This work was supported by the Australian Research Council [DP11010246].

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J., Bidnenko, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+pathways+process+stalled+replication+forks.">Multiple pathways process stalled replication forks.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101 (35), 12783-12788 (2004).</li><li>Michel, B., Boubakri, H., Baharoglu, Z., LeMasson, M., Lestini, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombination+proteins+and+rescue+of+arrested+replication+forks.">Recombination proteins and rescue of arrested replication forks.</a> DNA Repair (Amst). 6 (7), 967-980 (2007).</li><li>Carl, P. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

During chromosome duplication, the replication machinery will encounter various impediments that prevent its progress. To ensure the entire single-origin chromosome is replicated, bacteria have numerous pathways for repair of the DNA that then enables the replisome to be reloaded20,21. Lesions, single stranded breaks, double stranded breaks and proteins tightly bound to the DNA may each be dealt with using a dedicated pathway, although there is likely to be significant overlap in these pathways. The most common impediment to replisomes in living cells is a nucleoprotein block2. However, two longstanding difficulties in studying the collision of a replisome with a nucleoprotein blockage have been how to localize the event to a known position on the chromosome and how to make the event frequent enough to allow detailed analysis. The majority of the knowledge of how E. coli copes with stalled/collapsed replication forks comes from the use of UV as a DNA damaging agent. 
The FROS protocol described here is a novel way of creating a site-specific nucleoprotein roadblock, similar to what the replisome will meet when it encounters proteins tightly bound to the chromosome during replication. The induced blockage and controlled release of this block allows the stages of DNA processing to be studied in discrete steps. The array of tetO sites used to block replication has previously been utilized to visualize chromosome organization9,10. While the array can be placed anywhere in the chromosome, for the purpose of the array described here, it should be distant from both the origin and the terminus to avoid complications in interpreting the signals observed from second rounds of initiation at the origin or from the replication fork proceeding around the opposite replichore. By optimizing the overproduction of TetR with the use of the dilute complex medium (protocol 1), we have found that sufficient TetR is produced to create a complete replication blockage that is stably maintained, while limiting the number of new rounds of replication that are initiated. The incorporation of replisome temperature sensitive mutations22 into the system ensures all replisomes are deactivated simultaneously and uncontrolled replisome reloading is prevented.
Whilst the number of foci per cell are useful for knowing the cell's replication status, the most enlightening data for DNA repair is from the analysis of the replication intermediates revealed by 2-D gel electrophoresis during an active replication blockage. Analysis of different genetic backgrounds can identify proteins involved in processing and restart of collapsed replication forks by the different patterns observed following the 2-D gel protocol. Further, intermediates from the processing of collapsed replication forks can be present at the array region or in the DNA upstream of the array, and can be visualized using 2-D gel electrophoresis. Creating duplicate agarose plugs (Protocol 3) has the advantage of allowing for digestion of the same sample with different restriction enzymes to be able to visualize replication intermediates in successive DNA regions. Therefore, the array region should be located in a position where appropriate restriction enzymes can be used to probe these regions of interest using Southern hybridization. 
The most common reasons that this technique may be unsuccessful are having either too little DNA which produces faint signals compared to background, or incomplete digestion of the DNA within the plugs. This can be caused by having too much DNA in the agarose plugs or the carry-over of some inhibitor from the lysis/washing steps. The number of cells taken for lysis within the agarose plugs may need to be varied from the protocol described here if modifications such as growth media are changed. However, it is futile to continue with the hybridization if the DNA in the plugs has not digested to completion. A repeat treatment of ESP may be required to better prepare the DNA (protocol 3.6). 
If the replication intermediates that are of interest are only transient, or are particularly rare within the cell, the DNA sample may need to be enriched for them, for example with the use of BND-cellulose which will bind short stretches of single stranded DNA, such as those found in replicating chromosomes23. Stabilization of replication intermediates by crosslinking with psoralen has also been used as a method of preserving DNA integrity24. When the intermediates are rare, it is important to optimize the probe and blocking of the membrane to prevent background signals from interfering. On completion of the blots the signals may be quantified with appropriate image processing software.
The protocol described here is an optimized system for creating a site-specific nucleoprotein blockage and analyzing replication intermediates when the replisome is unable to proceed through the blockage. With the establishment and optimization of this technique, the roles of various helicases and recombination proteins in processing the replication fork and in allowing the restart of replication can be identified. By varying the genetic background, the effect of the absence of these proteins can be analyzed. However, this technique is limited by requiring not only viable strains but strains that are also able to overproduce TetR at a rate that will create a stable nucleoprotein blockage.

