 &#181;M F-actin stabilized with phalloidin. They were incubated for 30 min at RT and centrifuged. The total (7.5% of the starting material) and pelleted material (50% of the pelleted material) were separated by SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie dye. (B) 4 &#181;M BSA was run as a negative control. Total and pellet samples, with (+) or without (-) F-actin, were separated by SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie dye. (C) Bound &#945;E-catenin (&#181;M/&#181;M actin) from A was plotted against free &#945;E-catenin (&#181;M), and the data fit to a Hill equation (red line). The Kd, Bmax, and Hill coefficient (h) are listed. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55613/55613fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55613/55613fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Actin pelleting quantification&#160;&#8211; flow chart. This schematic outlines key steps in section 5, with examples of Total and Pellet samples (A, C-E) and the standard curve (B) used for quantification. 5.13 steps: 1) Measure the amount of protein of interest in the Total samples (A). 2) Generate a standard curve by plotting the band intensity versus protein mass (B). 3) Measure the amount of protein of interest that co-sedimented with F-actin (C). 4) Measure the amount of protein of interest that pelleted in the absence of F-actin (D). 5) Subtract D from C to determine the amount of protein bound to F-actin. 6) Measure the amount of F-actin in each pellet (E), calculate the average amount of F-actin per sample, and divide each sample by the average (the numbers below show the ratio). 7) For each sample, divide the amount of bound protein (calculated in step 5) by the F-actin pellet ratio (calculated in step 6) to adjust for differences in the pellet. 8) Use the standard curve (B) to calculate the amount (mass) of normalized bound protein in each sample (step 7). 9) Determine the concentration of free protein and bound protein to create a binding curve. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55613/55613fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Protein Binding to F-actin by Co-sedimentation at JoVE.com

Measuring Protein Binding to F-actin by Co-sedimentation

This protocol describes a method to test the ability of a protein to co-sediment with filamentous actin (F-actin) and, if binding is observed, to measure the affinity of the interaction.

Filamentous actin (F-actin) organization within cells is regulated by a large number of actin-binding proteins that control actin nucleation, growth, ...

measuring-protein-binding-to-f-actin-by-co-sedimentation

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

16.3K Views.  University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. This protocol describes a method to test the ability of a protein to co-sediment with filamentous actin (F-actin) and, if binding is observed, to measure the affinity of the interaction.

Video: Measuring Protein Binding to F-actin by Co-sedimentation

Resolving Affinity Purified Protein Complexes by Blue Native PAGE and Protein Correlation Profiling

Most proteins act in association with others; hence, it is crucial to characterize these functional units in order to fully understand biological processes. Affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry (AP-MS) has become the method of choice for identifying protein-protein interactions. However, conventional AP-MS studies provide information on protein interactions, but the organizational information is lost. To address this issue, we developed a strategy to unravel the distinct functional assemblies a protein might be involved in, by resolving affinity-purified protein complexes prior to their characterization by mass spectrometry. Protein complexes isolated through affinity purification of a bait protein using an epitope tag and competitive elution are separated through blue native electrophoresis. Comparison of protein migration profiles through correlation profiling using quantitative mass spectrometry allows assignment of interacting proteins to distinct molecular entities. This method is able to resolve protein complexes of close molecular weights that might not be resolved by traditional chromatographic techniques such as gel filtration. With little more work than conventional AP-geLC-MS/MS, we demonstrate this strategy may in many cases be adequate for obtaining protein complex topological information concomitantly to identifying protein interactions.

Here we present protocols for affinity purification of protein complexes and their separation by blue native PAGE, followed by protein correlation profiling using label free quantitative mass spectrometry. This method is useful to resolve interactomes into distinct protein complexes.

Most proteins act in association with others; hence, it is crucial to characterize these functional units in order to fully understand biological ...

Measuring G-protein-coupled Receptor Signaling via Radio-labeled GTP Binding

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane receptors that play critical roles in normal cellular physiology and constitute a major pharmacological target for multiple indications, including analgesia, blood pressure regulation, and the treatment of psychiatric disease. Upon ligand binding, GPCRs catalyze the activation of intracellular G-proteins by stimulating the incorporation of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Activated G-proteins then stimulate signaling pathways that elicit cellular responses. GPCR signaling can be monitored by measuring the incorporation of a radiolabeled and non-hydrolyzable form of GTP, [35S]guanosine-5&#39;-O-(3-thio)triphosphate ([35S]GTP&#947;S), into G-proteins. Unlike other methods that assess more downstream signaling processes, [35S]GTP&#947;S binding measures a proximal event in GPCR signaling and, importantly, can distinguish agonists, antagonists, and inverse agonists. The present protocol outlines a sensitive and specific method for studying GPCR signaling using crude membrane preparations of an archetypal GPCR, the &#181;-opioid receptor (MOR1). Although alternative approaches to fractionate cells and tissues exist, many are cost-prohibitive, tedious, and/or require non-standard laboratory equipment. The present method provides a simple procedure that enriches functional crude membranes. After isolating MOR1, various pharmacological properties of its agonist, [D-Ala, N-MePhe, Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO), and antagonist, naloxone, were determined.

