This research was supported by grants from NIBIB 1R01EB024989-01 and NCI 1R01CA190843-01. A. L. and R. R. were supported by an H2H8 Association Graduate Research Fellowship. K. L. C. was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship and a Siebel Scholar Fellowship.

<ol>
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L. L. S holds US patent No. 11,383,241: "Mechano-node-pore sensing", J. Kim, S. Han, and L. L. Sohn, issued July 12, 2022.

Measuring the mechanical properties of single cells using this mechanophenotyping technique consists of three stages: device fabrication, data acquisition, and data analysis. Within each stage, there are notable aspects that may significantly impact the experimental results. During device fabrication, consistent channel geometries and device-to-device uniformity are essential for accurate and repeatable results. Specifically, the sidewalls of each device should be relatively smooth (Figure 4Ai), and the channel heights across replicate devices should be comparable. Any devices with defects that partially obstruct cell flow, particularly in the contraction channel (Figure 4Aii) should be discarded. Using devices with discernable defects in the channel geometry will result in inaccurate and unreproducible results. During data acquisition, it is vital that the user can recognize the presence of a clog in the channel during data collection. An example script, &#34;NPS.m&#34; (available at https://github.com/sohnlab/node-pore-sensing-public), displays current measurements, enabling the user to monitor the channel condition and cell transit events in real time. Pulses characteristic of a clog are shown in&#160;Figure 4B. A clog within the contraction channel that still allows some cells to flow is particularly important to address, as cells will experience increased strain at the location of the obstruction, resulting in inaccurate wCDIs. Finally, during data analysis, users should be diligent in choosing accurate thresholds as inputs for the analysis algorithm. If the thresholds are set too high, the program will not identify events produced by smaller cells, skewing results and misrepresenting the measured cell population.
Beyond these critical stages, there are additional aspects of the protocol that may require adjustment when studying different cell types or conditions. For example, applying this technique to samples that are significantly smaller than those previously studied necessitates narrower contraction channels. Fabricating narrower channels may require more costly fabrication methodologies, such as electron beam lithography38. Additionally, because &#916;I/I ~ &#916;Vcell/&#916;Vcontraction (where Vcell and Vcontraction are the volumes of the deformed cell and channel, respectively), narrower channels result in greater baseline resistances and decreased SNR19. Finally, narrow channels may increase the risk of clogging, making experimental execution more challenging. This particular issue could potentially be mitigated by utilizing more inlet filters.
One limitation of this technique is the static contraction channel, which can only apply a single average strain to a population of cells. In order to compare the deformability of cells with differing sizes, or to investigate a single cell population at different applied strains, multiple devices with varying contraction channel widths must be employed. The platform is also limited by its PDMS walls, which restrict the range of stiffnesses it can measure. For example, some very rigid plant cells are stiffer than the PDMS walls that would be expected to deform them39,40. Furthermore, the pressure required to push such stiff particles through the contraction channel may overcome the strength of the bond between the PDMS and glass slide, leading to delamination. However, one could fabricate microfluidic channels into stiffer materials such as glass or silicon, to thus overcome these limitations. Despite these minor constraints, this platform remains ideal for moderate-throughput mechanical measurement of cells. In comparison to other methodologies, such as optical stretchers or AFM, this technique enables higher throughput. Compared to other moderate- to high-throughput microfluidic technologies, such as RT-DC, this technique is capable of investigating more biophysical properties by measuring both the viscous and elastic properties of single cells. Finally, the simple experimental setup, utilizing inexpensive electronics as opposed to complex optics, makes this technique a highly accessible technology.
Overall, this mechanophenotyping technique holds immense promise as a tool for numerous potential studies and applications. It has previously been applied to a diverse set of cell types, including primary samples, and has shown its effectiveness at measuring the impact of cytoskeletal and nuclear components on cellular viscoelastic properties2,8. Furthermore, because cells remain viable after screening with this platform2, researchers have the opportunity to perform downstream analysis. This platform is also ideal for coupling with upstream microfluidic cell sorting, lending itself to applications such as measuring circulating tumor cells. Looking forward, this platform remains a competitive and versatile tool for multivariable mechanical measurements of single-cells, with applications in understanding cell behavior41, determining disease progression42, and monitoring drug response43. Beyond fundamental scientific research, this technique also holds great promise as a clinical tool, specifically a low-cost, benchtop platform for rapid diagnostic screening. Furthermore, given the low power requirements and minimal need for sample preparation prior to measurement, this technique is particularly well suited for low-resource environments, where accessible diagnostic instruments are sorely needed44.