DNA複製時には、レプリソームは、その進行を阻害し、DNA上の障害に直面しています。病変とのギャップだけでなく、異常な構造を含むDNA損傷は、1を進むからレプリソームを防ぐことができます。最近、DNAに結合したタンパク質は、フォークの進行2を複製する障害の最も一般的な供給源であることが見出されました。核ブロックでレプリソームの出会いを次のイベントの知識は以前から知られている場所で生きている細胞の染色体にそのようなブロックを誘導することができないことによって制限されてきた。 インビトロ分析は、速度論的挙動の理解を強化しましたそれは核閉塞3、ならびにレプリソーム自体4,5のメカニズムの詳細を満たしているアクティブレプリソームの。レプリケーションの修理の現在の理解は、一般的に、インビボ 6-8 にプラスミドDNAを用いて、損傷剤としてのUVで行われ、研究されています</s&gt;アップ。それはin vivoで核ブロックに遭遇した後、DNAの修復に関与することができるタンパク質は、一般的に複製ブロックの明確な原因による修復経路内の分子イベントにばらつきがあるかどうか、これらの研究から理解されているがまだ残っています決断される。 ここでは、核のブロックは蛍光プレッサーオペレータシステム（FROS）を使用して、染色体の特定の場所に確立することを可能にするシステムを説明します。私たちは、Eの歪みを利用します9番染色体に組み込まれた240 のtetO部位の配列を持っていた大腸菌 。アレイ内のそれぞれのtetO部位は、アレイ内のRecA媒介性の再結合を防止することにより、配列の安定性を高めるために、それに隣接する10塩基対のランダムな配列を有します。この配列、およびそれの変形は、元々 E.を理解するために使用しました。 大腸菌染色体ダイナミクス10,11が、その後preveに適応させましたntのin vivoでの複製12。アレイは安定に維持されるとのTetR 10,12によって結合されたときに複製フォークの100％に近いブロックすることが見出されています。 in vitroでの類似のlacO配列の使用は、この短い配列は生体内 13 にはあまり効果的であったが、22のサイトは、複製の90％を阻止するのに十分であったとして、いくつかのを発見しました。核の閉塞を作成するために、アレイを適応させるために、リプレッサータンパク質は非常にそれがその後、バリケードを作成するために、配列に特異的に結合する最適化された条件の下で過剰生産されなければなりません。 Tetリプレッサーの蛍光タグ付けされた変異体が使用される場合、閉塞の形成、およびその後の放出は、蛍光顕微鏡を使用することによって監視することができます。各セルの複製のステータスが単一焦点が配列のコピーは1つだけのセル内に存在すると、複数の病巣がアクティブ複製の指標である意味見病巣の数によって示されています。このアクティブ再核の閉塞がレプリソームは、配列を続行するために十分なオペレーター部位のためのTetRの結合親和性を低下させる無償誘導物質の添加により逆転されたときに襞が有効になっています。リプレッサータンパク質は、まだアレイの現在複数のコピーを可視化することができる十分に高い親和性でDNAに結合することができます。 核の閉塞でのイベントのより複雑な詳細は中立中立的な2次元アガロースゲル電気泳動及びサザンハイブリダイゼーション14-16を使用して検出することができます。これらの技術は、集団を横切るDNA構造の分析を可能にします。複製イベントの間に形成される中間体、および潜在的に修復されないままであるが、可視化することができます。複製フォークが17,18を退行する際に利用制限酵素およびプローブを変化させることにより、中間体は、アレイ領域ではなく、アレイの上流だけでなく可視化することができます。ザ回帰はレプリソーム解離に続いて行われます。先頭とラギング新生鎖は4ウェイDNA構造（ホリデイジャンクショ​​ン）で得られたテンプレート鎖同時に再アニールとして互いにテンプレート鎖とアニールとは別。 このシステムを使用して、このブロック18を検出したときに複製フォークが安定しないことが示されています。また、レプリソーム部品の温度に敏感な誘導体は、それが崩壊した後、複製フォークの再読み込みを防止するために利用することができます。ブロックが確立されると、歪みがレプリソームの同期失活及びリロードの制御予防を確実にするために、非許容温度にシフトすることができます。この温度誘導不活性化は、所定の時間で崩壊した集団内のフォークのすべてを確実にし、レプリソームは、DNAがどのように処理されるか、崩壊、そして何を再する必要があるときに何が起こるかの評価を可能にしますDNA複製のプロセスを開始します。 ここで説明するシステムの利点は、核のブロックが完全に可逆的であるということです。従って、核ブロックから回復する細胞の能力を追跡することが可能です。細胞へのアンヒドロを添加すると、複製フォークが通過進行させる、タイトなリプレッサーの結合を軽減し、細胞は生存能力を取り戻すために。閉塞の緩和は5分後、10分以内に顕微鏡によって中性中性二次元アガロースゲル電気泳動により可視化することができます。また、生存率分析は、複製閉塞から回復する株の能力を明らかにし、増殖し続けることができます。 ここに記載の実験手順で使用される菌株の遺伝的背景を変更することによって、閉塞のこのタイプの修復経路を解明することができます。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>16922</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>27810.364</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>92144</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9791</td>
			<td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3786</td>
			<td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Arabinose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A3256</td>
			<td>For induction of TetR-YFP production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrotetracycline hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>37919</td>
			<td>Release of replication bloackage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axioskop 2 Fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>452310</td>
			<td>Visualization of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>eYFP filter set</td>
			<td>Chroma Technology</td>
			<td>41028</td>
			<td>Visualization of YFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>Orca-AG</td>
			<td>Visualization of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MetaMorph&#160; Software (Molecular Devices)</td>
			<td>SDR Scientific</td>
			<td>31282</td>
			<td>Version 7.8.0.0 used in the preparation of this manuscript</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-41025</td>
			<td>For agarose plugs and gel electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Original Glass Water Repellent (Rain-X)</td>
			<td>Autobarn</td>
			<td>DIO1470</td>
			<td>For agarose plug manufacture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIS</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>VWRC103157P</td>
			<td>TE, TBE buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid</td>
			<td>Ajax Finechem</td>
			<td>AJA180</td>
			<td>0.5 M EDTA disodium salt solution adjusted to pH 8.0 with NaOH.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td>Bacteriostatic agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>258148</td>
			<td>TE buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium deoxycholate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D6750</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-Lauroylsarcosine sodium salt (Sarkosyl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L5125</td>
			<td>Cell lysis and ESP buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rnase A</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R6513</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>6300</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>AM0706</td>
			<td>ESP buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sub-Cell Model 192 Cell</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1704507</td>
			<td>Electrophoresis system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV transilluminator 2000</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1708110</td>
			<td>Visualization of DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethidium Bromide</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1610433</td>
			<td>Visualization of DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boric acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PROL20185.360</td>
			<td>TBE component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybond-XL nylon memrbane</td>
			<td>Amersham</td>
			<td>RPN203S</td>
			<td>Zeta-Probe Memrbane (BioRad 1620159) can also be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3MM Whatman chromatography paper</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>3030690</td>
			<td>Southern blotting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HL-2000 Hybrilinker</td>
			<td>UVP</td>
			<td>95-0031-01/02</td>
			<td>Crosslinking of DNA and hybridization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deoxyribonucleic acid from salmon sperm</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>31149</td>
			<td>Hybridization buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5881</td>
			<td>Denaturation buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trisodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PROL27833.363</td>
			<td>Transfer buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>227</td>
			<td>Wash buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A7906</td>
			<td>Hybridization buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Random Hexamer Primers</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-38028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Klenow fragment</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>M0212L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP Set</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-39025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adenosine 5&#8217;-triphosphate-32P-ATP</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>BLU502A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storage Phosphor Screen</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>GEHE28-9564-76</td>
			<td>BAS-IP MS 3543 E multipurpose standard 35x43cm screen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Typhoon FLA 7000</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>28-9558-09</td>
			<td>Visualization of blot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybridization bottle</td>
			<td>UVP</td>
			<td>07-0194-02</td>
			<td>35 x 300mm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

