The author thanks R. Boss, A. Cosandey, C. Fournier, I. Ivanovic, and J. Naskova for their excellent work.

1. Staphylococcus aureus isolati <ol><li> Distribuire 10 ml di S. aureus magazzino cultura o di una colonia coltivate su un terreno selettivo su piastre di agar Columbia contenenti il 5% di sangue di pecora (BA). </li><li> Incubare in aerobiosi a 37 ° C per 18 ore a 24 ore. </li></ol> 2. DNA Extraction <ol><li> Preparare tampone TEL contenente 10 mM Tris-HCl e 10 mm Na 2 EDTA, pH 8,5. Preparare aliquote e autoclave a 121 ° C per 15 min. </li><li> Raccogliere 1 colonia da BA utilizzando un&#39;ansa sterile di plastica o una sterile stuzzicadenti in legno e risospendere in 100 microlitri TEL. Utilizzare provette da 1,5 ml con tappo a vite. </li><li> Incubare a 95 ° C per 10 min. Successivamente, posizionare i campioni immediatamente in ghiaccio. </li><li> Diluire i campioni 1: 100 in H 2 O adatto per PCR (= DNA stampo per PCR). I campioni non diluiti e diluiti possono essere conservati a -20 ° C per 1 mese. </li></ol> 3. RS-PCR <ol><li&gt; Per ogni pipetta campione in un tubo di PCR da 1,5 ml H 2 O, 12,5 ml Taq Master Mix, 2 microlitri G1 Primer 10 micron, 2 microlitri L1 Primer 10 micron, e 7 ml di stampo di DNA che corrisponde a circa 30 ng di puro DNA 2. </li><li> Eseguire il programma di ciclo in un cycler PCR standard: 15 min 95 ° C, seguita da 27 cicli comprendenti 94 ° C per 1 min, seguiti da 2 min rampa e ricottura a 55 ° C per 7 minuti. Dopo ulteriori 2 min rampa, estendersi a 72 ° C per 2 min. Terminare PCR da una estensione finale a 72 ° C per 10 minuti seguito da raffreddamento a 4 ° C. NOTA: I prodotti di PCR possono essere conservati a -20 ° C per 5 giorni. </li><li> Per ciascuna serie di RS-PCR include un controllo positivo, cioè, un campione con un genotipo noto (normalmente GTB), e un controllo negativo (H 2 O). </li></ol> 4. elettroforesi <ol><li> Utilizzare un kit commerciale elettroforesi miniaturizzato per il DNA (corredo MED) insiemecon un Bioanalyzer collegato ad un PC e il software installato. Studiare i corrispondenti manuali del costruttore con attenzione. </li><li> Impostare la stazione di adescamento di chip e regolare la clip della siringa secondo il manuale del costruttore. </li><li> Preparare la miscela gel-colorante secondo il manuale del costruttore. </li><li> Caricamento il mix di gel-dye (secondo il manuale del costruttore). <ol><li> Equilibrare la miscela gel-colorante per RT per 30 minuti prima dell&#39;uso. </li><li> Mettere nuovo chip di DNA sulla stazione di chip di adescamento. Pipettare 9 ml di gel-colorante nel ben segnalata G. </li><li> Assicurarsi che il pistone è posizionato a 1 ml e quindi chiudere la stazione di chip di adescamento. Premere il pistone fino a quando non è detenuto dal clip di siringa. Attendere esattamente per 30 secondi, quindi rilasciare la clip siringa. </li><li> Attendere 5 sec. Lentamente tirare indietro lo stantuffo per 1 ml di posizione. </li><li> Aperto chip di stazione di adescamento e pipetta 9 ml di gel-dye in entrambi i pozzetti contrassegnati &#39;G&#39;. </li></ol></li><li> Caricamento del MArker <ol><li> Pipetta da 5 ml di marcatore in tutti i 12 pozzetti dei campioni e nella scala bene. Non lasciare nessuno di questi 13 pozzi vuoti. </li></ol></li><li> Caricamento della Scala ei campioni. <ol><li> Pipettare 1 ml di scala del DNA per il ben marcata con il segno scala. </li><li> Pipettare 1 ml di campione (pozzi utilizzati) o 1 ml di acqua deionizzata (pozzetti non utilizzati). </li><li> Mettere il chip orizzontalmente nel adattatore e vortex per 1 min a 2400 rpm. </li><li> Eseguire il chip nel bioanalizzatore entro 5 minuti. </li></ol></li><li> Esecuzione dell&#39;analisi <ol><li> Avviare il Bioanalyzer e il computer collegato. Aprire il software. </li><li> Aprire il coperchio del bioanalizzatore e posizionare il chip nel supporto del circuito integrato (chip adatta solo modo). Chiudere con cura il coperchio. </li><li> Nel contesto Instrument del software selezionare &quot;Elettroforesi&quot;&gt; &quot;dsDNA&quot;&gt; &quot;DNA 7500&quot;. Accetta l&#39;attuale prefisso file del software o modificarlo.