Single cells are dynamic, viscoelastic materials1. A multitude of internal and external processes, (e.g., onset of mitosis or remodeling of the extracellular matrix [ECM]), influence their structure and composition2,3,4, often resulting in distinct biophysical properties that complement their current state. In particular, mechanical properties have been shown to be important biomarkers of cellular development, physiology, and pathology, yielding valuable quantitative information that can supplement canonical molecular and genetic approaches5,6,7. For example, Li et al. recently described the mechanical differences between drug-resistant and drug-responsive acute promyelocytic leukemia cells, while also using RNA-seq to uncover differentially-expressed cytoskeleton-associated genes8. By understanding the complex interplay between single-cell mechanics and cellular function, mechanophenotyping has broader applications in transforming basic science and clinical diagnostics9.
The most widely adopted tool for measuring single-cell mechanics is atomic force microscopy (AFM). While AFM enables a high-resolution, localized measurement of cellular mechanical properties, it remains limited to a throughput of &#60;0.01 cells/s10. Alternatively, optical stretchers, which use two divergent laser beams to trap and deform suspended single cells11, are limited to marginally higher throughputs of &#60;1 cell/s12. Recent advances in microfluidic technologies have enabled a new generation of devices for rapid, single-cell, mechanical assessment12,13. These techniques employ narrow constriction channels14,15, shear flow16, or hydrodynamic stretching17 to deform cells quickly at throughputs of 10-1,000 cells/s18. While the measurement rate of these approaches is considerably faster than conventional techniques, they often trade high-throughput capabilities for limited mechanical readouts (Supplementary&#160;Table 1).&#160;All the aforementioned rapid microfluidic methods focus on basic, single-parameter metrics, such as transit time or deformability ratios, that only reflect a cell&#39;s elastic properties. However, given the intrinsic viscoelastic nature of single cells, a robust and thorough mechanical characterization of cells requires consideration of not only elastic components but also viscous responses.
Mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS)2,8 (Figure 1A) is a microfluidic platform that addresses existing limitations with single-cell mechanophenotyping. This method enables the measurement of multiple biophysical parameters simultaneously, including cell diameter, relative deformability, and recovery time from deformation, with a moderate throughput of 1-10 cells/s. This technique is based on node-pore sensing (NPS)19,20,21,22,23,24, which involves using a four-point probe measurement to measure the modulated current pulse produced by a cell transiting a microfluidic channel that has been segmented by wider regions, referred to as &#34;nodes&#34;. The modulated current pulse is a result of the cell partially blocking the flow of current in the segments (i.e., &#34;pores&#34;) and nodes, with more current blocked in the former than in the latter. In mechano-NPS, one segment, the &#34;contraction channel&#34;, is narrower than a cell diameter; consequently, a cell must deform to transit the entire channel (Figure 1B). Cell diameter can be determined by the magnitude of the subpulse produced when the cell transits the node-pores prior to the contraction channel (Figures 1B,C). Here, |&#916;Inp|, the current drop when the cell is in the pore,&#160;is proportional to the volume ratio of the cell to the pore, Vcell/Vpore2,8,19. Cell stiffness can be determined by &#916;Tc, the duration of the dramatically larger subpulse produced when the cell transits the contraction channel (Figures 1B,C). A stiffer cell will take longer to transit the channel than a softer one2,8. Finally, cell &#34;recovery&#34;, the cell&#39;s ability to return to its original size and shape post deformation, can be determined by the series of subpulses produced as the cell transits the node-pores after the contraction channel (Figures 1B,C). The recovery time, &#916;Tr, is the time it takes for the current subpulses to return to the magnitude of the previous subpulses, prior to the cell being squeezed. Overall, the modulated current pulses produced as a cell transits the microfluidic channel are recorded and analyzed to extract the relevant single-cell mechanical parameters (Figure 1D)2,8.
