This work was supported by the Australian Research Council [DP11010246].

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

During chromosome duplication, the replication machinery will encounter various impediments that prevent its progress. To ensure the entire single-origin chromosome is replicated, bacteria have numerous pathways for repair of the DNA that then enables the replisome to be reloaded20,21. Lesions, single stranded breaks, double stranded breaks and proteins tightly bound to the DNA may each be dealt with using a dedicated pathway, although there is likely to be significant overlap in these pathways. The most common impediment to replisomes in living cells is a nucleoprotein block2. However, two longstanding difficulties in studying the collision of a replisome with a nucleoprotein blockage have been how to localize the event to a known position on the chromosome and how to make the event frequent enough to allow detailed analysis. The majority of the knowledge of how E. coli copes with stalled/collapsed replication forks comes from the use of UV as a DNA damaging agent. 
The FROS protocol described here is a novel way of creating a site-specific nucleoprotein roadblock, similar to what the replisome will meet when it encounters proteins tightly bound to the chromosome during replication. The induced blockage and controlled release of this block allows the stages of DNA processing to be studied in discrete steps. The array of tetO sites used to block replication has previously been utilized to visualize chromosome organization9,10. While the array can be placed anywhere in the chromosome, for the purpose of the array described here, it should be distant from both the origin and the terminus to avoid complications in interpreting the signals observed from second rounds of initiation at the origin or from the replication fork proceeding around the opposite replichore. By optimizing the overproduction of TetR with the use of the dilute complex medium (protocol 1), we have found that sufficient TetR is produced to create a complete replication blockage that is stably maintained, while limiting the number of new rounds of replication that are initiated. The incorporation of replisome temperature sensitive mutations22 into the system ensures all replisomes are deactivated simultaneously and uncontrolled replisome reloading is prevented.
Whilst the number of foci per cell are useful for knowing the cell's replication status, the most enlightening data for DNA repair is from the analysis of the replication intermediates revealed by 2-D gel electrophoresis during an active replication blockage. Analysis of different genetic backgrounds can identify proteins involved in processing and restart of collapsed replication forks by the different patterns observed following the 2-D gel protocol. Further, intermediates from the processing of collapsed replication forks can be present at the array region or in the DNA upstream of the array, and can be visualized using 2-D gel electrophoresis. Creating duplicate agarose plugs (Protocol 3) has the advantage of allowing for digestion of the same sample with different restriction enzymes to be able to visualize replication intermediates in successive DNA regions. Therefore, the array region should be located in a position where appropriate restriction enzymes can be used to probe these regions of interest using Southern hybridization. 
The most common reasons that this technique may be unsuccessful are having either too little DNA which produces faint signals compared to background, or incomplete digestion of the DNA within the plugs. This can be caused by having too much DNA in the agarose plugs or the carry-over of some inhibitor from the lysis/washing steps. The number of cells taken for lysis within the agarose plugs may need to be varied from the protocol described here if modifications such as growth media are changed. However, it is futile to continue with the hybridization if the DNA in the plugs has not digested to completion. A repeat treatment of ESP may be required to better prepare the DNA (protocol 3.6). 
If the replication intermediates that are of interest are only transient, or are particularly rare within the cell, the DNA sample may need to be enriched for them, for example with the use of BND-cellulose which will bind short stretches of single stranded DNA, such as those found in replicating chromosomes23. Stabilization of replication intermediates by crosslinking with psoralen has also been used as a method of preserving DNA integrity24. When the intermediates are rare, it is important to optimize the probe and blocking of the membrane to prevent background signals from interfering. On completion of the blots the signals may be quantified with appropriate image processing software.
The protocol described here is an optimized system for creating a site-specific nucleoprotein blockage and analyzing replication intermediates when the replisome is unable to proceed through the blockage. With the establishment and optimization of this technique, the roles of various helicases and recombination proteins in processing the replication fork and in allowing the restart of replication can be identified. By varying the genetic background, the effect of the absence of these proteins can be analyzed. However, this technique is limited by requiring not only viable strains but strains that are also able to overproduce TetR at a rate that will create a stable nucleoprotein blockage.