</li><li> Fare clic sul pulsante di avvio presente nel software. Immettere i nomi dei campioni nel software. Quando la corsa di chip è terminato (dopo circa 30 min) alla fine del messaggio Run appare nel software bioanalizzatore. </li><li> Rimuovere il chip e pulire gli elettrodi del bioanalizzatore secondo le istruzioni del produttore. </li></ol></li></ol> 5. Inferenza il genotipo dal profilo elettroforesi <ol><li> Caricare il software Mahal (il software è liberamente disponibile presso gli autori). </li><li> i dati di riferimento delle importazioni nel software Mahal: &quot;File&quot;&gt; &quot;Importa dati di riferimento&quot; </li><li> Aprire il elettroforesi eseguito nel contesto dei dati del software bioanalizzatore. Selezionare un profilo elettroforesi di un campione. </li><li> Controllare i picchi rilevanti. <ol><li> Utilizzare il software Mahal per controllare i picchi rilevanti: &quot;Strumenti&quot;&gt; &quot;Media di Fluorescenza&quot;. Inserire nella casella &quot;fluorescenza&quot;i valori di fluorescenza indicati come unità di fluorescenza (FU) in quanto possono essere letti dal software bioanalizzatore. Inserire i 4 (3) picchi con la massima fluorescenza in ordine crescente e separati da virgole. Esempio: 126.130.132.137. Nota: se non tutti questi picchi FU sono indicati dal software Bioanalyzer, hanno bisogno di essere stimato da loro lettura dalla trama. </li></ol></li><li> Premere il pulsante &quot;Calcola&quot;. Un picco è rilevante se la fluorescenza osservato supera il valore indicato nella casella &quot;picco altezza minima&quot;. </li><li> Dedurre il genotipo. <ol><li> Inserire nella casella di testo Mahal &quot;picchi di ingresso (bp)&quot; le dimensioni in bp di tutti i picchi rilevanti in ordine crescente e separati da virgole. Esempio: 440.462.519.579.637. Nota: se non tutti questi formati di punta sono indicati dal software Bioanalyzer, hanno bisogno di essere stimato da loro lettura dalla trama. </li></ol></li><li> Premere il pulsante &quot;Calcola&quot;. </li><li> Nell&#39;elencobox, cercare il minimo quadrato di Mahalanobis distanza &quot;D2M&quot;. Se il corrispondente valore P destra esso è ≥0.05 allora la probabilità è ≥5% che l&#39;ipotesi nulla H 0 è rifiutata (H 0: l&#39;osservato e il profilo di riferimento sono identici) significa che il profilo osservato è accettato di essere identico al il profilo di riferimento del genotipo indicato. </li><li> Se D2M è minimo ma il campo del valore P corrispondente è vuota, rifiutare H 0 con probabilità &lt;5%. NOTA: Ciò significa che i profili sono disuguali sebbene D2M è minima. Tale risultato può derivare da condizioni non medie elettroforesi. <ol><li> Per correggere queste deviazioni, inserire nella casella di testo &quot;Osservato Peak (bp)&quot; il valore 395 e premere il pulsante &quot;Calcola&quot;. Controllare nuovamente per D2M minimo e un corrispondente valore di P ≥0.05. Se non con successo, provare i valori 405, 415, e 425. Nota: A volte piccoli passi sono ancoraindicato. Se ancora non riesce, il profilo osservato non è presente nei dati di riferimento, può essere un nuovo genotipo o variante. </li></ol></li><li> vari profili <ol><li> Ripetere i passaggi 5,6-5,9 per ogni profilo elettroforesi separatamente. </li></ol></li></ol>