inducing a site specific replication blockage in e. coli using a fluorescent repressor operator system

密結合タンパク質と様々な病変を含むDNA上に存在する障害物は、深刻な細胞の複製機構の進行を阻害することができます。レプリソームの失速は、複製フォークの崩壊につながる、一部または全部のいずれか、染色体からの解離につながることができます。この崩壊からの回復は、細胞に対して正確に完全な染色体重複、その後分割の必要性です。崩壊が発生したときしたがって、細胞はDNAのフォークを復元し、レプリケーションが高い忠実度で完了することができるようにするために行われる多様な機構を進化させました。以前は、細菌におけるこれらの複製修復経路は、既知の部位に局在化されていないという欠点を有するUVダメージを用いて研究されています。この原稿は、foは複製の失速と崩壊を誘導することができる部位特異的なタンパク質のブロックを作成するために、蛍光プレッサーオペレータシステム（FROS）を利用するシステムを説明します大腸菌でRKS。複製の状態は、蛍光顕微鏡およびDNA複製中間体を用いて、単一の生細胞内で可視化することができる方法のプロトコルの詳細は、2次元のアガロースゲル電気泳動によって分析することができます。レプリソーム構成要素（ 例えば DnaBts）の温度感受性変異体は、複製フォークの同期崩壊を誘導するためにシステムに組み込むことができます。さらに、これらのプロセスに関与している組換えタンパク質およびヘリカーゼの役割は、このシステム内での遺伝子ノックアウトを用いて研究することができます。