The reproducibility and ease of use of this electronics-based microfluidic platform have been previously demonstrated25. Additionally, the platform presents a low barrier to entry for single-cell mechanophenotyping. Standard soft lithography is employed to fabricate microfluidic devices. The measurement hardware consists of inexpensive components, including a simple printed circuit board (PCB), power supply, preamplifier, data acquisition board (DAQ), and computer. Finally, user-friendly code is available for data acquisition and analysis, enabling straightforward implementation. This mechanophenotyping technique can distinguish populations of non-malignant and malignant breast and lung epithelial cell lines, discriminate between sublineages in primary human mammary epithelial cells, and characterize the effects of cytoskeletal perturbations and other pharmacological agents2,8. Overall, this platform is an effective approach for the mechanophenotyping of single cells.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>5356-05</td>
			<td>Purity (GC)&#160; &#8805; 99.5% (https://us.vwr.com/store/product/6057739/acetone-99-5-vlsi-j-t-baker)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analog Low-Pass Filter</td>
			<td>ThorLabs</td>
			<td>EF504</td>
			<td>&#8804;240 kHz Passband, Coaxial BNC Feedthrough&#160;(https://www.thorlabs.com/thorproduct.cfm?partnumber=EF504#ad-image-0)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopsy Punch</td>
			<td>Integra Miltex</td>
			<td>33-31AA-P/25</td>
			<td>1mm, Disposable, with Plunger (https://mms.mckesson.com/product/573313/Miltex-33-31AA-P25)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blade</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BNC Cable</td>
			<td>Pomona Electronics</td>
			<td>2249-C-12</td>
			<td>https://www.digikey.com/en/products/detail/pomona-electronics/2249-C-12/603323?utm_adgroup=Coaxial%20Cables%20%28RF%29&#38;utm_source=google&#38;utm_ 
			medium=cpc&#38;utm_campaign= 
			Shopping_Product_Cable%20Assemblies_NEW&#38;utm_term= 
			&#38;utm_content=Coaxial%20Cables%20%28RF%29&#38;gclid=Cj0KCQjwlK-WBhDjARIsAO2sErQqnVJ 
			pj5OXVObuTI8ZUf1ZeIn7zvzGnx 
			mCWdePrG6SdEJMF3X6ubUaAs 
			w-EALw_wcB</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cleanroom Polyester Swab</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18383</td>
			<td>https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/texwipe-cleantip-alpha-polyester-series-swabs-6/18383</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Current Preamplifier</td>
			<td>DL Instruments</td>
			<td>1211</td>
			<td>https://www.brltest.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&#38;products_ 
			id=1419</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom PCB (w/ components)</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>see Supplemental files 4 and 5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAQ Terminal Block</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>BNC-2120</td>
			<td>https://www.ni.com/en-in/support/model.bnc-2120.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAQ to BNC-2110 cable&#160;</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>SHC68-68-EPM</td>
			<td>https://www.ni.com/en-in/support/model.shc68-68-epm.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data Acquisition Board (DAQ)</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>PCI-6251</td>
			<td>https://www.ni.com/docs/en-US/bundle/pci-6251-feature/page/overview.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dessicator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>5311-0250</td>
			<td>https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/5311-0250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Female BNC To Banana Plug Adapter</td>
			<td>Pomona Electronics</td>
			<td>72909</td>
			<td>https://www.digikey.com/en/products/detail/pomona-electronics/72909/1196318</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89510-186</td>
			<td>https://us.vwr.com/store/product/18706419/avantor-seradigm-select-grade-usda-approved-origin-fetal-bovine-serum-fbs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Cutter</td>
			<td>Chemglass</td>
			<td>CG-1179-21</td>
			<td>https://chemglass.com/plate-glass-cutters-diamond-tips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold Etchant TFA</td>
			<td>Transene</td>
			<td>NC0977944</td>
			<td>https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/NC0977944/NC0977944</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot Plate</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SP131825&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl Alcohol</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical</td>
			<td>I1056-4LTPL</td>
			<td>Purity (GC)&#160; &#8805;99.5% (https://www.spectrumchemical.com/isopropyl-alcohol-99-percent-fcc-i1056)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal Hardware Enclosure</td>