<ol>
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K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Management+and+treatment+of+staphylococcal+mastitis.">Management and treatment of staphylococcal mastitis.</a> Vet.Clin.North Am.Food Anim.Pract. 19 (1), 171-185 (2003).</li><li>Fournier, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bovine+Staphylococcus+aureus:+association+of+virulence+genes,+genotypes+and+clinical+outcome.">Bovine Staphylococcus aureus: association of virulence genes, genotypes and clinical outcome.</a> Res.Vet.Sci. 85 (3), 439-448 (2008).</li><li>Cosandey, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staphylococcus+aureus+genotype+B+and+other+genotypes+isolated+from+cow+milk+in+European+countries.">Staphylococcus aureus genotype B and other genotypes isolated from cow milk in European countries.</a> J.Dairy Sci. 99 (1), 529-540 (2016).</li><li>Boss, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bovine+Staphylococcus+aureus:+Subtyping,+evolution,+and+zoonotic+transfer.">Bovine Staphylococcus aureus: Subtyping, evolution, and zoonotic transfer.</a> J.Dairy Sci. 99 (1), 515-528 (2016).</li><li>Graber, H. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mastitis-related+subtypes+of+bovine+Staphylococcus+aureus+are+characterized+by+different+clinical+properties.">Mastitis-related subtypes of bovine Staphylococcus aureus are characterized by different clinical properties.</a> J.Dairy Sci. 92 (4), 1442-1451 (2009).</li><li>Heiniger, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse+einer+Intervention+zur+Verbesserung+der+Eutergesundheit+in+Schweizer+Milchviehbetrieben.">Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse einer Intervention zur Verbesserung der Eutergesundheit in Schweizer Milchviehbetrieben.</a> Schweiz.Arch.Tierheilkd. 156 (10), 473-481 (2014).</li><li>Hamann, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Definition+of+the+physiological+cell+count+threshold+based+on+changes+in+milk+composition.">Definition of the physiological cell count threshold based on changes in milk composition.</a> IDF Mastitis Newsletter. 25, 9-12 (2003).</li><li>Hwang, S. Y., Park, Y. K., Koo, H. C., Park, Y. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=spa+typing+and+enterotoxin+gene+profile+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+isolated+from+bovine+raw+milk+in+Korea.">spa typing and enterotoxin gene profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine raw milk in Korea.</a> J.Vet.Sci. 11 (2), 125-131 (2010).</li><li>Sakwinska, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Link+between+genotype+and+antimicrobial+resistance+in+bovine+mastitis-related+Staphylococcus+aureus+strains,+determined+by+comparing+Swiss+and+French+isolates+from+the+Rhone+Valley.">Link between genotype and antimicrobial resistance in bovine mastitis-related Staphylococcus aureus strains, determined by comparing Swiss and French isolates from the Rhone Valley.</a> Appl.Environ.Microbiol. 77 (10), 3428-3432 (2011).</li><li>Rabello, R. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multilocus+sequence+typing+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+isolates+recovered+from+cows+with+mastitis+in+Brazilian+dairy+herds.">Multilocus sequence typing of Staphylococcus aureus isolates recovered from cows with mastitis in Brazilian dairy herds.</a> J.Med.Microbiol. 56, 1505-1511 (2007).</li><li>Tavakol, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bovine-associated+MRSA+ST398+in+the+Netherlands.">Bovine-associated MRSA ST398 in the Netherlands.</a> Acta Vet.Scand. 54, 28 (2012).</li><li>Harmsen, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Typing+of+methicillin-resistant+Staphylococcus+aureus+in+a+university+hospital+setting+by+using+novel+software+for+spa+repeat+determination+and+database+management.">Typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a university hospital setting by using novel software for spa repeat determination and database management.</a> J.Clin.Microbiol. 41 (12), 5442-5448 (2003).</li><li>Zadoks, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+pulsed-field+gel+electrophoresis+and+binary+typing+as+tools+in+veterinary+clinical+microbiology+and+molecular+epidemiologic+analysis+of+bovine+and+human+Staphylococcus+aureus+isolates.">Application of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and binary typing as tools in veterinary clinical microbiology and molecular epidemiologic analysis of bovine and human Staphylococcus aureus isolates.</a> J.Clin.Microbiol. 38 (5), 1931-1939 (2000).</li><li>Cremonesi, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+characteristics+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+strains+associated+with+high+within-herd+prevalence+of+intramammary+infections+in+dairy+cows.">Genomic characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus strains associated with high within-herd prevalence of intramammary infections in dairy cows.</a> J.Dairy Sci. 98 (10), 6828-6838 (2015).</li><li>Enright, M. C., Day, N. P., Davies, C. E., Peacock, S. J., Spratt, B. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multilocus+sequence+typing+for+characterization+of+methicillin-resistant+and+methicillin-susceptible+clones+of+Staphylococcus+aureus.">Multilocus sequence typing for characterization of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible clones of Staphylococcus aureus.</a> J.Clin.Microbiol. 38 (3), 1008-1015 (2000).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

