The authors would like to thank Drs. Helene Salmon and Miriam Merad from Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai for providing the B16-F10-YFP cells and for their expert advice on melanoma mouse models. The authors further thank the Animal Imaging Core Facility, the Radiochemistry and Molecular Imaging Probes Core Facility, and the Molecular Cytology Core Facility at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK) for their support. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants NIH 1 R01 HL125703 (W.J.M.M.), R01CA155432 (W.J.M.M.), K25 EB016673 (T.R.) and P30 CA008748 (MSK Center Grant). The authors also thank the Center for Molecular Imaging and Nanotechnology (CMINT) at MSK for their financial support (T.R.).

The procedure consists of the dual radioactive and fluorescent labeling of nanoparticles, in vivo PET-CT imaging, ex vivo biodistribution measurements, and ex vivo immunostaining and flow cytometry analyses. All animal experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.
1. Preparation of Dual-labeled Liposomes
NOTE: Syngeneic B16 melanoma tumors can be induced by injecting 300,000 B16-F10 cells into the back flanks of C57BL/6 mice under anesthesia from inhaling 2%-isoflurane-containing oxygen. Use sterile reagents and tools in a sterile workspace during surgery. After surgery, carefully observe the animals until their recovery from anesthesia. Put the animals back in their cages only when they regain full consciousness and mobility. House them in sterile rooms for animals with xenografted tumors. Tumors with a size of 300 mm 3 are ideal for nanoparticle characterization due to their pronounced enhanced permeability and retention effects (EPR), which can increase nanoparticle accumulation. The detailed protocols are provided below.
<ol>
	<li>In a round-bottom flask, dissolve a mixture of 20 mg of lipids in 2 mL of chloroform containing 1,2-dipalmitoyl- sn-glycero-3-phophocholine (DPPC), cholesterol, 1,2-disearoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-poly(ethylene glycol)2000 (DSPE-PEG2000), DSPE-deferoxamine (DSPE-DFO) 8, and 1,1-diododecyl-3,3,3,3-tetramethylindodicarbocyanine-5,5-disulfonic acid (DiIC12[5]-DS) at molar ratios of 61.3%, 33.4%, 5, 0.2%, and 0.1%, respectively. 
	NOTE: This lipid composition is very similar to the liposomal formulation of doxorubicin currently used in the clinic 2. The resulting liposomes from our procedure will closely mimic the in vivo performance of the clinical nanomedicine.</li>
	<li>Use a rotary evaporator to remove the organic solvent and form a thin lipid film at room temperature. Add 20 mL of PBS and sonicate for 30 min to generate liposomal nanoparticles by using a 3.8-mm sonication tip and an amplitude of 30 W, with sufficient cooling on ice.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the liposome solution at 4,000 x g for 10 min to remove the aggregates and wash the nanoparticles with PBS using centrifugal filtration (molecular weight cut-off (MWCO: 100 kDa) to remove free lipids and residual organic solvent. Concentrate the liposomes, which will remain in the top chamber, and transfer them to a new tube. The liposomes can be stored in a fridge in PBS for up to 1 week before the subsequent steps.</li>
	<li>For quality control, characterize the liposomes by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Specifically, mix 50 &#181;L of liposomes with 950 &#181;L of PBS, and then transfer the mixture into the sizing cuvette. Place the cuvette in the analyzer and measure the particle sizes and their size distribution. The particle sizes and their size distribution (polydispersity index (PDI)) are expected to be 90 - 120 nm and 0.1 - 0.2, respectively.</li>
	<li>For radiolabeling, mix the purified liposomes, equivalent to 2 mg of lipids, in PBS at a pH between 6.9 and 7.1 with 1 mCi 89Zr-oxalate at 37 &#176;C for 2 h in a 1.5-mL tube, (total volume: ~ 100 &#181;L). Remove the free, unreacted 89Zr by centrifugal filtration (MWCO = 100 kDa), similar to step 1.3. Wash the retentate with sterile PBS and dilute it to the desired volume. The radiochemical yield should be 80 - 95%. 
	CAUTION! Working with radioactive materials is highly regulated. Institutions must be certificated and provide the necessary facilities, personnel training, and strict monitoring of radioactivity use. Researchers need to receive adequate training and wear personal protective equipment and dosimetry rings/badges when handling radioactivity.</li>
	<li>Determine the radiochemical purity of the radiolabeled liposomes by size exclusion radio-HPLC, which typically should be over 98% 10. Radiochemical purities lower than 95% are indicative of insufficient washing on step 1.5.</li>
	<li>After radiolabeling, determine the size of the nanoparticles by dynamic light scattering. The size and PDI are expected to be within the same range as the measurements in step 1.4 10. 
	NOTE: If radioactive samples are not allowed in the flow cytometer or fluorescence microscope, non-radioactive natZr-oxalate can be used to label liposomes in step 1.5. These non-radioactive liposomes have identical characteristics to their radioactive analogs. A depiction of this procedure is provided in Figure 2.</li>
</ol>