			<td>Hammond Manufacturing</td>
			<td>EJ12126</td>
			<td>https://www.digikey.com/en/products/detail/hammond-manufacturing/EJ12126/2423415</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>34860</td>
			<td>Purity (GC)&#160; &#8805;99.8% (https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IN/en/substance/methanol320467561)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MF-321 Developer</td>
			<td>Kayaku Advanced Materials</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>https://kayakuam.com/products/mf-321/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MICROPOSIT S1813 Positive Photoresist</td>
			<td>DuPont</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>https://kayakuam.com/products/microposit-s1800-g2-series-photoresists/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010049</td>
			<td>https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/10010049?SID=srch-hj-10010049</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomask</td>
			<td>Fineline Imaging</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Photomask are custom ordered from our CAD designs (https://www.fineline-imaging.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plain Glass Microscope Slide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-553-5B</td>
			<td>Material: Soda Lime, L75 x W50 mm, Thickness: 0.90&#8211;1.10 mm&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma Cleaner</td>
			<td>Harrick Plasma</td>
			<td>PDC-001</td>
			<td>https://harrickplasma.com/plasma-cleaners/expanded-plasma-cleaner/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic Petri Dish</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td>100 mm (https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/fisherbrand-petri-dishes-clear-lid-raised-ridge-100-x-15mm/FB0875712)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure Controller</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>MFCS-EZ</td>
			<td>https://www.fluigent.com/research/instruments/pressure-flow-controllers/mfcs-series/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure Controller Software</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>MAESFLO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Programming &#38; Computation Software</td>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>R2021b</td>
			<td>for data acquisition and analysis (https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTFE Tubing</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>06417-31</td>
			<td>0.032&#34; ID x 0.056&#34;&#160;(https://www.coleparmer.com/i/masterflex-transfer-tubing-microbore-ptfe-0-032-id-x-0-056-od-100-ft-roll/0641731)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scepter 2.0 Handheld Automatic Cell Counter</td>
			<td>Millapore Sigma</td>
			<td>PHCC20060</td>
			<td>https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IN/en/product/mm/phcc20060</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon Wafer</td>
			<td>Wafer World</td>
			<td>2885</td>
			<td>76.2 mm, Single Side Polished (https://www.waferworld.com/product/2885)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spin Coater</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 3025 Negative Photoresist</td>
			<td>Kayaku Advanced Materials</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>https://kayakuam.com/products/su-8-2000/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU8 Developer</td>
			<td>Kayaku Advanced Materials</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>https://kayakuam.com/products/su-8-developer/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sygard 184 Polydimethlysiloxane</td>
			<td>Dow Chemical</td>
			<td>4019862</td>
			<td>https://www.ellsworth.com/products/by-market/consumer-products/encapsulants/silicone/dow-sylgard-184-silicone-encapsulant-clear-0.5-kg-kit/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td>810-341296</td>
			<td>https://www.staples.com/Scotch-Magic-Tape-810-3-4-x-36-yds-1-Core/product_130567?cid=PS:GS:SBD:PLA:OS&#38;gclid= 
			Cj0KCQjwlK-WBhDjARIsAO 
			2sErRwzrrgjU0NjFkDkne1xm 
			vT7ekS3tdzvAgiMDwPoxocgH 
			VTQZi7vJgaAvQZEALw_wcB</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium, Platinum, Gold</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triple Output Power Supply</td>
			<td>Keysight</td>
			<td>E36311A</td>
			<td>https://www.newark.com/keysight-technologies/e36311a/dc-power-supply-3o-p-6v-5a-prog/dp/15AC9653</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV Mask Aligner</td>
			<td>Karl Suss America</td>
			<td>MJB3 Mask Aligner&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mechano-node-pore sensing: a rapid, label-free platform for multi-parameter single-cell viscoelastic measurements