La fase più critica dell&#39;intero procedimento è quando vi è un eccesso di DNA in RS-PCR (&gt; 30 ng puro DNA / dosaggio) 2. In generale, la risoluzione di un profilo è ottimale se tutti i suoi picchi di inizio e fine al basale. Se due picchi sono troppo vicini tra loro, la risoluzione è incompleta. In queste condizioni, il software bioanalizzatore può portare a contenuti picco di identificazione in modo che sia necessaria l&#39;identificazione manuale. Tutte le cime visib...

Staphylococcus (S. aureus) è noto come il patogeno più importante a livello mondiale responsabile dell&#39;infezione intramammaria (IMI) nei bovini 1. Lo studio di Fournier et al. 2 dimostrato in Mucche svizzere e gli studi da Cosandey et al. 3 e Boss et al. 4 in vacche di 12 paesi europei che S. aureus isolato da bovini IMI è un gruppo geneticamente eterogeneo. Con PCR amplificazione della regione intergenico distanziale 16S-23S rRNA (RS-PCR), per un totale di 17 genotipi sono stati inizialmente rilevati in 101 isolati epidemiologico indipendenti 2. Il genotipo B e C genotipo (CG) sono stati più comune (80%), mentre gli altri 15 genotipi (GTS) si sono verificati raramente, ogni rendendo 1-4% di tutti gli isolati. A livello europeo 3, GTB, GTC, GTF, GTI e GTR sono stati i genotipi più importanti che compongono il 76% di tutti i ceppi analizzati (n = 456). GTB era situato nell&#39;Europa centrale wconsiderando che gli altri genotipi sono stati ampiamente diffusi. Il restante 24% dei ceppi inclusi 41 genotipi, molti dei quali, tuttavia, sono stati osservati solo una volta. Gli studi di Fournier et al. 2, Cosandey et al. 3, e Graber et al. 5 inoltre dimostrato che i genotipi erano altamente associati con il loro modello gene di virulenza, come pure alla Svizzera come a livello europeo. Gli studi hanno rivelato ulteriori enormi differenze nella prevalenza tra IMI S. aureus GTB, GTC e gli altri genotipi 2,5: considerando GTB, fino al 87% di mucche di un allevamento sono stati infettati da questo genotipo. Nel caso di GTC e degli altri genotipi, tuttavia, IMI è stato trovato solo in 1 a 2 mucche di una mandria. IMI causata da S. aureus, normalmente si traduce in infiammazione dei corrispondenti ghiandole mammarie e un aumento di cellule infiammatorie nel latte. Di conseguenza, il somatico co celluleUNTS nel latte (SCC), l&#39;indicatore chiave della qualità del latte nella maggior parte dei paesi, è aumentato portando ad un prezzo del latte è diminuito o addirittura fermare la consegna. Oltre alla RS-PCR di Fournier et al. 2, altri metodi di tipizzazione sono stati descritti per sottotipizzazione ceppi bovini di S. aureus 8-11. Due più comuni includono spa digitazione 12 e Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) 13. Il primo è basato sul DNA sequenziamento della regione distanziale variabile del gene che codifica per la proteina spa stafilococco A, mentre il secondo si richiede il sequenziamento dei geni housekeeping 7. Ciò significa che uno 12 e sette PCR 13, rispettivamente, devono essere eseguite, seguita da purificazione amplicone, reazione di sequenziamento e l&#39;analisi utilizzando apparecchiature specifiche. Rispetto a RS-PCR, questi metodi richiedono un notevole sforzo supplementare in laboratorio con un conseguente rendimento partire campione e costi elevati. Ilil throughput è particolarmente basso per PFGE. Considerando la risoluzione di questi metodi per i ceppi bovini di S. aureus, RS-PCR è almeno altrettanto buono come spa digitando 4 e meglio di MLST 4 o PFGE 15. Tutti questi metodi, tra cui la tipizzazione binario 13 hanno dimostrato la loro efficacia per ottenere una visione più completa della patogenesi di bovini IMI causata da S. aureus, ma a causa delle restrizioni di cui essi sono meno adatti per le grandi indagini cliniche. Inoltre, la genotipizzazione da RS-PCR come descritto da Fournier et al. 2 permette la previsione affidabile del epidemiologica e il potenziale patogeno di S. aureus coinvolto in IMI bovina, due valori fondamentali in medicina veterinaria clinica.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="616">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tris(hydroxymethyl)-aminomethan</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1.08382.0500</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Mw =121.14g/mol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Titriplex III</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1.08418.0250</td>
			<td>Mw = 372.24g/mol; Substance is equivalent to Na2EDTA&#183;2H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Hydrochloric acid 5mol/l</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1.09911.0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Columbia agar+5% sheep blood</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">bioM&#233;rieux</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">43049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Agilent DNA7500 Kit</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">5067-1504</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G2940CA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Agilent 2100 expert sofware</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">HotStarTaq master mix&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">203445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Primer L1</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Mycrosinth</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>5&#39;CAA GGC ATC CAC CGT3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Primer G1</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Mycrosinth</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>5&#39;GAA GTC GTA ACA AGG3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

genotyping of staphylococcus aureus by ribosomal spacer pcr (rs-pcr)

The ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is a highly resolving and robust genotyping method for S. aureus that allows a high throughput at moderate costs and is, therefore, suitable to be used for routine purposes. For best resolution, data evaluation and data management, a miniaturized electrophoresis system is required. Together with such an electrophoresis system and the in-house developed software (freely available here) assignment of the pattern of bands to a genotype is standardized and straight forward. DNA extraction is simple (boiling prep), setting-up of the reactions is easy and they can be run on any standard PCR machine. PCR cycling is common except prolonged ramping and elongation times. Compared to spa typing and Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), RS-PCR does not require DNA sequencing what simplifies the analysis considerably and allows a high throughput. Furthermore, the resolution for bovine strains of S. aureus is at least as good as spa typing and better than MLST or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The RS-PCR data base includes presently a total of 141 genotypes and variants. The method is highly associated with the virulence gene pattern, contagiosity and pathogenicity of S. aureus strains involved in bovine mastitis. S. aureus genotype B (GTB) is contagious and causes herds problems causing large costs in the Switzerland and other European countries. All the other genotypes observed in Switzerland infect individual cows and quarters. Genotyping by RS-PCR allows the reliable prediction of the epidemiological and the pathogenic potential of S. aureus involved in bovine intramammary infection (IMI), two key factors for clinical veterinary medicine. Because of these beneficial properties together with moderate costs and a high sample throughput the goal of this publication is to give a detailed, step-by-step protocol for easily establishing and running RS-PCR for genotyping S. aureus in other laboratories.

Definizione di un genotipo e le sue varianti Un profilo elettroforetico differiscono in più di una banda da tutti i genotipi identificati è considerato come un nuovo genotipo. I nuovi genotipi sono chiamati ed estese in base alle Fournier et al. 5 che conduce ai genotipi GTA per GTZ, seguiti dai genotipi GTAA a GTAZ, e GTBA a GTBZ, e GTCA a CGT attualmente. Variazione solo una banda è considerata una var...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR RS-PCR at JoVE.com

Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR RS-PCR

Here, ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is used together with a miniaturized electrophoresis system as a fast and high resolution method for genotyping S. aureus at moderate costs allowing a high throughput.

La genotipizzazione di<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em&gt; Per ribosomiale Spacer PCR (RS-PCR)

The ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is a highly resolving and robust genotyping method for S. aureus that allows a high throughput at moderate costs and is, ...

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Immunology and Infection

Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR (RS-PCR)

9.5K Views.  Agroscope. Here, ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is used together with a miniaturized electrophoresis system as a fast and high resolution method for genotyping S. aureus at moderate costs allowing a high throughput.

Video: Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR RS-PCR

The Use of Drip Flow and Rotating Disk Reactors for Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm Analysis

Most microbes in nature are thought to exist as surface-associated communities in biofilms.1 Bacterial biofilms are encased within a matrix and attached to a surface.2 Biofilm formation and development are commonly studied in the laboratory using batch systems such as microtiter plates or flow systems, such as flow-cells. These methodologies are useful for screening mutant and chemical libraries (microtiter plates)3 or growing biofilms for visualization (flow cells)4. Here we present detailed protocols for growing Staphylococcus aureus in two additional types of flow system biofilms: the drip flow biofilm reactor and the rotating disk biofilm reactor.
Drip flow biofilm reactors are designed for the study of biofilms grown under low shear conditions.5 The drip flow reactor consists of four parallel test channels, each capable of holding one standard glass microscope slide sized coupon, or a length of catheter or stint. The drip flow reactor is ideal for microsensor monitoring, general biofilm studies, biofilm cryosectioning samples, high biomass production, medical material evaluations, and indwelling medical device testing.6,7,8,9
The rotating disk reactor consists of a teflon disk containing recesses for removable coupons.10 The removable coupons can by made from any machinable material. The bottom of the rotating disk contains a bar magnet to allow disk rotation to create liquid surface shear across surface-flush coupons. The entire disk containing 18 coupons is placed in a 1000 mL glass side-arm reactor vessel. A liquid growth media is circulated through the vessel while the disk is rotated by a magnetic stirrer. The coupons are removed from the reactor vessel and then scraped to collect the biofilm sample for further study or microscopy imaging. Rotating disc reactors are designed for laboratory evaluations of biocide efficacy, biofilm removal, and performance of anti-fouling materials.9,11,12,13

The Use of Drip Flow and Rotating Disk Reactors for Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm Analysis

Protocols for utilizing open system flow biofilms with drip flow reactors and rotating disk reactors are presented in detail.

L&#39;uso del flusso gocciolamento e Reattori disco rotante per Staphylococcus aureus Analisi Biofilm

Most microbes in nature are thought to exist as surface-associated communities in biofilms.1  Bacterial biofilms are encased within a matrix and attached ...