2. In Vivo PET-CT Imaging and Biodistribution of Dual-labeled Liposomes
<ol>
	<li>Inject about 100 &#181;L of dual-labeled liposomes with about 300 &#181;Ci of radioactivity into restrained melanoma mice (C57BL/6, female, 10 - 16 weeks old) through their tail veins, at about 10 mCi 89Zr/kg body weight.</li>
	<li>To determine the half-life, draw blood from the tail vein from anesthetized animals under 2% isoflurane-containing oxygen using 28-G insulin syringes. Collect the blood (10 - 20 &#181;L) in pre-weighed tubes at 2 min, 15 min, 1 h, 4 h, 8 h, 24 h, and 48 h after injection. Weigh the blood by difference, determine radioactivity content using a gamma counter, and calculate radioactivity concentration as percentage of injected dose per gram (%ID/g). 
	NOTE: Perform the procedure in a room equipped with an anesthesia system, recovery cages, heating, and a biohazard hood. Make sure that the animals fully recover and gain normal mobility after the procedure before transferring them from recovery cages to holding cages. House the tumor-bearing animals in rooms designated for animals administered with radioactive materials.</li>
	<li>24 or 48 h after the injection of the liposomes, image the mice in a small-animal MicroPET-CT scanner 10. Place the anesthetized animal horizontally on its belly and keep it anesthetized. Administer 2% isoflurane-oxygen through a nose cone. Apply ophthalmic ointment to its eyes before the scan to prevent them from drying.</li>
	<li>Perform a whole-body PET static scan recording at least 50 million coincident events, with an approximate duration of 15 min. Set the energy and coincidence timing window at 350-700 keV and 6 ns, respectively. Afterwards, perform a 5-min computed tomography (CT) scan. Set the X-ray tube to a voltage of 80 kV and a current of 500 &#181;A; the CT scan uses 120 rotational steps for a total of 220 degrees, with approximately 145 ms per frame 10.</li>
	<li>After the PET-CT scan, immediately sacrifice the mice by carbon dioxide asphyxiation and confirm the deaths by pinching the paws of the animals. Once confirmed, perform cervical dislocations.</li>
	<li>Remove the blood in mouse tissues by first cutting open the right atrium and then injecting 20 mL PBS into the left ventricle, and subsequently collect the relevant tissues such as tumor, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, muscle, and others 16.</li>
	<li>Weigh the tissues, measure their radioactivity content by gamma counting 8 , 9, and calculate the tissue radioactivity accumulation as a percentage of the injected dose per g (%ID/g).</li>
</ol>
3. Ex Vivo Flow Cytometry and Immunostaining
NOTE: Inject about 100 &#181;L of fluorescent liposomes into melanoma mice through their tail vein at a dose of 0.5 mg of dye per kg of body weight. If radioactive samples are not allowed in the flow cytometer and fluorescence microscope, non-radioactive liposomes must be used.
<ol>
	<li>Sacrifice the mice 24 h post injection, as in step 2.5, and collect the tumors, which must be stored in cold PBS.</li>
	<li>For flow cytometry, follow these steps 17:
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare an enzyme cocktail consisting of a mixture of purified collagenase I and II (4 U/mL), hyaluronidase (60 U/mL), and DNase I (60 U/mL) in flow cytometry buffer (PBS with 0.5% BSA and 1 mM EDTA).</li>
		<li>Mix 100 mg of tumor tissue with 200 &#181;L of enzyme cocktail buffer in a 1.5-mL tube and dice the tissue to small pieces with fine scissors. Add another 1.3 mL of enzyme cocktail into the tube and transfer its contents to a 6-well plate.</li>
		<li>Shake the 6-well plate on a horizontal shaker placed inside a 37 &#176;C oven for 60 min at 60 rpm.</li>
		<li>Wash the tissue homogenate with flow cytometry buffer 3 times to obtain a single cell suspension.</li>
		<li>Stain the cells with a cocktail of antibodies specific to biomarkers including CD45, CD11b, Ly6C, CD11c, CD64, CD3, MHCII, and CD31 (1:200 dilution for all antibodies; clone information is provided in the materials spreadsheet). Identify relevant cell types and determine their mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of DiIC12(5)-DS in each cell population with an appropriate flow cytometry analysis software.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For immunostaining, follow these steps:
	<ol>
		<li>Place a tumor into a cassette filled with optimal cutting medium (OCT) and freeze it on dry ice.</li>
		<li>Make 6-&#181;m frozen sections from tumor tissue and place them on histology glass slides; the sections should cover the largest cross-sections of the tumor, which provide the most representative information on the tissue.</li>
		<li>Stain the biomarkers ( e.g., CD31 for endothelial cells) of interest with the corresponding antibodies ( e.g., anti-CD31, clone MEC13.3). Fix the sections with paraformaldehyde; block them with serum matching the species origin of the secondary antibodies; incubate with primary antibodies for 12 h at 4 &#176;C and then with secondary antibodies for 2 h; and finally, wash with PBS and cover with cover slips. Image the stained slides with a Leica upright confocal SP5 microscope 13 , 16.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have no disclosure to make.