במהלך שכפול ה- DNA, replisome פונה מכשולים על DNA הפוגע בהתנהלותה. נזק לדנ&quot;א כולל נגעים ופערים כמו גם מבנים סוטה יכול למנוע replisome מ שתמשיך 1. לאחרונה, זה כבר נמצא כי חלבונים מאוגדים ה- DNA הם המקור הנפוץ ביותר של מניעה שכפול התקדמות מזלג 2. הידע של אירועים בעקבות המפגש של replisome עם בלוק nucleoprotein הוגבל בעבר על ידי חוסר היכולת לגרום בלוק כזה כרומוזום של תא חי בבאתר ידוע. ניתוח במבחנה שיפרה את ההבנה שלנו של התנהגות קינטית של replisome פעיל כאשר הוא פוגש סתימה nucleoprotein 3, כמו גם את הפרטים מכניסטית של replisome עצמו 4,5. הבנה נוכחית של התיקון של שכפול נעשית בדרך כלל עם UV כסוכן המזיק ללמוד באמצעות פלסמיד דנ&quot;א in vivo 6-8 </sעד&gt;. בעוד החלבונים שעשויים להיות מעורב תיקון DNA לאחר היא נתקלת לחסום nucleoprotein vivo ב הם הבינו בדרך כלל ממחקרים אלה, אם ישנן וריאציות של האירועים המולקולריים בתוך מסלולי התיקון בשל הגורם הברור בבלוק שהכפול עדיין עדיין להיות נחוש. כאן אנו מתארים מערכת המאפשרת לחסום nucleoprotein שיוקם במיקום ספציפי של כרומוזום באמצעות מערכת מפעיל פלורסנט מדכאת (FROS). אנו מנצלים זן של E. coli כי יש לו מערך של 240 אתרי TETO שולבו כרומוזום 9. כל אתר TETO בתוך המערך יש רצף אקראי 10 נ&quot;ב איגוף זה כדי להגדיל את היציבות של המערך על ידי מניעת רקומבינציה בתיווך RecA בתוך המערך. מערך זה, ווריאציות של אותו, שימשו במקור להבין E. דינמיקת כרומוזום coli 10,11 אבל הותאמו ואז preveNT in vivo שכפול 12. המערך נמצא להישמר ביציבות לחסום קרוב ל -100% של מזלגות שכפול כאשר מחויב TetR 10,12. השימוש במערך Laco הדומה במבחנה מצא כמה כמו 22 אתרים היו מספיקים כדי לחסום 90% של שכפול, למרות מערך קצר זה היה פחות יעיל vivo 13. כדי להתאים את המערך ליצור סתימת nucleoprotein, החלבון המדכא חייב להיות overproduced מאוד בתנאי אופטימיזציה איפה זה אז נקשר המערך ליצור מחסום. היווצרות של חסימה, ולשחרר הבאים שלה, ניתן לנטר באמצעות מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי אם גרסה מתויג fluorescently של מדכא ט משמש. מעמדו של שכפול בכל תא מותווה במספר המוקדים לראות, שם נקודה אחת מוקדים אומר רק עותק אחד של המערך נמצא בתוך התא מוקדים מרובים מעידים על שכפול פעיל. מחדש אקטיבית זוקפול מופעלת כאשר חסימת nucleoprotein מתהפכת על ידי התוספת של inducer מיותר כי מקטין את הזיקה המחייבת של TetR עבור האתר מפעיל מספיק עבור replisome ולעבור את המערך. החלבון המדכא עדיין מסוגל להיקשר ל- DNA עם זיקה גבוהה מספיק כי העותקים עכשיו המרובים של המערך ניתן דמיינו. עוד פרטים סבוכים של אירועי סתימת nucleoprotein יכולים להתגלות באמצעות ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose ניטראלי ניטראלית דו ממדים ו כלת דרום 14-16. טכניקות אלו מאפשרים ניתוח של מבנים DNA על פני האוכלוסייה. ביניים שכפול אשר נוצרים במהלך האירוע, ואפשרות להישאר מתוקנים, ניתן דמיינו. על ידי שינוי אנזים ההגבלה ו ניצל חללי, את התשומות ניתן דמיינו לא רק באזור אלא גם מערך זרם של המערך כאשר המזלג שהכפול נסוג 17,18. הרגרסיה מתקיים לאחר ניתוק replisome; גדילי המתהווה המובילים מפגרים נפרדים מן גדילי התבנית לחשל זה לזה כמו גדילי תבנית במקביל מחדש לחשל וכתוצאה מכך מבנה ה- DNA ארבעה-כיווני (צומת הולידיי). באמצעות מערכת זו הוכחה כי המזלג שהכפול אינו יציב כאשר הוא נתקל בלוק זה 18. בנוסף, נגזרים רגישים לטמפרטורה של רכיבי replisome יכולים להיות מנוצלים כדי למנוע העמסת יתר של המזלג שכפול פעם זה קרס. לאחר בלוק מוקם, הזן יכול להיות מוזז לטמפרטורה אוֹסְרָנִי כדי להבטיח שחרור משרות סינכרוני של replisome וכן מניעת מבוקרת של העמסת יתר. הטמפרטורה הנגרמת זה שחרור משרות מבטיחה כל המזלגות בתוך האוכלוסייה קרסו בזמן נתון ומאפשר הערכה של מה קורה כאשר replisome מתמוטט, כיצד DNA מעובד, ומה נדרש כדי מחדשלהתחיל בתהליך של שכפול ה- DNA. אחד היתרונות של המערכת המתוארת כאן היא כי לחסום nucleoprotein הוא הפיך לחלוטין; ולכן, היכולת של התאים להתאושש מגוש nucleoprotein היא מסוגלת להיות אחריו. התוספת של anhydrotetracycline לתאי תקל על דוק מחייב של המדכא, המאפשרת מזלג שכפול ולעבור והתא להשיב כדאיות. ההקלה של סתימה ניתן דמיינו ידי נייטרלי נייטרלי דו מימדי ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose לאחר 5 דק &#39;, ועל ידי מיקרוסקופיה בתוך 10 דקות. יתר על כן, ניתוח כדאיות יכול לחשוף את היכולת של הזן להתאושש הסתימה שהכפולה ממשיך להתרבות. על ידי שינוי הרקע הגנטי של הזנים המשמשים הליך הניסוי המתואר כאן, שמסלולי התיקון עבור סוג זה של חסימה ניתן הובהרו.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>16922</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>27810.364</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>92144</td>
			<td>Growth media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9791</td>
			<td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3786</td>
			<td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Arabinose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A3256</td>
			<td>For induction of TetR-YFP production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrotetracycline hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>37919</td>
			<td>Release of replication bloackage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axioskop 2 Fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>452310</td>
			<td>Visualization of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>eYFP filter set</td>
			<td>Chroma Technology</td>
			<td>41028</td>
			<td>Visualization of YFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>Orca-AG</td>
			<td>Visualization of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MetaMorph&#160; Software (Molecular Devices)</td>
			<td>SDR Scientific</td>
			<td>31282</td>
			<td>Version 7.8.0.0 used in the preparation of this manuscript</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-41025</td>
			<td>For agarose plugs and gel electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Original Glass Water Repellent (Rain-X)</td>
			<td>Autobarn</td>
			<td>DIO1470</td>
			<td>For agarose plug manufacture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIS</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>VWRC103157P</td>
			<td>TE, TBE buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid</td>
			<td>Ajax Finechem</td>
			<td>AJA180</td>
			<td>0.5 M EDTA disodium salt solution adjusted to pH 8.0 with NaOH.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td>Bacteriostatic agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>258148</td>
			<td>TE buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium deoxycholate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D6750</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-Lauroylsarcosine sodium salt (Sarkosyl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L5125</td>
			<td>Cell lysis and ESP buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rnase A</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R6513</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>6300</td>
			<td>Cell lysis buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>AM0706</td>
			<td>ESP buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sub-Cell Model 192 Cell</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1704507</td>
			<td>Electrophoresis system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV transilluminator 2000</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1708110</td>
			<td>Visualization of DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethidium Bromide</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1610433</td>
			<td>Visualization of DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boric acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PROL20185.360</td>
			<td>TBE component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybond-XL nylon memrbane</td>
			<td>Amersham</td>
			<td>RPN203S</td>
			<td>Zeta-Probe Memrbane (BioRad 1620159) can also be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3MM Whatman chromatography paper</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>3030690</td>
			<td>Southern blotting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HL-2000 Hybrilinker</td>
			<td>UVP</td>
			<td>95-0031-01/02</td>
			<td>Crosslinking of DNA and hybridization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deoxyribonucleic acid from salmon sperm</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>31149</td>
			<td>Hybridization buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5881</td>
			<td>Denaturation buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trisodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PROL27833.363</td>
			<td>Transfer buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>227</td>
			<td>Wash buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A7906</td>
			<td>Hybridization buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Random Hexamer Primers</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-38028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Klenow fragment</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>M0212L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP Set</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>BIO-39025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adenosine 5&#8217;-triphosphate-32P-ATP</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>BLU502A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storage Phosphor Screen</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>GEHE28-9564-76</td>
			<td>BAS-IP MS 3543 E multipurpose standard 35x43cm screen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Typhoon FLA 7000</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>28-9558-09</td>
			<td>Visualization of blot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybridization bottle</td>
			<td>UVP</td>
			<td>07-0194-02</td>
			<td>35 x 300mm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