Cellular mechanical properties are involved in a wide variety of biological processes and diseases, ranging from stem cell differentiation to cancer metastasis. Conventional methods for measuring these properties, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and micropipette aspiration (MA), capture rich information, reflecting a cell's full viscoelastic response; however, these methods are limited by very low throughput. High-throughput approaches, such as real-time deformability cytometry (RT-DC), can only measure limited mechanical information, as they are often restricted to single-parameter readouts that only reflect a cell's elastic properties. In contrast to these methods, mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS) is a flexible, label-free microfluidic platform that bridges the gap in achieving multi-parameter viscoelastic measurements of a cell with moderate throughput. A direct current (DC) measurement is used to monitor cells as they transit a microfluidic channel, tracking their size and velocity before, during, and after they are forced through a narrow constriction. This information (i.e., size and velocity) is used to quantify each cell's transverse deformation, resistance to deformation, and recovery from deformation. In general, this electronics-based microfluidic platform provides multiple viscoelastic cell properties, and thus a more complete picture of a cell's mechanical state. Because it requires minimal sample preparation, utilizes a straightforward electronic measurement (in contrast to a high-speed camera), and takes advantage of standard soft lithography fabrication, the implementation of this platform is simple, accessible, and adaptable to downstream analysis. This platform's flexibility, utility, and sensitivity have provided unique mechanical information on a diverse range of cells, with the potential for many more applications in basic science and clinical diagnostics.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mechano-Node-Pore Sensing: A Rapid, Label-Free Platform for Multi-Parameter Single-Cell Viscoelastic Measurements at JoVE.com