Critical Steps within the Protocol:
The high quality of dual-labeled liposomes is the key to producing consistent results over a long period of time. Free fluorescent dyes or 89Zr ions can generate totally different targeting patterns and must be completely removed during the purification step. In addition, if the immune system significantly affects experimental cancer nanomedicine performance, the use of immunocompetent mouse models should be preferable, such as the B16-F10 melanoma model in C57BL/6 mice, which was used throughout this protocol. If the tumor microenvironment or a particular combination of genetic mutations is a major factor, patient-derived tumor xenograft models would be ideal choices.
Modification and Troubleshooting:
Our procedure provides a straightforward and reliable way to evaluate the in vivo performance of nanomedicines in tumor-bearing animals. This procedure serves as a backbone to build specific experiments to characterize cancer nanomedicines for different applications. For example, researchers can determine quantitative in vivo pharmacokinetics of the nanomaterial when PET-CT scans are performed at multiple time points on the same animals17; they can collect biodistribution information of the nanomaterials by analyzing other tissues, such as the large intestines, small intestines, pancreas, brain, skin, thymus, stomach, or salivary glands, as shown in other publications18,19,20,21; or they can evaluate the single-cell and subcellular specificity of nanomedicines in relevant tissues other than tumors by applying this flow cytometry and immunostaining protocol.
Limitations of the Technique:
This protocol requires some specialized research infrastructure-including radiochemistry and imaging facilities-and technical expertise in radiolabeling, small-animal imaging, and immunology. Therefore, it would be ideally executed by a multidisciplinary team of researchers with expertise in the relevant fields. Our own experience shows that the optimal execution of this procedure requires careful planning and efficient collaboration.
It is worth noting that the specific protocols and proposed agents in this manuscript are best suited for radiolabeling lipid-based nanoparticles. However, the concept of dual-labeled nanoparticles can be employed to characterize other nanoparticle formulations that are, for example, based on gold nanocrystals, polymers, or even viral particles. In these cases, different labeling strategies will be required. It is important to emphasize the wide variety of radioactive isotopes used in biomedical imaging, including 89Zr, 18F, 64Cu, 68Ga, and 123I, to name just a few7. The choice of radioisotope must be made based on the specific properties of the nanomaterial under investigation, chiefly its blood circulation half-life, to allow for full characterization at later time points. However, other factors, such as labeling chemistry or isotope availability, may influence the final selection. For this study, 89Zr was chosen because its long physical half-life (t1/2 = 78.4 h) is comparable to the blood half-life of liposomes. Of note, this protocol can also be performed with other isotopes, like 99mTc, 111In, or 125I, that are commercially available and suitable for imaging with single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Similarly, DilC was chosen due to its high hydrophobicity and therefore high loading efficiency in liposomes. Other fluorescent dyes with unfavorable physicochemical properties can be directly conjugated to the phospholipids17.
Significance of the Techniques:
This procedure presents high translational potential when adapted to evaluate nanomedicines in clinical studies. The 4 key techniques-namely, PET-CT imaging, radioactivity measurement, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry-are routinely used for oncological diagnosis in patients. Therefore, this preclinical procedure can be easily translated to evaluate the in vivo performance of nanomedicines in the clinical phase. Furthermore, the larger size of human organs compared to mice allows for more accurate analysis by PET-CT imaging22, which can replace the invasive biopsy-based radioactivity measurement of nanomedicine accumulation. In this setting, non-invasive, imaging-guided protocols can be developed to stratify patients and to help homogenize patient outcome10. Developing radioactive nanomaterials still requires a substantial infrastructure investment. Alternatively, non-radioactive imaging techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been rapidly evolving in the past decade. For example, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) uses small iron oxide nanoparticles (10 to 20 nm) and could provide much more quantitative evaluation of nanomedicines labeled with iron oxide nanoparticles in vivo than the current MRI techniques23. Clinical translation of MPI would allow more researchers to use robust in vivo imaging techniques to evaluate the in vivo performance of cancer nanomedicines.
Future Applications:
Once researchers master these protocols, they can apply the procedures to characterize most fluorescent and radioactive dual-labeled, novel materials, including peptides, proteins, antibodies, antibody fragments, and so forth. These procedures can help scientists to thoroughly evaluate the in vivo performance of novel biomedical materials and to identify those with great translational potential.
In conclusion, we aim to introduce a comprehensive nanomedicine characterization procedure that can provide systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular level nanomedicine accumulation information. Currently, the majority of cancer nanomedicines still fail in Phase I clinical trials due to their suboptimal pharmacokinetics, biodistributions, and toxicity profiles. On the other hand, the great heterogeneity of therapy response to nanomedicine mandates a companion imaging strategy for selecting patients who may particularly benefit from these experimental nanomedicines. We believe that the adoption of this procedure could help the community to identify promising nanomedicines with high translational potential in preclinical animal models and, with the proper modification, could also help clinical researchers to identify patients amenable to nanotherapy.