inducing a site specific replication blockage in e. coli using a fluorescent repressor operator system

מכשולים המצויים על גבי ה- DNA, כוללים חלבונים בחוזקה נכנס ונגעים שונים, יכולים לעכב את ההתקדמות קשה של השכפול של התא. ההשתהות של replisome יכולה להוביל את ניתוק מן כרומוזום, או באופן חלקי או בשלמותו, מובילה לקריסה של המזלג שכפול. ההתאוששות מקריסה זו היא הכרח עבור התא שכפול כרומוזומליות מלא במדויק ולאחר מכן לחלק. לכן, כאשר הקריסה מתרחשת, התא התפתח מנגנונים מגוונים המתרחשים לשחזר את מזלג DNA ולאפשר שכפול להסתיים עם איכות גבוהה. בעבר, מסלולי תיקון שכפול אלה בחיידקים נחקרו באמצעות נזק UV, אשר יש לו את החיסרון של לא להיות מקומי לאתר ידוע. כתב יד זה מתאר מערכת ניצול מערכת מפעיל הקרינה מדכא (FROS) כדי ליצור בלוק חלבון מסוים באתר שיכולים לגרום השתהות וקריסה של שכפול FOrks ב coli Escherichia. פרט הפרוטוקולים כיצד מצב של שכפול ניתן דמיינו תאים בודדים חיים באמצעות מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי ביניים DNA שכפול יכול להיות מנותח על ידי ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose 2-ממדי. מוטציות טמפרטורה רגישות של רכיבי replisome (למשל DnaBts) יכולות להיות משולבות לתוך המערכת כדי לגרום לקריסה סינכרוני של המזלגות שכפול. יתר על כן, את התפקידים של חלבונים רקומבינציה helicases כי הם מעורבים בתהליכים אלה ניתן ללמוד באמצעות knockouts הגנטי בתוך מערכת זו.