FROSは、生きた細胞12,18で可視化することが複製中間体を可能に誘導、サイト固有の核ブロックです。細胞をサンプリングするための一般的な実験設計は、図1に示されている。遺伝的背景におけるサンプリングおよび変化のタイミングは、このようなブロックの修復を研究するための汎用性の高いシステムにします。概略的には、18以前に使用されてきたようなDNAB TSとdnaCの TSと温度感受性変異体は、本システムで利用することができる方法を示しています。 FROSの誘導はE.で行いました図1に示すように、 大腸菌株 非温度感受性株のために。核ブロックが確立されたことを確認するために、細胞を0.1％アラビノースにおける増殖の1時間後に、蛍光顕微鏡を用いて可視化しました。この時間枠は、野生型株でブロックを生成するのに通常は十分であるが、より細心の注意を払った株は、最適化が必要な場合があります。細胞の大部分は、それによってブロックされた複製を示す細胞内の配列の一つのコピーのみ ​​に対応し、1フォーカス（ 図2A、+ ARA）を含んでいました。 1フォーカス、2焦点もしくは2つ以上の焦点を有する細胞の数が100以上の細胞集団で計数しました。細胞の92％が2焦点で残りの8％が1焦点を有することが見出されました。これは、配列の2つのコピーを表し、十分間隔をあけ、2つの焦点を持っていた細胞は、ブロックされたレプリケーションの次のラウンドを持っているであろうと推定されました。 2つの焦点を有する細胞は互いに近接して配列が最近複製されたと核ブロックがまだ達成されていないことを意味します。 核ブロックは次のように可視化アンヒドロ（AT）と配列のその後の複製の添加によって逆転されました複数の病巣（ 図2A、+ ARA / AT）での細胞の蓄積。配列を表す縮小コピー蛍光により可視化し、細胞内の複数の病巣が正常にレプリケートされており、十分な時間が存在していた任意の姉妹染色体の凝集を克服、遺伝子座は離れて移動できるように経過しました。この例では、10分で添加した後、細胞の94％は、2またはそれ以上の焦点を有し、細胞当たり最大8病巣を可視化しました。 核のブロックが実際に複製を阻害したことを確実にするために、細胞生存率（ 図2B）を分析しました。 FROSによって阻害複製を持っていた細胞は、アラビノースの存在下で増殖させなかった細胞と比較して、コロニー形成単位が約千倍の減少を示します。その後、この成長阻害のアンヒドロショー逆転の存在下で増殖させた細胞。細胞は、リリース後のDNAを修復することができなかった場合核閉塞の、生存率の減少が生じるであろう。 複製中間体を視覚化するために、細胞を、アガロースプラグ内で溶解することができ、タンパク質およびRNAを除去します。 DNAは、その後、関心領域のための適当な制限酵素で消化することができます。 図 3Aに描かれたDNAは、目的の領域（ 図3B）、5.5 kbの6.7 kbの断片を得るために、アレイ内のアレイの後、アレイの直前にDNAを切断するEcoRVで消化し ​​ました。断片は、理想的には、ここで説明されたプロトコルのための〜3〜7キロバイトです。この範囲外の断片が良好な分離を達成するために使用されるアガロース濃度および電気泳動条件の変更を必要とし得ます。 DNAは、最初の次元で電気泳動した （ 図3A）を可視化しました。 DNAが完全に消化されている場合は、すべてのレーンが均等に実行しているだろうし、そこになります（約3キロバイト未満、制限酵素に応じて）、低分子量の高い量。ウェル中のDNAの存在は、不完全な細胞溶解を示唆している、（10 kbの上）の高分子量DNAの多くは、不完全なDNAの消化を意味します。 各レーンにおける目的のDNAを切り出しました。 図3Aでは、5キロバイト以上のDNAが含まれていました。ゲルの次の第2の次元は、線形DNA（ 図3C）の対角線を生じ、電気泳動しました。このゲル内の配列のDNAをサザンハイブリダイゼーション（ 図3D）によって可視化しました。 （ - ARAサンプル）ブロックされていないでは、予想通り、2つのスポットは、アレイの5.5キロバイトと6.7キロバイトの断片に対応する、見ることができます。ブロックされた複製（+ ARA）を有していたサンプルは、サンプル中のY字型DNAの蓄積を示し、比較5.5 kbのスポット楕円信号の付加の減少を示しました。信号であります複製フォークが人口全体に同様の場所で逮捕された意味、1位に局在しました。 anhydrotetracylineの添加で、Y字型DNAシグナルはもはや見られません。最近の再起動が地域を通って移動フォークを描いた、全体Y-アークの信号の存在によって示されています。 サンプルの信号があってもであることを確認するために、各アガロースプラグ内のDNAを正規化することが重要です。信号は、適切なイメージングソフトウェアを用いて定量することができます。見たもう一つの一般的な中間体は、ホリデイ接合（HJ）形成を示すことです。 HJは、Y-弧の上部に円錐信号とYアーク（ 図3D）の終わりに直線状DNAからスパイクとして可視化されます。 <img alt="図2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig2.jpg" /> 図2： 蛍光顕微鏡とViab<html> ility。（A）アンE. tetO配列を保有する大腸菌株を、1時間、0.1％アラビノース（+ ARA）の存在下で30℃で増殖させ、次いで無水テトラサイクリン（AT）は、複製ブロックを解放する亜集団に10分間添加しました。代表的な顕微鏡写真は、YFP生産（上のパネル）について示されています。スケールバー=2μmです。 1、2または3つ以上の焦点を有する細胞の割合は、列挙した百分率（下パネル）として提示されます。 （B）細胞は、アラビノースの不在下で増殖させた-アラビノース（+ ARA）と、（ARA）及びアラビノースおよび（AT; 10分）アンヒドロ両方で10倍希釈スポットのみ寒天を含有するアンピシリン上に広げ、いずれかのシリアルました（ - / +アラサンプル）またはサンプルATアンヒドロ（+とアンピシリン）および細胞生存率を決定するために、30℃で増殖させました。トップ：代表的なプレートが示された希釈率で成長を示します。下：平均CFU / mlの+/- SEMを示すグラフです。ww.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig2large.jpg &quot;ターゲット=&quot; _空白 &quot;&gt;この図の拡大版をご覧になるにはこちらをクリックしてください。 <img alt="図3" src="/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig3.jpg" /> 図3： 核タンパク質ブロック （A）ゲノムの細胞からのDNA（1、 - ARA; 2、+アラ3、+ ARA / AT） でのDNA複製中間体の可視化アガロースプラグ内で溶解し、EcoRV制限酵素で消化し ​​ました。 0.4％アガロースゲル（55 V、16時間）で分離しました。 3キロバイト、5キロバイトと10キロバイトのバンドが示されています。白いボックスで示されるように5キロバイトマーカー上記のDNAを切り出しました。アレイ領域のEcoRV消化物（B）の回路図。細胞はアラビノースの存在下で増殖されたとき、原点からの配列を入力する複製フォークは5.5キロバイトフラグメント内にブロックされます。利用制限部位を矢印とArで示されています線は線でボックスとして示されています。 （C）切り出したDNAを90°回転し、0.8％アガロースゲル（220 V、4時間）で分離しました。白いボックスは、分離後のDNAの切除を示しています。 （D）アレイ領域は、その後、アレイ領域に放射性プローブを用いたサザンブロット分析によって可視化しました。この位置での複製ブロックを有する細胞は、Y-円弧上に位置する5.5キロバイトの断片に対応する信号を持つことになります。 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版をご覧になるにはこちらをクリックしてください。</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System at JoVE.com