Nanomedicine is shifting the paradigm of cancer treatment development1. Inspired by the tremendous clinical impact of previous cancer nanomedicines, such as liposome- and albumin-based nanotherapies2,3, many novel formulations have been produced in the past decade. However, recent analyses of the clinical translation success of these cancer nanomedicines indicate that only a few of them have been approved for clinical use4,5. One major obstacle to the clinical translation of new cancer nanomedicines is their limited improvement of the therapeutic index compared with the direct administration of the free therapeutic compounds6. As such, accurate evaluation of the in vivo performance of nanomedicines at systemic, tissue, and cellular levels in preclinical animal models is essential to identify those with optimal therapeutic indices for future clinical translation.
Nanomaterials can be radiolabeled for quantitative characterization in living animals with positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, which has superb sensitivity and reproducibility among all clinical imaging modalities7. For example, 89Zr-labeled long-circulating nanomedicines have been characterized in mouse models for cancer8,9,10, as well as in other disease models11. In addition, the blood half-life and biodistribution of the nanomedicines can be extensively evaluated by using ex vivo radioactivity measurements in individual tissues8. Therefore, radiolabeling allows for the quantitative evaluation of nanomedicines at systemic and tissue levels.
Importantly, radiolabeled nanomedicines generally cannot be analyzed at the single-cell or subcellular levels due to the limited spatial resolution of the radioactive signal. Therefore, fluorescent labeling proves to be a complementary modality for the evaluation of nanoparticles with optical imaging techniques such as flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy12. To this end, nanoparticles labeled with radioisotopes and fluorescent tags can be quantitatively evaluated in vivo by nuclear imaging and ex vivo by radioactivity counting, and they can also be extensively characterized at the cellular level by optical imaging.
Previously, we have developed modular procedures to incorporate radioactive and fluorescent labels into various nanoparticles, including high-density lipoprotein (HDL)11, liposomes9,10, polymeric nanoparticles, antibody fragments, and nanoemulsions10,13. These labeled nanoparticles have allowed for quantitative characterization in relevant animal models at different levels, which guided the optimization of these nanomaterials for their specific applications. In the current study, the aim is to use liposomal nanoparticles&#8212;the most established nanomedicine platform14&#8212;as an example to demonstrate comprehensive procedures to generate a dual-labeled nanoparticle and to thoroughly characterize it in a classic syngeneic melanoma B16-F10 mouse model15. From the results, we are confident this nanoparticle characterization approach can be adapted to evaluate other cancer nanomedicines in relevant mouse models.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="638">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DPPC</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Avantilipids</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">850355</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Cholesterol</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C8667</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DSPE-PEG2000</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Avantilipids</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">880120P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DSPE-DFO</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Home made</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">110634</td>
			<td>Perez-Medina et al, JNM, 2014</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DiIC12[5]-DS</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">AAT Bioquest</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">22051</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Centrifugal filter</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Vivaproducts</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">VS2061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Rotary evaporator</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Buchi</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Radio-HPLC</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Shimadzu HPLC with 2 LC-10AT pumps</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">89Zr-oxalate</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">MSKCC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Synthesized in house</td>
			<td>TR19/9 variable beam cyclotron (Ebco Industries Inc)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Micro PET-CT</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Siemens</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Inveon Micro-PET/CT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gamma counter</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">PerkinElmer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">2470-0150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Flow cytometry</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Fortessa</td>
			<td>Any multi-parametric flow cytometry analyzers would suffice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Jackson Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">B16-YFP melanoma cells</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Home made</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Salmon et al, Immunity, 2016</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ly6C (clone HK1.4)--APC-Cy7</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">128025</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">MHCII (M5/114/152)--APC</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">107613</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD45 (30-F11)--BV510</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">103137</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD64 (X54-5/7.1)--PE-Cy7</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">139313</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD11b (M1/70)--BV605</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">101237</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD3 (17A2)--BV711</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">100241</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD31 (13.3)--PE</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">561073</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD11c (M418)--PerCP-Cy5.5</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">117327</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CD31 (13.3) no fluorophore</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">550274</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a comprehensive procedure to evaluate the in vivo performance of cancer nanomedicines