FROS הוא בלוק nucleoprotein מושרה, אתר ספציפי המאפשר ביניים שכפולים להיות דמיינו בתאי חי 12,18. עיצוב ניסיוני כללי על דגימת תאים מתואר באיור 1. העיתוי של דגימת וריאציות רקע גנטי לעשות זה מערכה צדדית ללימוד התיקון של גוש כזה. סכמטית ממחישה עד כמה מוטציות רגישות טמפרטורה, כגון dnaB ts ו dnaC ts שנוצלו בעבר 18, יכולות להיות מנוצלות במערכת זו. האינדוקציה של FROS בוצעה בבית E. זן coli כפי שמוצג באיור 1 עבור זנים רגישים שאינה טמפרטורה. כדי לאשר כי גוש nucleoprotein היה ידוע, תאים היו דמיינו באמצעות מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי לאחר 1 hr צמיחת arabinose 0.1%. זֶהזמן הוא בדרך כלל מספיק כדי לייצר את הבלוק ב זן פראי סוג אלא שסוגים אנינים יותר עשויים לדרוש אופטימיזציה. רוב התאים שהכילו 1 מוקד (איור 2 א, + ערה), המקביל ל רק עותק אחד של המערך בתוך התא ובכך המציין שכפול נחסם. המספרים של תאים עם 1 מיקוד, 2 מוקדים או יותר מ -2 מוקדים נספרו אוכלוסייה של יותר מ -100 תאים. 92% של תאים נמצאו כבעלי 1 מיקוד עם% 8 נותרים עם 2 מוקדים. יש להניח כי תאים היו שני מוקדים מרווחים היטב זו מזו, מייצגי שני עותקים של המערך, יצטרכו לסיבוב הבא של שכפול חסום. תאים עם שני מוקדים קרובים זה לזה למקרה בו המערך שוחזר לאחרונה בלוק nucleoprotein טרם הושג. בלוק nucleoprotein התהפך על ידי התוספת של anhydrotetracycline (AT) ושכפול הבאות של המערך דמיין כמוהצטברות של תאים עם מוקדים מרובים (איור 2 א, + ערה / AT). מוקדים מרובים בתוך תא מדמיין ידי קרינת microcopy מסמן את מערך שוחזרו בהצלחה מספיק זמן עבר כדי לאפשר הלוקוסים לנוע בנפרד, להתגבר על כל לכידות כרומוזום אחותה כי נכחו. במקרה זה, 10 דקות לאחר התוספת של AT, 94% של תאים היו 2 או יותר מוקדים ועד 8 מוקדים לכל תא היו דמיינו. כדי להבטיח כי לחסום nucleoprotein אכן לעכב שכפול, כדאיות התא נותח (איור 2 ב). תאים שתהליך ההתפתחות שלהם היה שכפול עכבות ידי FROS להראות ירידה כ -1000 קפל המושבה להרכיב יחידות בהשוואה לתאים שלא גדלו בנוכחות arabinose. תאים לאחר מכן גדלו בנוכחות anhydrotetracycline היפוך הפגנת עיכוב צמיחה זו. אם התאים לא הצליחו לתקן את ה- DNA לאחר שחרורוחסימת nucleoprotein, צמצום הכדאיות יביא. כדי להמחיש את ביניים שכפול, התאים ניתן lysed בתוך תקעים agarose ואת החלבון ו- RNA הסיר. הדנ&quot;א אז יכול להיות מעוכל עם אנזים הגבלה מתאים את האזור של עניין. DNA בתמונה באיור 3A היה מתעכל עם EcoRV המנתק את הדנ&quot;א מיד לפני המערך, בתוך המערך ואחרי המערך לתת 5.5 kb ו -6.7 שברי kb באזור של עניין (איור 3 ב). שברים הם אידיאליים ~ 3-7 kb עבור הפרוטוקול המתואר כאן. שברים מחוץ לטווח זה עשויים לדרוש שינוי ריכוזי agarose השתמשו ותנאי אלקטרופורזה כדי להשיג הפרדה טובה. ה- DNA היה electrophoresed בממד הראשון ו דמיינו (איור 3 א). אם ה- DNA לא מתעכל לחלוטין, כל הנתיבים יהיו להפעיל באופן שווה ויהיוכמות גבוהה של משקל מולקולרי נמוך (פחות מ כ 3 kb, תלוי אנזים ההגבלה). נוכח DNA בבאר מרמז תמוגה תא שלמה והרבה DNA משקל מולקולרי גבוה (מעל 10 kb) מרמז עיכול DNA שלם. ה- DNA של עניין בנתיב אחד היה ניכר. באיור 3 א, DNA מעל 5 kb נכלל. הממד השני הבא של הג&#39;ל electrophoresed, וכתוצאה מכך בצורה אלכסונית של DNA ליניארי (איור 3 ג). ה- DNA מערך בתוך ג&#39;ל זה היה דמיינו לאחר מכן על ידי הכלאה הדרום (איור 3D). בשנות ה חסומות (- מדגם ערה), שתי נקודות ניתן לראות, התואם את שברי 5.5 kb ו -6.7 kb של המערך, כצפוי. המדגם אשר חסמה שכפול (ara +) הראו ירידה במקום 5.5 kb בהשוואה והוספת אות אליפטי, המציין הצטברות של DNA בצורת האות V במדגם. האות הואמקומי לעמדה אחת, המסמל את המזלגות שהכפולים עוצרים במקום דומה אצל כלל האוכלוסייה. על תוספת של anhydrotetracyline, אות DNA בצורת Y כבר לא יכולה לראות. הפעלה מחדש אחרונה מותווה על ידי הנוכחות של אות של Y-הקשת השלמה, המתארת ​​את המזלגות נודדים דרך האזור. חשוב לנרמל את ה- DNA בתוך כל תקע agarose על מנת להבטיח את האותות של הדגימות הן אפילו. האותות ניתן לכמת עם תוכנת הדמיה מתאימה. עוד ראו ביניים נפוצים הוא כי המציין צומת הולידיי היווצרות (HJ). HJ היא דמיינה כאיתות חרוטה בראש של Y-הקשת ספייק מ- DNA ליניארי בסוף קשת Y (האיור 3D). <img alt="איור 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig2.jpg" /> איור 2: מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי ו Viab<html> ility. (א) א coli הזן נושא את מערך TETO היה גדל ב 30 מעלות צלזיוס בנוכחות 0.1% arabinose (+ ערה) במשך שעה 1 ולאחר מכן anhydrotetracycline (AT) נוסף במשך 10 דקות על-אוכלוסייה לשחרר את הגוש שכפול. micrographs נציג מוצגים לייצור YFP (הפאנל העליון). סרגל קנה מידה = 2 מיקרומטר. חלקם של תאי נושאים 1, 2 או יותר מ -2 מוקדים נפקד ומוצג בתור (פנל תחתון) אחוז. (ב) תאים שגודלו בהעדר arabinose (- ערה), עם arabinose (+ ערה) ועם שתי arabinose ו anhydrotetracycline (AT; 10 דקות) היו סדרתי מדולל פי 10 ואו הבחין או להפיץ על אמפיצילין המכיל אגר בלבד ( - / + דגימות ערה) או אמפיצילין עם anhydrotetracycline (+ AT מדגם) גדל ב 30 מעלות צלזיוס כדי לקבוע כדאיות התא. למעלה: צלחת נציג מראה צמיחת דילולים מצוינים. תחתון: גרף המציג את CFU / ml הממוצע +/- SEM.ww.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig2large.jpg &quot;target =&quot; _ blank &quot;&gt; לחץ כאן כדי לצפות בגרסה גדולה יותר של דמות זו. <img alt="איור 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig3.jpg" /> . איור 3: ויזואליזציה של ביניים שכפול ה- DNA בכל nucleoprotein בלוק (א) הדנ&quot;א הגנומי מתאי (1, - ערה; 2, + ערה; 3, + ערה / AT) כי היו lysed בתוך תקעים agarose מעוכל עם אנזים הגבלה EcoRV הופרד על ג&#39;ל 0.4% agarose (55 V, 16 שעות). 3 kb, 5 kb ו -10 להקות kb מסומנים. הדנ&quot;א מעל סמן 5 kb היה נכרת כפי שצוין על ידי התיבות הלבנות. (ב) סכמטי של Digest EcoRV אזור המערך. מזלגות שכפול הזנת מערך מהראשית להיחסם בתוך שבר 5.5 kb כשהתאים כבר גדל בנוכחות arabinose. אתרי הגבלה מנוצלים מסומנים על ידי חצים ואת array מוצג כקופסא עם קווים. (ג) ניכר DNA היה מסובב 90 ° ומופרד בתוך ג&#39;ל 0.8% agarose (220 V, 4 שעות). התיבה הלבנה מציינת את הכריתה של DNA לאחר פרידה. (ד) באזור מערך היה דמיינו לאחר מכן על ידי ניתוח כתם הדרום באמצעות בדיקה רדיואקטיבית באזור המערך. תאים עם בלוק שכפול בעמדה זו יהיו האות המתאים שבר 5.5 kb הממוקם על-קשת Y. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/54434/54434fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">אנא לחץ כאן כדי לצפות בגרסה גדולה יותר של דמות זו.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System at JoVE.com