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding is one of the earliest events in G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR) activation. This protocol describes how to pharmacologically characterize specific GPCR-ligand interactions by monitoring the binding of the radio-labeled GTP analog, [35S]guanosine-5&#39;-O-(3-thio)triphosphate ([35S]GTP&#947;S), in response to a ligand of interest.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane receptors that play critical roles in normal cellular physiology and constitute a ...

In Vitro Polymerization of F-actin on Early Endosomes

Many early endosome functions, particularly cargo protein sorting and membrane deformation, depend on patches of short F-actin filaments nucleated onto the endosomal membrane. We have established a microscopy-based in vitro assay that reconstitutes the nucleation and polymerization of F-actin on early endosomal membranes in test tubes, thus rendering this complex series of reactions amenable to genetic and biochemical manipulations. Endosomal fractions are prepared by floatation in sucrose gradients from cells expressing the early endosomal protein GFP-RAB5. Cytosolic fractions are prepared from separate batches of cells. Both endosomal and cytosolic fractions can be stored frozen in liquid nitrogen, if needed. In the assay, the endosomal and cytosolic fractions are mixed, and the mixture is incubated at 37 &#176;C under appropriate conditions (e.g., ionic strength, reducing environment). At the desired time, the reaction mixture is fixed, and the F-actin is revealed with phalloidin. Actin nucleation and polymerization are then analyzed by fluorescence microscopy. Here, we report that this assay can be used to investigate the role of factors that are involved either in actin nucleation on the membrane, or in the subsequent elongation, branching, or crosslinking of F-actin filaments.

In Vitro Polymerization of F-actin on Early Endosomes

Early endosome functions depend on F-actin polymerization. Here, we describe a microscopy-based in vitro assay that reconstitutes the nucleation and polymerization of F-actin on early endosomal membranes in test tubes, thus rendering this complex series of reactions amenable to biochemical and genetic manipulations.

Many early endosome functions, particularly cargo protein sorting and membrane deformation, depend on patches of short F-actin filaments nucleated onto ...

Measuring Biomolecular DSC Profiles with Thermolabile Ligands to Rapidly Characterize Folding and Binding Interactions

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a powerful technique for quantifying thermodynamic parameters governing biomolecular folding and binding interactions. This information is critical in the design of new pharmaceutical compounds. However, many pharmaceutically relevant ligands are chemically unstable at the high temperatures used in DSC analyses. Thus, measuring binding interactions is challenging because the concentrations of ligands and thermally-converted products are constantly changing within the calorimeter cell. Here, we present a protocol using thermolabile ligands and DSC for rapidly obtaining thermodynamic and kinetic information on the folding, binding, and ligand conversion processes. We have applied our method to the DNA aptamer MN4 that binds to the thermolabile ligand cocaine. Using a new global fitting analysis that accounts for thermolabile ligand conversion, the complete set of folding and binding parameters are obtained from a pair of DSC experiments. In addition, we show that the rate constant for thermolabile ligand conversion may be obtained with only one supplementary DSC dataset. The guidelines for identifying and analyzing data from several more complicated scenarios are presented, including irreversible aggregation of the biomolecule, slow folding, slow binding, and rapid depletion of the thermolabile ligand.

We present a protocol for rapid characterization of biomolecular folding and binding interactions with thermolabile ligands using differential scanning calorimetry.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a powerful technique for quantifying thermodynamic parameters governing biomolecular folding and binding ...

Biochemical and Structural Characterization of the Carbohydrate Transport Substrate-binding-protein SP0092

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant strains. Carbohydrate substrate binding proteins (SBPs) represent viable targets for the development of protein-based vaccines and new antimicrobials because of their extracellular localization and the centrality of carbohydrate import for pneumococcal metabolism, respectively. Described here is a rationalized integrated protocol to carry out a comprehensive characterization of SP0092, which can be extended to other carbohydrate SBPs from the pneumococcus and other bacteria. This procedure can aid the structure-based design of inhibitors for this class of proteins. Presented in the first part of this manuscript are protocols for biochemical analysis by thermal shift assay, multi angle light scattering (MALS), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), which optimize the stability and homogeneity of the sample directed to crystallization trials and so enhance the probability of success. The second part of this procedure describes the characterization of the SBP crystals using a tunable wavelength anomalous diffraction synchrotron beamline, and data collection protocols for measuring data that can be used to resolve the crystallized protein structure.

A streamlined protocol for performing an extensive biochemical and structural characterization of a carbohydrate substrate binding protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae is presented.

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant ...