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

サイトを誘導する具体的なレプリケーション閉塞中<i&gt; E。大腸菌</i&gt;蛍光プレッサーオペレータシステムの使用

Obstacles present on DNA, including tightly-bound proteins and various lesions, can severely inhibit the progression of the cell&#39;s replication ...

inducing-site-specific-replication-blockage-e-coli-using-fluorescent

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

8.9K ビュー.  University of Newcastle. We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

ビデオ: Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

Transformation of Plasmid DNA into E. coli Using the Heat Shock Method

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign plasmid or ligation product into bacteria. This video protocol describes the traditional method of transformation using commercially available chemically competent bacteria from Genlantis. After a short incubation in ice, a mixture of chemically competent bacteria and DNA is placed at 42&deg;C for 45 seconds (heat shock) and then placed back in ice. SOC media is added and the transformed cells are incubated at 37&deg;C for 30 min with agitation. To be assured of isolating colonies irrespective of transformation efficiency, two quantities of transformed bacteria are plated. This traditional protocol can be used successfully to transform most commercially available competent bacteria. The turbocells from Genlantis can also be used in a novel 3-minute transformation protocol, described in the instruction manual.

ヒートショック法による大腸菌へのプラスミドDNAの形質転換

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign ...

生物学

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase (SSR) Technology

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular biology. Site-specific recombinases are proteins that bind to distinct DNA target sequences. The Cre/lox system was first described in bacteriophages during the 1980's. Cre recombinase is a Type I topoisomerase that catalyzes site-specific recombination of DNA between two loxP (locus of X-over P1) sites. The Cre/lox system does not require any cofactors. LoxP sequences contain distinct binding sites for Cre recombinases that surround a directional core sequence where recombination and rearrangement takes place. When cells contain loxP sites and express the Cre recombinase, a recombination event occurs. Double-stranded DNA is cut at both loxP sites by the Cre recombinase, rearranged, and ligated ("scissors and glue"). Products of the recombination event depend on the relative orientation of the asymmetric sequences.
SSR technology is frequently used as a tool to explore gene function. Here the gene of interest is flanked with Cre target sites loxP ("floxed"). Animals are then crossed with animals expressing the Cre recombinase under the control of a tissue-specific promoter. In tissues that express the Cre recombinase it binds to target sequences and excises the floxed gene. Controlled gene deletion allows the investigation of gene function in specific tissues and at distinct time points. Analysis of gene function employing SSR technology --- conditional mutagenesis -- has significant advantages over traditional knock-outs where gene deletion is frequently lethal.