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

התרמת סתימה שכפול לאתרים ספציפיים ב<i&gt; E. coli</i&gt; באמצעות מערכת מפעיל פלורסנט מדכא

Obstacles present on DNA, including tightly-bound proteins and various lesions, can severely inhibit the progression of the cell&#39;s replication ...

inducing-site-specific-replication-blockage-e-coli-using-fluorescent

Nanyang Technological University

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JoVE Journal

Biology

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

8.9K Views.  University of Newcastle. We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

Video: Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

Transformation of Plasmid DNA into E. coli Using the Heat Shock Method

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign plasmid or ligation product into bacteria. This video protocol describes the traditional method of transformation using commercially available chemically competent bacteria from Genlantis. After a short incubation in ice, a mixture of chemically competent bacteria and DNA is placed at 42&deg;C for 45 seconds (heat shock) and then placed back in ice. SOC media is added and the transformed cells are incubated at 37&deg;C for 30 min with agitation. To be assured of isolating colonies irrespective of transformation efficiency, two quantities of transformed bacteria are plated. This traditional protocol can be used successfully to transform most commercially available competent bacteria. The turbocells from Genlantis can also be used in a novel 3-minute transformation protocol, described in the instruction manual.

טרנספורמציה של DNA פלסמיד לתוך החיידק שימוש בשיטה הלם חום

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign ...