Measuring Trans-Plasma Membrane Electron Transport by C2C12 Myotubes

Trans-plasma membrane electron transport (tPMET) plays a role in protection of cells from intracellular reductive stress as well as protection from damage by extracellular oxidants. This process of transporting electrons from intracellular reductants to extracellular oxidants is not well defined. Here we present spectrophotometric assays by C2C12 myotubes to monitor tPMET utilizing the extracellular electron acceptors: water-soluble tetrazolium salt-1 (WST-1) and 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DPIP or DCIP). Through reduction of these electron acceptors, we are able to monitor this process in a real-time analysis. With the addition of enzymes such as ascorbate oxidase (AO) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) to the assays, we can determine which portion of tPMET is due to ascorbate export or superoxide production, respectively. While WST-1 was shown to produce stable results with low background, DPIP was able to be re-oxidized after the addition of AO and SOD, which was demonstrated with spectrophotometric analysis. This method demonstrates a real-time, multi-well, quick spectrophotometric assay with advantages over other methods used to monitor tPMET, such as ferricyanide (FeCN) and ferricytochrome c reduction.

The goal of this protocol is to spectrophotometrically monitor trans-plasma membrane electron transport utilizing extracellular electron acceptors and to analyze enzymatic interactions that may occur with these extracellular electron acceptors.

Trans-plasma membrane electron transport (tPMET) plays a role in protection of cells from intracellular reductive stress as well as protection from damage ...

Dissipative Microgravimetry to Study the Binding Dynamics of the Phospholipid Binding Protein Annexin A2 to Solid-supported Lipid Bilayers Using a Quartz Resonator

The dissipative quartz crystal microbalance technique is a simple and label-free approach to measure simultaneously the mass uptake and viscoelastic properties of the absorbed/immobilized mass on sensor surfaces, allowing the measurements of the interaction of proteins with solid-supported surfaces, such as lipid bilayers, in real-time and with a high sensitivity. Annexins are a highly conserved group of phospholipid-binding proteins that interact reversibly with the negatively charged headgroups via the coordination of calcium ions. Here, we describe a protocol that was employed to quantitatively analyze the binding of annexin A2 (AnxA2) to planar lipid bilayers prepared on the surface of a quartz sensor. This protocol is optimized to obtain robust and reproducible data and includes a detailed step-by-step description. The method can be applied to other membrane-binding proteins and bilayer compositions.

Here, we present an experimental protocol that can be employed to determine the binding affinities and mode of interaction of label-free phospholipid-binding protein annexin A2 with immobilized solid-supported bilayers (SLB) by simultaneously measuring the mass uptake and the viscoelastic properties of the protein annexin A2.

The dissipative quartz crystal microbalance technique is a simple and label-free approach to measure simultaneously the mass uptake and viscoelastic ...

Measuring and Interpreting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Whole Fly Head Segments

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the progression of cancer, diabetes, neurodegeneration, and aging to name a few. For instance, changes in mitochondrial activity, the cell&#39;s metabolic powerhouse, have been characterized in many such diseases. Generally, the oxygen consumption rates of mitochondria were considered a reliable readout of mitochondrial activity and measurements in some of these studies were based on isolated mitochondria or cells. However, such conditions may not represent the complexity of a whole tissue. Recently, we have developed a novel method that enables the dynamic measurement of oxygen consumption rates from whole isolated fly heads. By utilizing this method, we have recorded lower oxygen consumption rates of the whole head segment in young versus aged flies. Secondly, we have discovered that lysine deacetylase inhibitors rapidly alter the oxygen consumption in the whole head. Our novel technique may therefore aid in uncovering new properties of various drugs, which may impact metabolic rates. Furthermore, our method may give a better understanding of metabolic behavior in an experimental setup that more closely resembles physiological states.

Measuring alterations in metabolic rates is central to understanding the progression of various diseases and aging. Here, we present a novel technique to measure whole head oxygen consumption that more closely resembles the physiological state and may aid in revealing novel drugs that modify mitochondrial activity.

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the ...

High Sensitivity Measurement of Transcription Factor-DNA Binding Affinities by Competitive Titration Using Fluorescence Microscopy

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing approaches suffer from significant limitations, we have developed a new method for determining TF-DNA binding affinities with high sensitivity on a large scale. The assay relies on the established fluorescence anisotropy (FA) principle but introduces important technical improvements. First, we measure a full FA competitive titration curve in a single well by incorporating TF and a fluorescently labeled reference DNA in a porous agarose gel matrix. Unlabeled DNA oligomer is loaded on the top as a competitor and, through diffusion, forms a spatio-temporal gradient. The resulting FA gradient is then read out using a customized epifluorescence microscope setup. This improved setup greatly increases the sensitivity of FA signal detection, allowing both weak and strong binding to be reliably quantified, even for molecules of similar molecular weights. In this fashion, we can measure one titration curve per well of a multi-well plate, and through a fitting procedure, we can extract both the absolute dissociation constant (KD) and active protein concentration. By testing all single-point mutation variants of a given consensus binding sequence, we can survey the entire binding specificity landscape of a TF, typically on a single plate. The resulting position weight matrices (PWMs) outperform those derived from other methods in predicting in vivo TF occupancy. Here, we present a detailed guide for implementing HiP-FA on a conventional automated fluorescent microscope and the data analysis pipeline.

Here we present a novel method for determining binding affinities at equilibrium and in solution with high sensitivity on a large scale. This improves the quantitative analysis of transcription factor-DNA binding. The method is based on automated fluorescence anisotropy measurements in a controlled delivery system.

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...