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase SSR Technology

The advent of site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology and the Cre/lox system has led to numerous advances in molecular biology, and has proven itself as a valuable tool for assessing gene function in transgenic animals. This interview discusses the mechanism of site specific recombination by Cyclization recombinase (Cre) and how the use of this enzyme has led to the development of conditional mutagenesis, which has significant advantages over traditional knock out strategies.

部位特異的リコンビナーゼ（SSR）技術の原理

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular ...

Visualization of UV-induced Replication Intermediates in E. coli using Two-dimensional Agarose-gel Analysis

Inaccurate replication in the presence of DNA damage is responsible for the majority of cellular rearrangements and mutagenesis observed in all cell types and is widely believed to be directly associated with the development of cancer in humans. DNA damage, such as that induced by UV irradiation, severely impairs the ability of replication to duplicate the genomic template accurately. A number of gene products have been identified that are required when replication encounters DNA lesions in the template. However, a remaining challenge has been to determine how these proteins process lesions during replication in vivo. Using Escherichia coli as a model system, we describe a procedure in which two-dimensional agarose-gel analysis can be used to identify the structural intermediates that arise on replicating plasmids in vivo following UV-induced DNA damage. This procedure has been used to demonstrate that replication forks blocked by UV-induced damage undergo a transient reversal that is stabilized by RecA and several gene products associated with the RecF pathway. The technique demonstrates that these replication intermediates are maintained until a time that correlates with the removal of the lesions by nucleotide excision repair and replication resumes.

Visualization of UV-induced Replication Intermediates in E. coli using Two-dimensional Agarose-gel Analysis

We present a procedure by which two-dimensional agarose-gel analysis can be used to identify the structure of replication intermediates that occur following UV irradiation.

のUV -誘発複製中間体の可視化 E.大腸菌二次元アガロースゲル分析を用いた

Inaccurate replication in the presence of DNA damage is responsible for the majority of cellular rearrangements and mutagenesis observed in all cell types ...

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular signatures, or to evolve proteins in the laboratory. Here, we present a protocol that allows the generation of large (>1011) mutant libraries for a given target sequence. This method is based on replication of a ColE1 plasmid encoding the desired sequence by a low-fidelity variant of DNA polymerase I (LF-Pol I). The target plasmid is transformed into a mutator strain of E. coli and plated on solid media, yielding between 0.2 and 1 mutations/kb, depending on the location of the target gene. Higher mutation frequencies are achieved by iterating this process of mutagenesis. Compared to alternative methods of mutagenesis, our protocol stands out for its simplicity, as no cloning or PCR are involved. Thus, our method is ideal for mutational labeling of plasmids or other Pol I templates or to explore large sections of sequence space for the evolution of activities not present in the original target. The tight spatial control that PCR or randomized oligonucleotide-based methods offer can also be achieved through subsequent cloning of specific sections of the library. Here we provide protocols showing how to create a random mutant library and how to establish drug-based selections in E. coli to identify mutants exhibiting new biochemical activities.

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

Here we demonstrate a simple protocol to create a random mutant library for a given target sequence. We show how this method, which is performed in vivo in Escherichia coli, can be coupled with functional selections to evolve new enzymatic activities.

内タンパク質の定方向進化のための変異導入と機能選択プロトコル E.大腸菌</em

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular ...

A 3D System for Culturing Human Articular Chondrocytes in Synovial Fluid

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not regenerate very efficiently in vivo; and as a result, osteoarthritis leads to irreversible cartilage loss and is accompanied by chronic pain and immobility 1,2. Cartilage tissue engineering offers promising potential to regenerate and restore tissue function. This technology typically involves seeding chondrocytes into natural or synthetic scaffolds and culturing the resulting 3D construct in a balanced medium over a period of time with a goal of engineering a biochemically and biomechanically mature tissue that can be transplanted into a defect site in vivo 3-6. Achieving an optimal condition for chondrocyte growth and matrix deposition is essential for the success of cartilage tissue engineering. 
 In the native joint cavity, cartilage at the articular surface of the bone is bathed in synovial fluid. This clear and viscous fluid provides nutrients to the avascular articular cartilage and contains growth factors, cytokines and enzymes that are important for chondrocyte metabolism 7,8. Furthermore, synovial fluid facilitates low-friction movement between cartilaginous surfaces mainly through secreting two key components, hyaluronan and lubricin 9 10. In contrast, tissue engineered cartilage is most often cultured in artificial media. While these media are likely able to provide more defined conditions for studying chondrocyte metabolism, synovial fluid most accurately reflects the natural environment of which articular chondrocytes reside in.
 Indeed, synovial fluid has the advantage of being easy to obtain and store, and can often be regularly replenished by the body. Several groups have supplemented the culture medium with synovial fluid in growing human, bovine, rabbit and dog chondrocytes, but mostly used only low levels of synovial fluid (below 20&#37;) 11-25. While chicken, horse and human chondrocytes have been cultured in the medium with higher percentage of synovial fluid, these culture systems were two-dimensional 26-28. Here we present our method of culturing human articular chondrocytes in a 3D system with a high percentage of synovial fluid (up to 100&#37;) over a period of 21 days. In doing so, we overcame a major hurdle presented by the high viscosity of the synovial fluid. This system provides the possibility of studying human chondrocytes in synovial fluid in a 3D setting, which can be further combined with two other important factors (oxygen tension and mechanical loading) 29,30 that constitute the natural environment for cartilage to mimic the natural milieu for cartilage growth. Furthermore, This system may also be used for assaying synovial fluid activity on chondrocytes and provide a platform for developing cartilage regeneration technologies and therapeutic options for arthritis.