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase (SSR) Technology

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular biology. Site-specific recombinases are proteins that bind to distinct DNA target sequences. The Cre/lox system was first described in bacteriophages during the 1980's. Cre recombinase is a Type I topoisomerase that catalyzes site-specific recombination of DNA between two loxP (locus of X-over P1) sites. The Cre/lox system does not require any cofactors. LoxP sequences contain distinct binding sites for Cre recombinases that surround a directional core sequence where recombination and rearrangement takes place. When cells contain loxP sites and express the Cre recombinase, a recombination event occurs. Double-stranded DNA is cut at both loxP sites by the Cre recombinase, rearranged, and ligated ("scissors and glue"). Products of the recombination event depend on the relative orientation of the asymmetric sequences.
SSR technology is frequently used as a tool to explore gene function. Here the gene of interest is flanked with Cre target sites loxP ("floxed"). Animals are then crossed with animals expressing the Cre recombinase under the control of a tissue-specific promoter. In tissues that express the Cre recombinase it binds to target sequences and excises the floxed gene. Controlled gene deletion allows the investigation of gene function in specific tissues and at distinct time points. Analysis of gene function employing SSR technology --- conditional mutagenesis -- has significant advantages over traditional knock-outs where gene deletion is frequently lethal.

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase SSR Technology

The advent of site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology and the Cre/lox system has led to numerous advances in molecular biology, and has proven itself as a valuable tool for assessing gene function in transgenic animals. This interview discusses the mechanism of site specific recombination by Cyclization recombinase (Cre) and how the use of this enzyme has led to the development of conditional mutagenesis, which has significant advantages over traditional knock out strategies.

עקרונות אתר ספציפיות recombinase (SSR) טכנולוגיה

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular ...

Visualization of UV-induced Replication Intermediates in E. coli using Two-dimensional Agarose-gel Analysis

Inaccurate replication in the presence of DNA damage is responsible for the majority of cellular rearrangements and mutagenesis observed in all cell types and is widely believed to be directly associated with the development of cancer in humans. DNA damage, such as that induced by UV irradiation, severely impairs the ability of replication to duplicate the genomic template accurately. A number of gene products have been identified that are required when replication encounters DNA lesions in the template. However, a remaining challenge has been to determine how these proteins process lesions during replication in vivo. Using Escherichia coli as a model system, we describe a procedure in which two-dimensional agarose-gel analysis can be used to identify the structural intermediates that arise on replicating plasmids in vivo following UV-induced DNA damage. This procedure has been used to demonstrate that replication forks blocked by UV-induced damage undergo a transient reversal that is stabilized by RecA and several gene products associated with the RecF pathway. The technique demonstrates that these replication intermediates are maintained until a time that correlates with the removal of the lesions by nucleotide excision repair and replication resumes.

Visualization of UV-induced Replication Intermediates in E. coli using Two-dimensional Agarose-gel Analysis

We present a procedure by which two-dimensional agarose-gel analysis can be used to identify the structure of replication intermediates that occur following UV irradiation.

ויזואליזציה של UV-Induced ביניים שכפול א coli באמצעות דו מימדי agarose ג&#39;ל ניתוח

Inaccurate replication in the presence of DNA damage is responsible for the majority of cellular rearrangements and mutagenesis observed in all cell types ...

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular signatures, or to evolve proteins in the laboratory. Here, we present a protocol that allows the generation of large (>1011) mutant libraries for a given target sequence. This method is based on replication of a ColE1 plasmid encoding the desired sequence by a low-fidelity variant of DNA polymerase I (LF-Pol I). The target plasmid is transformed into a mutator strain of E. coli and plated on solid media, yielding between 0.2 and 1 mutations/kb, depending on the location of the target gene. Higher mutation frequencies are achieved by iterating this process of mutagenesis. Compared to alternative methods of mutagenesis, our protocol stands out for its simplicity, as no cloning or PCR are involved. Thus, our method is ideal for mutational labeling of plasmids or other Pol I templates or to explore large sections of sequence space for the evolution of activities not present in the original target. The tight spatial control that PCR or randomized oligonucleotide-based methods offer can also be achieved through subsequent cloning of specific sections of the library. Here we provide protocols showing how to create a random mutant library and how to establish drug-based selections in E. coli to identify mutants exhibiting new biochemical activities.

Mutagenesis and Functional Selection Protocols for Directed Evolution of Proteins in E. coli

Here we demonstrate a simple protocol to create a random mutant library for a given target sequence. We show how this method, which is performed in vivo in Escherichia coli, can be coupled with functional selections to evolve new enzymatic activities.

בחירת הפרוטוקולים mutagenesis ו פונקציונאלי אבולוציה מכוונת של חלבונים א coli</em

The efficient generation of genetic diversity represents an invaluable molecular tool that can be used to label DNA synthesis, to create unique molecular ...