Inspired by the success of previous cancer nanomedicines in the clinic, researchers have generated a large number of novel formulations in the past decade. However, only a small number of nanomedicines have been approved for clinical use, whereas the majority of nanomedicines under clinical development have produced disappointing results. One major obstacle to the successful clinical translation of new cancer nanomedicines is the lack of an accurate understanding of their in vivo performance. This article features a rigorous procedure to characterize the in vivo behavior of nanomedicines in tumor-bearing mice at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels via the integration of positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT), radioactivity quantification methods, flow cytometry, and fluorescence microscopy. Using this approach, researchers can accurately evaluate novel nanoscale formulations in relevant mouse models of cancer. These protocols may have the ability to identify the most promising cancer nanomedicines with high translational potential or to aid in the optimization of cancer nanomedicines for future translation.

Figure 1 shows an overview of the procedure. Figure 2 presents the schematic synthesis procedure of the dual-labeled liposomes described in step 110. Figure 3 displays a representative PET-CT image (Figure 3a), radioactivity quantification from PET imaging (Figure 3b), blood half-life (Figure 3c), and biodistribution (Figure 3d) of radioactive nanoparticles, as described in step 2. In Figure 3a, the liposomes highly accumulate in the tumor, which is confirmed by the quantification of the imaging results in Figure 3b. Furthermore, liposomes show a blood half-life of around 10 h in Figure 3c. The ex vivo biodistribution confirms the high tumor accumulation of liposomes. Finally, Figure 4 provides a typical gating procedure to identify relevant cells in a tumor for the single-cell level analysis of nanoparticle accumulation (Figure 4a and b), which displays the preferential accumulation of the nanoparticle in tumor-associated macrophages (TAM). A representative confocal microscopy image also shows the overlap between nanoparticles and endothelial cells (Figure 4c).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic Overview of the In Vivo Nanomedicine Characterization Procedure. This procedure includes the labeling of nanoparticles with both radioactive and fluorescent tags; the characterization of radiolabeled nanoparticles with PET-CT imaging, blood half-life measurements, and biodistribution evaluations; and the single-cell and sub-cellular analysis of fluorescent nanoparticles by flow cytometry and immunostaining, respectively. The techniques, from left to right, provide increasing spatial resolution of nanoparticle in vivo accumulation. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Synthesis Procedure of Dual-labeled Liposomes. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Representative Results of In Vivo Characterization of Radiolabeled Nanoparticles. (a) PET-CT images of a tumor-bearing mouse after nanoparticle injection and (b) PET-derived uptake values in multiple tissues (n = 3). (c) Blood radioactivity half-life of a radiolabeled nanoparticle, as well as (d) its biodistribution at 24 h post injection (n = 3). The error bars are the standard deviation. Modified from reference 8, with permission. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Representative Results of the In Vivo Characterization of Fluorescent Nanoparticles. (a) A typical flow cytometry gating procedure to identify tumor-associated immune cells, tumor cells, and endothelial cells (EC), as well as (b) the quantification of nanoparticle accumulation in these cells8. A representative image of 3 biological repeats. (c) Representative immunofluorescence image showing the specific targeting of an RGD-conjugated nanoemulsion to endothelial cells in tumors13. Modified from references 8 and 13, with permission. Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM). <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55271/55271fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines at JoVE.com

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

The poor understanding of the in vivo performance of nanomedicines stymies their clinical translation. Procedures to evaluate the in vivo behavior of cancer nanomedicines at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels in tumor-bearing immunocompetent mice are described here. This approach may help researchers to identify promising cancer nanomedicines for clinical translation.

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

Inspired by the success of previous cancer nanomedicines in the clinic, researchers have generated a large number of novel formulations in the past ...

a-comprehensive-procedure-to-evaluate-vivo-performance-cancer

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

8.8K Views.  Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The poor understanding of the in vivo performance of nanomedicines stymies their clinical translation. Procedures to evaluate the in vivo behavior of cancer nanomedicines at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels in tumor-bearing immunocompetent mice are described here. This approach may help researchers to identify promising cancer nanomedicines for clinical translation.

Video: A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

Testing the Vascular Invasive Ability of Cancer Cells in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio)

Cancer cell vascular invasion and extravasation is a hallmark of metastatic progression. Traditional in vitro models of cancer cell invasion of endothelia typically lack the fluid dynamics that invading cells are otherwise exposed to in vivo. However, in vivo systems such as mouse models, though more physiologically relevant, require longer experimental timescales and present unique challenges associated with monitoring and data analysis. Here we describe a zebrafish assay that seeks to bridge this technical gap by allowing for the rapid assessment of cancer cell vascular invasion and extravasation. The approach involves injecting fluorescent cancer cells into the precardiac sinus of transparent 2-day old zebrafish embryos whose vasculature is marked by a contrasting fluorescent reporter. Following injection, the cancer cells must survive in circulation and subsequently extravasate from vessels into tissues in the caudal region of the embryo. Extravasated cancer cells are efficiently identified and scored in live embryos via fluorescence imaging at a fixed timepoint. This technique can be modified to study intravasation and/or competition amongst a heterogeneous mixture of cancer cells by changing the injection site to the yolk sac. Together, these methods can evaluate a hallmark behavior of cancer cells and help uncover mechanisms indicative of malignant progression to the metastatic phenotype.