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Immunologia e infezioni

Subcutaneous Infection of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA)

MRSA is a worldwide threat to public health, and MRSA skin and soft-tissue infections now account for more than half of all soft-tissue infections in the United States. Among soft-tissue infections, myositis, pyomyositis, and necrotizing fasciitis have been increasingly reported in association with MRSA arising from the community. To understand the interplay between MRSA and host immunity leading to more severe infection, the availability of animal models is critical, permitting the study of host and bacterial factors. Several infection models have been introduced to assess the pathogenesis of S. aureus during superficial skin infection. Here, we describe a subcutaneous infection model that examines the skin, subcutaneous, and muscle pathologies.

Subcutaneous Infection of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus MRSA

Murine skin and soft tissue infection model is utilized for assessing the virulence function of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the host immunological responses. Here, we presented a subcutaneous infection model for skin and soft tissue infection.

Sottocutaneo infezione di Staphylococcus aureus meticillino resistente (MRSA)

MRSA is a worldwide threat to public health, and MRSA skin and soft-tissue infections now account for more than half of all soft-tissue infections in the ...

Experimental Endocarditis Model of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Rat

Endovascular infections, including endocarditis, are life-threatening infectious syndromes1-3. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common world-wide cause of such syndromes with unacceptably high morbidity and mortality even with appropriate antimicrobial agent treatments4-6. The increase in infections due to methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), the high rates of vancomycin clinical treatment failures and growing problems of linezolid and daptomycin resistance have all further complicated the management of patients with such infections, and led to high healthcare costs7, 8. In addition, it should be emphasized that most recent studies with antibiotic treatment outcomes have been based in clinical settings, and thus might well be influenced by host factors varying from patient-to-patient. Therefore, a relevant animal model of endovascular infection in which host factors are similar from animal-to-animal is more crucial to investigate microbial pathogenesis, as well as the efficacy of novel antimicrobial agents. Endocarditis in rat is a well-established experimental animal model that closely approximates human native valve endocarditis. This model has been used to examine the role of particular staphylococcal virulence factors and the efficacy of antibiotic treatment regimens for staphylococcal endocarditis. In this report, we describe the experimental endocarditis model due to MRSA that could be used to investigate bacterial pathogenesis and response to antibiotic treatment.

Experimental Endocarditis Model of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA in Rat

Experimental rat endocarditis model due to methicillin-resistant S. aureus.

Endocardite modello sperimentale di meticillino resistente<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em&gt; (MRSA) in Rat

Endovascular infections, including endocarditis, are life-threatening infectious syndromes1-3. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common world-wide cause ...

Staphylococcus aureus Growth using Human Hemoglobin as an Iron Source

S. aureus is a pathogenic bacterium that requires iron to carry out vital metabolic functions and cause disease. The most abundant reservoir of iron inside the human host is heme, which is the cofactor of hemoglobin. To acquire iron from hemoglobin, S. aureus utilizes an elaborate system known as the iron-regulated surface determinant (Isd) system1. Components of the Isd system first bind host hemoglobin, then extract and import heme, and finally liberate iron from heme in the bacterial cytoplasm2,3. This pathway has been dissected through numerous in vitro studies4-9. Further, the contribution of the Isd system to infection has been repeatedly demonstrated in mouse models8,10-14. Establishing the contribution of the Isd system to hemoglobin-derived iron acquisition and growth has proven to be more challenging. Growth assays using hemoglobin as a sole iron source are complicated by the instability of commercially available hemoglobin, contaminating free iron in the growth medium, and toxicity associated with iron chelators. Here we present a method that overcomes these limitations. High quality hemoglobin is prepared from fresh blood and is stored in liquid nitrogen. Purified hemoglobin is supplemented into iron-deplete medium mimicking the iron-poor environment encountered by pathogens inside the vertebrate host. By starving S. aureus of free iron and supplementing with a minimally manipulated form of hemoglobin we induce growth in a manner that is entirely dependent on the ability to bind hemoglobin, extract heme, pass heme through the bacterial cell envelope and degrade heme in the cytoplasm. This assay will be useful for researchers seeking to elucidate the mechanisms of hemoglobin-/heme-derived iron acquisition in S. aureus and possibly other bacterial pathogens.

Staphylococcus aureus Growth using Human Hemoglobin as an Iron Source

Here we describe a growth assay for Staphylococcus aureus using hemoglobin as the sole source of available nutrient iron. This assay establishes the role of bacterial factors involved in hemoglobin-derived iron acquisition.

Staphylococcus aureus crescita con emoglobina umana come fonte di ferro

S. aureus is a pathogenic bacterium that requires iron to  carry out vital metabolic functions and cause disease. The most abundant  reservoir of iron ...