A 3D System for Culturing Human Articular Chondrocytes in Synovial Fluid

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not regenerate very efficiently in vivo; and as a result, osteoarthritis leads to irreversible cartilage loss and is accompanied by chronic pain and immobility 1,2. Cartilage tissue engineering offers promising potential to regenerate and restore tissue function. This technology typically involves seeding chondrocytes into natural or synthetic scaffolds and culturing the resulting 3D construct in a balanced medium over a period of time with a goal of engineering a biochemically and biomechanically mature tissue that can be transplanted into a defect site in vivo 3-6. Achieving an optimal condition for chondrocyte growth and matrix deposition is essential for the success of cartilage tissue engineering. 
 In the native joint cavity, cartilage at the articular surface of the bone is bathed in synovial fluid. This clear and viscous fluid provides nutrients to the avascular articular cartilage and contains growth factors, cytokines and enzymes that are important for chondrocyte metabolism 7,8. Furthermore, synovial fluid facilitates low-friction movement between cartilaginous surfaces mainly through secreting two key components, hyaluronan and lubricin 9 10. In contrast, tissue engineered cartilage is most often cultured in artificial media. While these media are likely able to provide more defined conditions for studying chondrocyte metabolism, synovial fluid most accurately reflects the natural environment of which articular chondrocytes reside in.
 Indeed, synovial fluid has the advantage of being easy to obtain and store, and can often be regularly replenished by the body. Several groups have supplemented the culture medium with synovial fluid in growing human, bovine, rabbit and dog chondrocytes, but mostly used only low levels of synovial fluid (below 20&#37;) 11-25. While chicken, horse and human chondrocytes have been cultured in the medium with higher percentage of synovial fluid, these culture systems were two-dimensional 26-28. Here we present our method of culturing human articular chondrocytes in a 3D system with a high percentage of synovial fluid (up to 100&#37;) over a period of 21 days. In doing so, we overcame a major hurdle presented by the high viscosity of the synovial fluid. This system provides the possibility of studying human chondrocytes in synovial fluid in a 3D setting, which can be further combined with two other important factors (oxygen tension and mechanical loading) 29,30 that constitute the natural environment for cartilage to mimic the natural milieu for cartilage growth. Furthermore, This system may also be used for assaying synovial fluid activity on chondrocytes and provide a platform for developing cartilage regeneration technologies and therapeutic options for arthritis.

A 3D system of culturing human articular chondrocytes in high levels of synovial fluid is described. Synovial fluid reflects the most natural microenvironment for articular cartilage, and can be easily obtained and stored. This system thus can be used for studying cartilage regeneration and for screening therapeutics for treating arthritis.

מערכת 3D עבור chondrocytes culturing האדם במפרק של נוזל סינוביאלי

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not ...

Visualizing Bacteria in Nematodes using Fluorescent Microscopy

Symbioses, the living together of two or more organisms, are widespread throughout all kingdoms of life. As two of the most ubiquitous organisms on earth, nematodes and bacteria form a wide array of symbiotic associations that range from beneficial to pathogenic 1-3. One such association is the mutually beneficial relationship between Xenorhabdus bacteria and Steinernema nematodes, which has emerged as a model system of symbiosis 4. Steinernema nematodes are entomopathogenic, using their bacterial symbiont to kill insects 5. For transmission between insect hosts, the bacteria colonize the intestine of the nematode's infective juvenile stage 6-8. Recently, several other nematode species have been shown to utilize bacteria to kill insects 9-13, and investigations have begun examining the interactions between the nematodes and bacteria in these systems 9.
We describe a method for visualization of a bacterial symbiont within or on a nematode host, taking advantage of the optical transparency of nematodes when viewed by microscopy. The bacteria are engineered to express a fluorescent protein, allowing their visualization by fluorescence microscopy. Many plasmids are available that carry genes encoding proteins that fluoresce at different wavelengths (i.e. green or red), and conjugation of plasmids from a donor Escherichia coli strain into a recipient bacterial symbiont is successful for a broad range of bacteria. The methods described were developed to investigate the association between Steinernema carpocapsae and Xenorhabdus nematophila 14. Similar methods have been used to investigate other nematode-bacterium associations 9,15-18and the approach therefore is generally applicable.
The method allows characterization of bacterial presence and localization within nematodes at different stages of development, providing insights into the nature of the association and the process of colonization 14,16,19. Microscopic analysis reveals both colonization frequency within a population and localization of bacteria to host tissues 14,16,19-21. This is an advantage over other methods of monitoring bacteria within nematode populations, such as sonication 22or grinding 23, which can provide average levels of colonization, but may not, for example, discriminate populations with a high frequency of low symbiont loads from populations with a low frequency of high symbiont loads. Discriminating the frequency and load of colonizing bacteria can be especially important when screening or characterizing bacterial mutants for colonization phenotypes 21,24. Indeed, fluorescence microscopy has been used in high throughput screening of bacterial mutants for defects in colonization 17,18, and is less laborious than other methods, including sonication 22,25-27and individual nematode dissection 28,29.

To study the mutualism between Xenorhabdus bacteria and Steinernema nematodes, methods were developed to monitor bacterial presence and location within nematodes. The experimental approach, which can be applied to other systems, entails engineering bacteria to express the green fluorescent protein and visualizing, using fluorescence microscopy bacteria within the transparent nematode.

Visualizing חיידקים בנמטודות באמצעות מיקרוסקופיה פלורסנט

 
Symbioses, the living together of two or more organisms, are widespread throughout all kingdoms of life. As two of the most ubiquitous organisms on ...