Testing the Vascular Invasive Ability of Cancer Cells in Zebrafish Danio Rerio

This method utilizes zebrafish embryos to efficiently test the vascular invasive ability of cancer cells. Fluorescent cancer cells are injected into the precardiac sinus or yolk sac of developing embryos. Cancer cell vascular invasion and extravasation is assessed via fluorescence microscopy of the tail region 24 to 96 hr later.

Cancer cell vascular invasion and extravasation is a hallmark of metastatic progression.  Traditional in vitro models of cancer cell invasion of ...

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic probes to provide quantitative information on the chemical tumor microenvironment (TME), including pO2, pH, redox status, concentrations of interstitial inorganic phosphate (Pi), and intracellular glutathione (GSH). In particular, an application of a recently developed soluble multifunctional trityl probe provides unsurpassed opportunity for in vivo concurrent measurements of pH, pO2 and Pi in Extracellular space (HOPE probe). The measurements of three parameters using a single probe allow for their correlation analyses independent of probe distribution and time of the measurements.

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

Low-field (L-band, 1.2 GHz) electron paramagnetic resonance using soluble nitroxyl and trityl probes is demonstrated for assessment of physiologically important parameters in the tumor microenvironment in mouse models of breast cancer.

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic ...

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vitro Performance of the Putative Hemangioblastoma Neovascularization Using the Spheroid Sprouting Assay

The inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene plays a crucial role in the development of hemangioblastomas (HBs) within the human central nervous system (CNS). However, both the cytological origin and the evolutionary process of HBs (including neovascularization) remain controversial, and anti-angiogenesis for VHL-HBs, based on classic HB angiogenesis, have produced disappointing results in clinical trials. One major obstacle to the successful clinical translation of anti-vascular treatment is the lack of a thorough understanding of neovascularization in this vascular tumor. In this article, we present a comprehensive procedure to evaluate in vitro whether classic tumor angiogenesis exists in HBs, as well as its role in HBs. With this procedure, researchers can accurately understand the complexity of HB neovascularization and identify the function of this common form of angiogenesis in HBs. These protocols can be used to evaluate the most promising anti-vascular therapy for tumors, which has high translational potential either for tumors treatment or for aiding in the optimization of the anti-angiogenic treatment for HBs in future translations. The results highlight the complexity of HB neovascularization and suggest that this common form angiogenesis is only a complementary mechanism in HB neovascularization.

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vitro Performance of the Putative Hemangioblastoma Neovascularization Using the Spheroid Sprouting Assay

This paper presents a comprehensive procedure to evaluate in vitro whether classic tumor angiogenesis exists in hemangioblastomas (HBs) and its role in HBs. The results highlight the complexity of HB-neovascularization and suggest that this common form of angiogenesis is only a complementary mechanism in the HB-neovascularization.

The inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene plays a crucial role in the development of hemangioblastomas (HBs) within the human ...

Phosphopeptide Enrichment Coupled with Label-free Quantitative Mass Spectrometry to Investigate the Phosphoproteome in Prostate Cancer

Phosphoproteomics involves the large-scale study of phosphorylated proteins. Protein phosphorylation is a critical step in many signal transduction pathways and is tightly regulated by kinases and phosphatases. Therefore, characterizing the phosphoproteome may provide insights into identifying novel targets and biomarkers for oncologic therapy. Mass spectrometry provides a way to globally detect and quantify thousands of unique phosphorylation events. However, phosphopeptides are much less abundant than non-phosphopeptides, making biochemical analysis more challenging. To overcome this limitation, methods to enrich phosphopeptides prior to the mass spectrometry analysis are required. We describe a procedure to extract and digest proteins from tissue to yield peptides, followed by an enrichment for phosphotyrosine (pY) and phosphoserine/threonine (pST) peptides using an antibody-based and/or titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based enrichment method. After the sample preparation and mass spectrometry, we subsequently identify and quantify phosphopeptides using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and analysis software.

This protocol describes a procedure to extract and enrich phosphopeptides from prostate cancer cell lines or tissues for an analysis of the phosphoproteome via mass spectrometry-based proteomics.

Phosphoproteomics involves the large-scale study of phosphorylated proteins. Protein phosphorylation is a critical step in many signal transduction ...