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing is a very important molecular tool for understanding the epidemiology and clonal strain relatedness of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), particularly with the emerging outbreaks of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) occurring on a worldwide basis. Traditional PCR typing schemes classify SCCmec by targeting and identifying the individual mec and ccr gene complex types, but require the use of many primer sets and multiple individual PCR experiments. We designed and published a simple multiplex PCR assay for quick-screening of major SCCmec types and subtypes I to V, and later updated it as new sequence information became available. This simple assay targets individual SCCmec types in a single reaction, is easy to interpret and has been extensively used worldwide. However, due to the sophisticated nature of the assay and the large number of primers present in the reaction, there is the potential for difficulties while adapting this assay to individual laboratories. To facilitate the process of establishing a MRSA SCCmec assay, here we demonstrate how to set up our multiplex PCR assay, and discuss some of the vital steps and procedural nuances that make it successful.

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

We demonstrate a simple multiplex PCR assay for quick-screening and typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) types I-V for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and provide some of the vital steps and procedural nuances that make it successful for adapting this assay to individual laboratories.

Multiplex PCR per la tipizzazione di stafilococco cassette cromosomiche Mec Tipi I a V, resistente alla meticillina<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em

Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing  is a very important molecular tool for understanding the epidemiology and  clonal strain ...

Studying Interactions of Staphylococcus aureus with Neutrophils by Flow Cytometry and Time Lapse Microscopy

We present methods to study the effect of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) and other toxins produced and secreted by Staphylococcus aureus on neutrophils. To study the effects of the PSMs on neutrophils we isolate fresh neutrophils using density gradient centrifugation. These neutrophils are loaded with a dye that fluoresces upon calcium mobilization. The activation of neutrophils by PSMs initiates a rapid and transient increase in the free intracellular calcium concentration. In a flow cytometry experiment this rapid mobilization can be measured by monitoring the fluorescence of a pre-loaded dye that reacts to the increased concentration of free Ca2+. Using this method we can determine the PSM concentration necessary to activate the neutrophil, and measure the effects of specific and general inhibitors of the neutrophil activation.	
	To investigate the expression of the PSMs in the intracellular space, we have constructed reporter fusions of the promoter of the PSM&alpha; operon to GFP. When these reporter strains of S. aureus are phagocytosed by neutrophils, the induction of expression can be observed using fluorescence microscopy.

Studying Interactions of Staphylococcus aureus with Neutrophils by Flow Cytometry and Time Lapse Microscopy

We present methods to study the effect of PSMs and other toxins secreted by Staphylococcus aureus on neutrophils using flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy.

Lo studio delle interazioni di<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em&gt; Con neutrofili mediante citometria a flusso e Time Lapse Microscopy

We present methods to study the effect of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs)  and other toxins produced and secreted by Staphylococcus  aureus on neutrophils. ...

Targeting Biofilm Associated Staphylococcus aureus Using Resazurin Based Drug-susceptibility Assay

Most pathogenic bacteria are able to form biofilms during infection, but due to the difficulty of manipulating and assessing biofilms, the vast majority of laboratory work is conducted with planktonic cells. Here, we describe a peg plate biofilm assay as performed with Staphylococcus aureus. Bacterial biofilms are grown on pegs attached to a 96-well microtiter plate lid, washed through gentle submersion in buffer, and placed in a drug challenge plate. After subsequent incubation they are again washed and moved to a final recovery plate, in which the fluorescent dye resazurin serves as a viability indicator. This assay offers greatly increased ease-of-use, reliability, and reproducibility, as well as a wealth of data when conducted as a kinetic read. Moreover, this assay can be adapted to a medium-throughput drug screening approach by which an endpoint fluorescent readout is taken instead, offering a path for drug discovery efforts.

Targeting Biofilm Associated Staphylococcus aureus Using Resazurin Based Drug-susceptibility Assay

Most bacterial infections produce a biofilm. By virtue of their environment, biofilm associated bacteria are often phenotypically drug resistant. Novel antibacterial molecules that kill bacteria in biofilms are thus a high priority. We establish an assay to quickly screen for antimicrobial compounds that are effective at eradicating biofilms.

Targeting biofilm Associated<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em&gt; Uso resazurina base Assay farmaco-sensibilità

Most pathogenic bacteria are able to form biofilms during infection, but due to the difficulty of manipulating and assessing biofilms, the vast majority ...