A 3D system of culturing human articular chondrocytes in high levels of synovial fluid is described. Synovial fluid reflects the most natural microenvironment for articular cartilage, and can be easily obtained and stored. This system thus can be used for studying cartilage regeneration and for screening therapeutics for treating arthritis.

滑液における培養ヒト関節軟骨細胞用の3Dシステム

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not ...

Visualizing Bacteria in Nematodes using Fluorescent Microscopy

Symbioses, the living together of two or more organisms, are widespread throughout all kingdoms of life. As two of the most ubiquitous organisms on earth, nematodes and bacteria form a wide array of symbiotic associations that range from beneficial to pathogenic 1-3. One such association is the mutually beneficial relationship between Xenorhabdus bacteria and Steinernema nematodes, which has emerged as a model system of symbiosis 4. Steinernema nematodes are entomopathogenic, using their bacterial symbiont to kill insects 5. For transmission between insect hosts, the bacteria colonize the intestine of the nematode's infective juvenile stage 6-8. Recently, several other nematode species have been shown to utilize bacteria to kill insects 9-13, and investigations have begun examining the interactions between the nematodes and bacteria in these systems 9.
We describe a method for visualization of a bacterial symbiont within or on a nematode host, taking advantage of the optical transparency of nematodes when viewed by microscopy. The bacteria are engineered to express a fluorescent protein, allowing their visualization by fluorescence microscopy. Many plasmids are available that carry genes encoding proteins that fluoresce at different wavelengths (i.e. green or red), and conjugation of plasmids from a donor Escherichia coli strain into a recipient bacterial symbiont is successful for a broad range of bacteria. The methods described were developed to investigate the association between Steinernema carpocapsae and Xenorhabdus nematophila 14. Similar methods have been used to investigate other nematode-bacterium associations 9,15-18and the approach therefore is generally applicable.
The method allows characterization of bacterial presence and localization within nematodes at different stages of development, providing insights into the nature of the association and the process of colonization 14,16,19. Microscopic analysis reveals both colonization frequency within a population and localization of bacteria to host tissues 14,16,19-21. This is an advantage over other methods of monitoring bacteria within nematode populations, such as sonication 22or grinding 23, which can provide average levels of colonization, but may not, for example, discriminate populations with a high frequency of low symbiont loads from populations with a low frequency of high symbiont loads. Discriminating the frequency and load of colonizing bacteria can be especially important when screening or characterizing bacterial mutants for colonization phenotypes 21,24. Indeed, fluorescence microscopy has been used in high throughput screening of bacterial mutants for defects in colonization 17,18, and is less laborious than other methods, including sonication 22,25-27and individual nematode dissection 28,29.

To study the mutualism between Xenorhabdus bacteria and Steinernema nematodes, methods were developed to monitor bacterial presence and location within nematodes. The experimental approach, which can be applied to other systems, entails engineering bacteria to express the green fluorescent protein and visualizing, using fluorescence microscopy bacteria within the transparent nematode.

蛍光顕微鏡を用いて線虫の中の細菌の可視化

 
Symbioses, the living together of two or more organisms, are widespread throughout all kingdoms of life. As two of the most ubiquitous organisms on ...

The Logic, Experimental Steps, and Potential of Heterologous Natural Product Biosynthesis Featuring the Complex Antibiotic Erythromycin A Produced Through E. coli