In Vivo Inhibition of MicroRNA to Decrease Tumor Growth in Mice

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression through their ability to destabilize mRNA and inhibit translation of target mRNAs. An ever-increasing number of studies have identified miRNAs as potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, and also as therapeutic targets, adding an extra dimension to cancer evaluation and treatment. In the context of thyroid cancer, tumorigenesis results not only from mutations in important genes, but also from the overexpression of many miRNAs. Accordingly, the role of miRNAs in the control of thyroid gene expression is evolving as an important mechanism in cancer. Herein, we present a protocol to examine the effects of miRNA-inhibitor delivery as a therapeutic modality in thyroid cancer using human tumor xenograft and orthotopic mouse models. After engineering stable thyroid tumoral cells expressing GFP and luciferase, cells are injected into nude mice to develop tumors, which can be followed by bioluminescence. The in vivo inhibition of a miRNA can reduce tumor growth and upregulate miRNA gene targets. This method can be used to assess the importance of a determined miRNA in vivo, in addition to identifying new therapeutic targets.

This protocol describes xenograft and orthotopic mouse models of human thyroid tumorigenesis as a platform to test microRNA-based inhibitor treatments. This approach is ideal to study the function of non-coding RNAs and their potential as new therapeutic targets.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression through their ability to destabilize mRNA and inhibit translation of target mRNAs. An ...

In Vitro Assay to Study Tumor-macrophage Interaction

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a malignant brain tumor with no cure, has up to a half the tumor mass TAMs. TAMs can be pro-tumoral or anti-tumoral, depending on the activation of specific genes in the cells. Genetic mutations in the tumors, through regulating cytokine expression, can affect recruitment of TAMs to the tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe a quantitative cell-based assay to assess macrophage recruitment by the conditioned medium from the tumor cells. This assay uses the human macrophage cell line MV-4-11 to study macrophage attraction by the conditioned medium from glioblastoma, allowing for high reproducibility and low variability. Data generated with this assay can contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the tumor and the tumor microenvironment. Similar assay can be used to assess interaction between the tumor cells and other immune cells, including T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.

This article represents a useful in vitro assay to evaluate the capability of conditioned medium from tumor cells to attract macrophages.

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a ...

Studying the Effects of Tumor-Secreted Paracrine Ligands on Macrophage Activation using Co-Culture with Permeable Membrane Supports

Tumor-derived paracrine signaling is an overlooked component of local immunosuppression and can lead to a permissive environment for continued cancer growth and metastasis. Paracrine signals can involve cell-cell contact between different cell types, such as PD-L1 expressed on the surface of tumors interacting directly with PD-1 on the surface of T cells, or the secretion of ligands by a tumor cell to affect an immune cell. Here we describe a co-culture method to interrogate the effects of tumor-secreted ligands on immune cell (macrophage) activation. This straightforward procedure utilizes commercially available 0.4 &#181;m polycarbonate membrane permeable supports and standard tissue culture plates. In the process described, macrophages are cultured in the upper chamber and tumor cells in the lower chamber. The presence of the 0.4 &#181;m barrier allows for the study of intercellular signaling without the confounding variable of physical contact, because the two cell types share the same medium and exposure to paracrine ligands. This approach can be combined with others, such as genetic alterations of the macrophage (e.g., isolation from genetic knock-out mice) or tumor (e.g., CRISPR-mediated alterations) to study the role of specific secreted factors and receptors. The approach also lends itself to standard molecular biological analyses such as quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or Western blot analysis, without the need for flow sorting to separate the two cell populations. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) can similarly be utilized to measure secreted ligands to better understand the dynamic interaction of cell signaling in the multiple cell type context. Duration of co-culture can also be varied for the study of temporally regulated events. This co-culture method is a robust tool that facilitates the study of tumor-secreted signals in the immune context.

Here, we present a method using permeable membrane supports to facilitate the study of non-contact paracrine signaling used by tumor cells to suppress the immune response. The system is amenable to studying the role of tumor-secreted factors in dampening macrophage activation.

Tumor-derived paracrine signaling is an overlooked component of local immunosuppression and can lead to a permissive environment for continued cancer ...

Pathological Analysis of Lung Metastasis Following Lateral Tail-Vein Injection of Tumor Cells

Metastasis, the primary cause of morbidity and mortality for most cancer patients, can be challenging to model preclinically in mice. Few spontaneous metastasis models are available. Thus, the experimental metastasis model involving tail-vein injection of suitable cell lines is a mainstay of metastasis research. When cancer cells are injected into the lateral tail-vein, the lung is their preferred site of colonization. A potential limitation of this technique is the accurate quantification of the metastatic lung tumor burden. While some investigators count macrometastases of a pre-defined size and/or include micrometastases following sectioning of tissue, others determine the area of metastatic lesions relative to normal tissue area. Both of these quantification methods can be exceedingly difficult when the metastatic burden is high. Herein, we demonstrate an intravenous injection model of lung metastasis followed by an advanced method for quantifying metastatic tumor burden using image analysis software. This process allows for investigation of multiple end-point parameters, including average metastasis size, total number of metastases, and total metastasis area, to provide a comprehensive analysis. Furthermore, this method has been reviewed by a veterinary pathologist board-certified by the American College of Veterinary Pathologists (SEK) to ensure accuracy.