High-throughput Detection of Respiratory Pathogens in Animal Specimens by Nanoscale PCR

Nanoliter scale real-time PCR uses spatial multiplexing to allow multiple assays to be run in parallel on a single plate without the typical drawbacks of combining reactions together. We designed and evaluated a panel based on this principle to rapidly identify the presence of common disease agents in dogs and horses with acute respiratory illness. This manuscript describes a nanoscale diagnostic PCR workflow for sample preparation, amplification, and analysis of target pathogen sequences, focusing on procedures that are different from microliter scale reactions. In the respiratory panel presented, 18 assays were each set up in triplicate, accommodating up to 48 samples per plate. A universal extraction and pre-amplification workflow was optimized for high-throughput sample preparation to accommodate multiple matrices and DNA and RNA based pathogens. Representative data are presented for one RNA target (influenza A matrix) and one DNA target (equine herpesvirus 1). The ability to quickly and accurately test for a comprehensive, syndrome-based group of pathogens is a valuable tool for improving efficiency and ergonomics of diagnostic testing and for acute respiratory disease diagnosis and management.

High-throughput testing of DNA and RNA based pathogens by nanoscale PCR is described using a syndromic canine and equine respiratory PCR panel.

Detection High-throughput respiratorie patogeni nei campioni animali da Nanoscale PCR

Nanoliter scale real-time PCR uses spatial multiplexing to allow multiple assays to be run in parallel on a single plate without the typical drawbacks of ...

Methodology for the Study of Horizontal Gene Transfer in Staphylococcus aureus

One important feature of the major opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is its extraordinary ability to rapidly acquire resistance to antibiotics. Genomic studies reveal that S. aureus carries many virulence and resistance genes located in mobile genetic elements, suggesting that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) plays a critical role in S. aureus evolution. However, a full and detailed description of the methodology used to study HGT in S. aureus is still lacking, especially regarding natural transformation, which has been recently reported in this bacterium. This work describes three protocols that are useful for the in vitro investigation of HGT in S. aureus: conjugation, phage transduction, and natural transformation. To this aim, the cfr gene (chloramphenicol/florfenicol resistance), which confers the Phenicols, Lincosamides, Oxazolidinones, Pleuromutilins, and Streptogramin A (PhLOPSA)-resistance phenotype, was used. Understanding the mechanisms through which S. aureus transfers genetic materials to other strains is essential to comprehending the rapid acquisition of resistance and helps to clarify the modes of dissemination reported in surveillance programs or to further predict the spreading mode in the future.

Methodology for the Study of Horizontal Gene Transfer in Staphylococcus aureus

We describe here three different protocols for the in vitro investigation of conjugation, transduction, and natural transformation in Staphylococcus aureus.

Metodologia per lo studio del orizzontale Gene Transfer in<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em

One important feature of the major opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is its extraordinary ability to rapidly acquire resistance to ...

A Mouse Model to Assess Innate Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus Infection

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)&#160;infections, including methicillin resistant stains, are an enormous burden on the healthcare system. With incidence rates of S. aureus infection climbing annually, there is a demand for additional research in its&#160;pathogenicity. Animal models of infectious disease advance our understanding of the host-pathogen response and lead to the development of effective therapeutics. Neutrophils play a primary role in the innate immune response that controls S. aureus infections by forming an abscess to wall off the infection and facilitate bacterial clearance; the number of neutrophils that infiltrate an S. aureus skin infection often correlates with disease outcome. LysM-EGFP mice, which possess the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) inserted in the Lysozyme M (LysM) promoter region (expressed primarily by neutrophils), when used in conjunction with in vivo whole animal fluorescence imaging (FLI) provide&#160;a means of quantifying neutrophil emigration noninvasively and longitudinally into wounded skin. When combined with a bioluminescent S. aureus strain and sequential in vivo whole animal bioluminescent imaging (BLI), it is possible to longitudinally monitor both the neutrophil recruitment dynamics and in vivo bacterial burden at the site of infection in anesthetized mice from onset of infection to resolution or death. Mice are more resistant to a number of virulence factors produced by S. aureus that facilitate effective colonization and infection in humans. Immunodeficient mice provide a more sensitive animal model to examine persistent S. aureus infections and the ability of therapeutics to boost innate immune responses. Herein, we characterize responses in LysM-EGFP mice that have been bred to MyD88-deficient mice (LysM-EGFP&#215;MyD88-/- mice) along with wild-type LysM-EGFP mice to investigate S. aureus skin wound infection. Multispectral simultaneous detection enabled study of neutrophil recruitment dynamics by using in vivo FLI, bacterial burden by using in vivo BLI, and wound healing longitudinally and noninvasively over time.

A Mouse Model to Assess Innate Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus Infection

An approach is described for real-time detection of the innate immune response to cutaneous wounding and Staphylococcus aureus infection of mice. By comparing LysM-EGFP mice (which possess fluorescent neutrophils) with a LysM-EGFP crossbred immunodeficient mouse strain, we advance our understanding of infection and the development of approaches to combat infection.

Un modello di topo per valutare risposta immunitaria innata per infezione da Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)&#160;infections, including methicillin resistant stains, are an enormous burden on the healthcare system. With incidence ...