The heterologous production of complex natural products is an approach designed to address current limitations and future possibilities. It is particularly useful for those compounds which possess therapeutic value but cannot be sufficiently produced or would benefit from an improved form of production. The experimental procedures involved can be subdivided into three components: 1) genetic transfer; 2) heterologous reconstitution; and 3) product analysis. Each experimental component is under continual optimization to meet the challenges and anticipate the opportunities associated with this emerging approach.
Heterologous biosynthesis begins with the identification of a genetic sequence responsible for a valuable natural product. Transferring this sequence to a heterologous host is complicated by the biosynthetic pathway complexity responsible for product formation. The antibiotic erythromycin A is a good example. Twenty genes (totaling &gt;50 kb) are required for eventual biosynthesis. In addition, three of these genes encode megasynthases, multi-domain enzymes each ~300 kDa in size. This genetic material must be designed and transferred to E. coli for reconstituted biosynthesis. The use of PCR isolation, operon construction, multi-cystronic plasmids, and electro-transformation will be described in transferring the erythromycin A genetic cluster to E. coli.
Once transferred, the E. coli cell must support eventual biosynthesis. This process is also challenging given the substantial differences between E. coli and most original hosts responsible for complex natural product formation. The cell must provide necessary substrates to support biosynthesis and coordinately express the transferred genetic cluster to produce active enzymes. In the case of erythromycin A, the E. coli cell had to be engineered to provide the two precursors (propionyl-CoA and (2S)-methylmalonyl-CoA) required for biosynthesis. In addition, gene sequence modifications, plasmid copy number, chaperonin co-expression, post-translational enzymatic modification, and process temperature were also required to allow final erythromycin A formation.
Finally, successful production must be assessed. For the erythromycin A case, we will present two methods. The first is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to confirm and quantify production. The bioactivity of erythromycin A will also be confirmed through use of a bioassay in which the antibiotic activity is tested against Bacillus subtilis. The assessment assays establish erythromycin A biosynthesis from E. coli and set the stage for future engineering efforts to improve or diversify production and for the production of new complex natural compounds using this approach.

The Logic, Experimental Steps, and Potential of Heterologous Natural Product Biosynthesis Featuring the Complex Antibiotic Erythromycin A Produced Through E. coli

The heterologous biosynthesis of erythromycin A through E. coli includes the following experimental steps: 1) genetic transfer; 2) heterologous reconstitution; and 3) product analysis. Each step will be explained in the context of the motivation, potential, and challenges in producing therapeutic natural products using E. coli as a surrogate host.

を経て製造複合抗生物質エリスロマイシンをフィーチャーロジック、実験の手順、および異種天然物合成の可能性<em&gt; E大腸菌の</em

The heterologous production of complex natural products is an approach designed to address current limitations and future possibilities.  It is ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the function and regulation of protein folding was studied in vitro, in isolated tissue culture cells and in unicellular organisms. Recent studies have uncovered links between protein homeostasis (proteostasis), metabolism, development, aging, and temperature-sensing. These findings have led to the development of new tools for monitoring protein folding in the model metazoan organism Caenorhabditis elegans. In our laboratory, we combine behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical approaches using temperature-sensitive or naturally occurring metastable proteins as sensors of the folding environment to monitor protein misfolding. Behavioral assays that are associated with the misfolding of a specific protein provide a simple and powerful readout for protein folding, allowing for the fast screening of genes and conditions that modulate folding. Likewise, such misfolding can be associated with protein mislocalization in the cell. Monitoring protein localization can, therefore, highlight changes in cellular folding capacity occurring in different tissues, at various stages of development and in the face of changing conditions. Finally, using biochemical tools ex vivo, we can directly monitor protein stability and conformation. Thus, by combining behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical techniques, we are able to monitor protein misfolding at the resolution of the organism, the cell, and the protein, respectively.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

To study the relationship between protein homeostasis, stress and aging, we monitored changes in protein folding by following protein dysfunction, protein localization in the cell and protein stability at the organismal, cellular and protein levels, using the genetically tractable metazoan Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system.

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

膜タンパク質の緑色蛍光タンパク質ベースの発現スクリーニングで<em&gt;エシェリヒア·コリ</em

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...

Detection of Intracellular Gene Expression in Live Cells of Murine, Human and Porcine Origin Using Fluorescence-labeled Nanoparticles

The reprogramming of somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) has successfully been performed in different mammalian species including mouse, rat, human, pig and others. The verification of iPS clones mainly relies on the detection of the endogenous expression of different pluripotency genes. These genes mostly represent transcription factors which are located in the cell nucleus. Traditionally, the proof of their endogenous expression is supplied by immunohistochemical staining after fixation of the cells. This approach requires replicate cultures of each clone at this early stage to preserve validated clones for further experiments. The present protocol describes an approach with gene-specific nanoparticles which allows the evaluation of intracellular gene expression directly in live cells by fluorescence. The nanoparticles consist of a central gold particle coupled to a capture strand carrying a sequence complementary to the target mRNA as well as a quenched reporter strand. These nanoparticles are actively endocytosed and the target mRNA displaces the reporter strand which then start to fluoresce. Therefore, specific target gene expression can be detected directly under the microscope. In addition, the emitted fluorescence allows the identification, isolation and enrichment of cells expressing a specific gene by flow cytometry. This method can be applied directly to live cells in culture without any manipulation of the target cells.

This manuscript describes a novel technique which allows the detection of intracellular gene expression after endocytosis of fluorescence-labeled nanoparticles directly in live cells. The method does not require manipulation of the cells and is not restricted with respect to the target gene or species.

蛍光標識ナノ粒子を用いたマウス、ヒトおよびブタ起源のライブ細胞の細胞内遺伝子発現の検出

The reprogramming of somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) has successfully been performed in different mammalian species including mouse, ...