Intravenous injection of cancer cells is often used in metastasis research, but the metastatic tumor burden can be difficult to analyze. Herein, we demonstrate a tail-vein injection model of metastasis and include a novel approach to analyze the resulting metastatic lung tumor burden.

Metastasis, the primary cause of morbidity and mortality for most cancer patients, can be challenging to model preclinically in mice. Few spontaneous ...

Modeling Brain Metastases Through Intracranial Injection and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Metastatic spread of cancer is an unfortunate consequence of disease progression, aggressive cancer subtypes, and/or late diagnosis. Brain metastases are particularly devastating, difficult to treat, and confer a poor prognosis. While the precise incidence of brain metastases in the United States remains hard to estimate, it is likely to increase as extracranial therapies continue to become more efficacious in treating cancer. Thus, it is necessary to identify and develop novel therapeutic approaches to treat metastasis at this site. To this end, intracranial injection of cancer cells has become a well-established method in which to model brain metastasis. Previously, the inability to directly measure tumor growth has been a technical hindrance to this model; however, increasing availability and quality of small animal imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are vastly improving the ability to monitor tumor growth over time and infer changes within the brain during the experimental period. Herein, intracranial injection of murine mammary tumor cells into immunocompetent mice followed by MRI is demonstrated. The presented injection approach utilizes isoflurane anesthesia and a stereotactic setup with a digitally controlled, automated drill and needle injection to enhance precision, and reduce technical error. MRI is measured over time using a 9.4 Tesla instrument in The Ohio State University James Comprehensive Cancer Center Small Animal Imaging Shared Resource. Tumor volume measurements are demonstrated at each time point through use of ImageJ. Overall, this intracranial injection approach allows for precise injection, day-to-day monitoring, and accurate tumor volume measurements, which combined greatly enhance the utility of this model system to test novel hypotheses on the drivers of brain metastases.

Intracranial brain metastasis modeling is complicated by an inability to monitor tumor size and response to treatment with precise and timely methods. The presented methodology couples intracranial tumor injection with magnetic resonance imaging analysis, which when combined, cultivates precise and consistent injections, enhanced animal monitoring, and accurate tumor volume measurements.

Metastatic spread of cancer is an unfortunate consequence of disease progression, aggressive cancer subtypes, and/or late diagnosis. Brain metastases are ...

Evaluation of the In vivo Antitumor Activity of Polyanhydride IL-1&#945; Nanoparticles

Cytokine therapy is a promising immunotherapeutic strategy that can produce robust antitumor immune responses in cancer patients. The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1&#945;) has been evaluated as an anticancer agent in several preclinical and clinical studies. However, dose-limiting toxicities, including flu-like symptoms and hypotension, have dampened the enthusiasm for this therapeutic strategy. Polyanhydride nanoparticle (NP)-based delivery of IL-1&#945; would represent an effective approach in this context since this may allow for a slow and controlled release of IL-1&#945; systemically while reducing toxic side effects. Here an analysis of the antitumor activity of IL-1&#945;-loaded polyanhydride NPs in a head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) syngeneic mouse model is described. Murine oropharyngeal epithelial cells stably expressing HPV16 E6/E7 together with hRAS and luciferase (mEERL) cells were injected subcutaneously into the right flank of C57BL/6J mice. Once tumors reached 3-4 mm in any direction, a 1.5% IL-1a - loaded 20:80 1,8-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)-3,6-dioxaoctane:1,6-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)hexane (CPTEG: CPH) nanoparticle (IL-1&#945;-NP) formulation was administered to mice intraperitoneally. Tumor size and body weight were continuously measured until tumor size or weight loss reached euthanasia criteria. Blood samples were taken to evaluate antitumor immune responses by submandibular venipuncture, and inflammatory cytokines were measured through cytokine multiplex assays. Tumor and inguinal lymph nodes were resected and homogenized into a single-cell suspension to analyze various immune cells through multicolor flow cytometry. These standard methods will allow investigators to study the antitumor immune response and potential mechanism of immunostimulatory NPs and other immunotherapy agents for cancer treatment.

Evaluation of the In vivo Antitumor Activity of Polyanhydride IL-1&#945; Nanoparticles

A standard protocol is described to study the antitumor activity and associated toxicity of IL-1&#945; in a syngeneic mouse model of HNSCC.

Cytokine therapy is a promising immunotherapeutic strategy that can produce robust antitumor immune responses in cancer patients. The proinflammatory ...