The Logic, Experimental Steps, and Potential of Heterologous Natural Product Biosynthesis Featuring the Complex Antibiotic Erythromycin A Produced Through E. coli

The heterologous production of complex natural products is an approach designed to address current limitations and future possibilities. It is particularly useful for those compounds which possess therapeutic value but cannot be sufficiently produced or would benefit from an improved form of production. The experimental procedures involved can be subdivided into three components: 1) genetic transfer; 2) heterologous reconstitution; and 3) product analysis. Each experimental component is under continual optimization to meet the challenges and anticipate the opportunities associated with this emerging approach.
Heterologous biosynthesis begins with the identification of a genetic sequence responsible for a valuable natural product. Transferring this sequence to a heterologous host is complicated by the biosynthetic pathway complexity responsible for product formation. The antibiotic erythromycin A is a good example. Twenty genes (totaling &gt;50 kb) are required for eventual biosynthesis. In addition, three of these genes encode megasynthases, multi-domain enzymes each ~300 kDa in size. This genetic material must be designed and transferred to E. coli for reconstituted biosynthesis. The use of PCR isolation, operon construction, multi-cystronic plasmids, and electro-transformation will be described in transferring the erythromycin A genetic cluster to E. coli.
Once transferred, the E. coli cell must support eventual biosynthesis. This process is also challenging given the substantial differences between E. coli and most original hosts responsible for complex natural product formation. The cell must provide necessary substrates to support biosynthesis and coordinately express the transferred genetic cluster to produce active enzymes. In the case of erythromycin A, the E. coli cell had to be engineered to provide the two precursors (propionyl-CoA and (2S)-methylmalonyl-CoA) required for biosynthesis. In addition, gene sequence modifications, plasmid copy number, chaperonin co-expression, post-translational enzymatic modification, and process temperature were also required to allow final erythromycin A formation.
Finally, successful production must be assessed. For the erythromycin A case, we will present two methods. The first is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to confirm and quantify production. The bioactivity of erythromycin A will also be confirmed through use of a bioassay in which the antibiotic activity is tested against Bacillus subtilis. The assessment assays establish erythromycin A biosynthesis from E. coli and set the stage for future engineering efforts to improve or diversify production and for the production of new complex natural compounds using this approach.

The Logic, Experimental Steps, and Potential of Heterologous Natural Product Biosynthesis Featuring the Complex Antibiotic Erythromycin A Produced Through E. coli

The heterologous biosynthesis of erythromycin A through E. coli includes the following experimental steps: 1) genetic transfer; 2) heterologous reconstitution; and 3) product analysis. Each step will be explained in the context of the motivation, potential, and challenges in producing therapeutic natural products using E. coli as a surrogate host.

היגיון, שלבים ניסיוניים, והפוטנציאל של יוסינתזה מוצרים הטבעי Heterologous מציע אריתרומיצין האנטיביוטי הקומפלקס הופק באמצעות<em&gt; א coli</em

The heterologous production of complex natural products is an approach designed to address current limitations and future possibilities.  It is ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the function and regulation of protein folding was studied in vitro, in isolated tissue culture cells and in unicellular organisms. Recent studies have uncovered links between protein homeostasis (proteostasis), metabolism, development, aging, and temperature-sensing. These findings have led to the development of new tools for monitoring protein folding in the model metazoan organism Caenorhabditis elegans. In our laboratory, we combine behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical approaches using temperature-sensitive or naturally occurring metastable proteins as sensors of the folding environment to monitor protein misfolding. Behavioral assays that are associated with the misfolding of a specific protein provide a simple and powerful readout for protein folding, allowing for the fast screening of genes and conditions that modulate folding. Likewise, such misfolding can be associated with protein mislocalization in the cell. Monitoring protein localization can, therefore, highlight changes in cellular folding capacity occurring in different tissues, at various stages of development and in the face of changing conditions. Finally, using biochemical tools ex vivo, we can directly monitor protein stability and conformation. Thus, by combining behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical techniques, we are able to monitor protein misfolding at the resolution of the organism, the cell, and the protein, respectively.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

To study the relationship between protein homeostasis, stress and aging, we monitored changes in protein folding by following protein dysfunction, protein localization in the cell and protein stability at the organismal, cellular and protein levels, using the genetically tractable metazoan Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system.

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

הקרנה ירוקה פלורסנט מבוסס חלבון ביטוי של החלבונים ממברנה ב<em&gt; Coli Escherichia</em

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...

Detection of Intracellular Gene Expression in Live Cells of Murine, Human and Porcine Origin Using Fluorescence-labeled Nanoparticles

The reprogramming of somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) has successfully been performed in different mammalian species including mouse, rat, human, pig and others. The verification of iPS clones mainly relies on the detection of the endogenous expression of different pluripotency genes. These genes mostly represent transcription factors which are located in the cell nucleus. Traditionally, the proof of their endogenous expression is supplied by immunohistochemical staining after fixation of the cells. This approach requires replicate cultures of each clone at this early stage to preserve validated clones for further experiments. The present protocol describes an approach with gene-specific nanoparticles which allows the evaluation of intracellular gene expression directly in live cells by fluorescence. The nanoparticles consist of a central gold particle coupled to a capture strand carrying a sequence complementary to the target mRNA as well as a quenched reporter strand. These nanoparticles are actively endocytosed and the target mRNA displaces the reporter strand which then start to fluoresce. Therefore, specific target gene expression can be detected directly under the microscope. In addition, the emitted fluorescence allows the identification, isolation and enrichment of cells expressing a specific gene by flow cytometry. This method can be applied directly to live cells in culture without any manipulation of the target cells.

This manuscript describes a novel technique which allows the detection of intracellular gene expression after endocytosis of fluorescence-labeled nanoparticles directly in live cells. The method does not require manipulation of the cells and is not restricted with respect to the target gene or species.

זיהוי של ביטוי גנים בתאים תאיים חיים של Murine, אדם וחזירי מקור באמצעות חלקיקים שכותרתו פלואורסצנטי

The reprogramming of somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) has successfully been performed in different mammalian species including mouse, ...