Mechano-Node-Pore Sensing: A Rapid, Label-Free Platform for Multi-Parameter Single-Cell Viscoelastic Measurements

Presented here is a method to mechanically phenotype single cells using an electronics-based microfluidic platform called mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS). This platform maintains moderate throughput of 1-10 cells/s while measuring both the elastic and viscous biophysical properties of cells.

Cellular mechanical properties are involved in a wide variety of biological processes and diseases, ranging from stem cell differentiation to cancer ...

mechano-node-pore-sensing-rapid-label-free-platform-for-multi

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

2.6K Views.  University of California, Berkeley and University of California, San Francisco. Presented here is a method to mechanically phenotype single cells using an electronics-based microfluidic platform called mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS). This platform maintains moderate throughput of 1-10 cells/s while measuring both the elastic and viscous biophysical properties of cells.

Video: Mechano-Node-Pore Sensing: A Rapid, Label-Free Platform for Multi-Parameter Single-Cell Viscoelastic Measurements

Non-contact, Label-free Monitoring of Cells and Extracellular Matrix using Raman Spectroscopy

Non-destructive, non-contact and label-free technologies to monitor cell and tissue cultures are needed in the field of biomedical research.1-5 However, currently available routine methods require processing steps and alter sample integrity. Raman spectroscopy is a fast method that enables the measurement of biological samples without the need for further processing steps. This laser-based technology detects the inelastic scattering of monochromatic light.6 As every chemical vibration is assigned to a specific Raman band (wavenumber in cm-1), each biological sample features a typical spectral pattern due to their inherent biochemical composition.7-9 Within Raman spectra, the peak intensities correlate with the amount of the present molecular bonds.1 Similarities and differences of the spectral data sets can be detected by employing a multivariate analysis (e.g. principal component analysis (PCA)).10
Here, we perform Raman spectroscopy of living cells and native tissues. Cells are either seeded on glass bottom dishes or kept in suspension under normal cell culture conditions (37 &deg;C, 5% CO2) before measurement. Native tissues are dissected and stored in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) at 4 &deg;C prior measurements. Depending on our experimental set up, we then either focused on the cell nucleus or extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins such as elastin and collagen. For all studies, a minimum of 30 cells or 30 random points of interest within the ECM are measured. Data processing steps included background subtraction and normalization.

Raman spectroscopy is a suitable technique for the non-contact, label-free analysis of living cells, tissue-engineered constructs and native tissues. Source-specific spectral fingerprints can be generated and analyzed using multivariate analysis.

Non-destructive, non-contact and label-free technologies to monitor cell and tissue cultures are needed in the field of biomedical research.1-5 However, ...

Hollow Microneedle-based Sensor for Multiplexed Transdermal Electrochemical Sensing

The development of a minimally invasive multiplexed monitoring system for rapid analysis of biologically-relevant molecules could offer individuals suffering from chronic medical conditions facile assessment of their immediate physiological state. Furthermore, it could serve as a research tool for analysis of complex, multifactorial medical conditions. In order for such a multianalyte sensor to be realized, it must be minimally invasive, sampling of interstitial fluid must occur without pain or harm to the user, and analysis must be rapid as well as selective.
Initially developed for pain-free drug delivery, microneedles have been used to deliver vaccines and pharmacologic agents (e.g., insulin) through the skin.1-2 Since these devices access the interstitial space, microneedles that are integrated with microelectrodes can be used as transdermal electrochemical sensors. Selective detection of glucose, glutamate, lactate, hydrogen peroxide, and ascorbic acid has been demonstrated using integrated microneedle-electrode devices with carbon fibers, modified carbon pastes, and platinum-coated polymer microneedles serving as transducing elements.3-7,8
This microneedle sensor technology has enabled a novel and sophisticated analytical approach for in situ and simultaneous detection of multiple analytes. Multiplexing offers the possibility of monitoring complex microenvironments, which are otherwise difficult to characterize in a rapid and minimally invasive manner. For example, this technology could be utilized for simultaneous monitoring of extracellular levels of, glucose, lactate and pH,9 which are important metabolic indicators of disease states7,10-14 (e.g., cancer proliferation) and exercise-induced acidosis.15

This article details the construction of a multiplexed microneedle-based sensor. The device is being developed for in situ sampling and electrochemical analysis of multiple analytes in a rapid and selective manner. We envision clinical medicine and biomedical research uses for these microneedle-based sensors.

The development of a minimally invasive multiplexed monitoring system for rapid analysis of biologically-relevant molecules could offer individuals ...

A Microfluidic-based Electrochemical Biochip for Label-free DNA Hybridization Analysis

Miniaturization of analytical benchtop procedures into the micro-scale provides significant advantages in regards to reaction time, cost, and integration of pre-processing steps. Utilizing these devices towards the analysis of DNA hybridization events is important because it offers a technology for real time assessment of biomarkers at the point-of-care for various diseases. However, when the device footprint decreases the dominance of various physical phenomena increases. These phenomena influence the fabrication precision and operation reliability of the device. Therefore, there is a great need to accurately fabricate and operate these devices in a reproducible manner in order to improve the overall performance. Here, we describe the protocols and the methods used for the fabrication and the operation of a microfluidic-based electrochemical biochip for accurate analysis of DNA hybridization events. The biochip is composed of two parts: a microfluidic chip with three parallel micro-channels made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and a 3 x 3 arrayed electrochemical micro-chip. The DNA hybridization events are detected using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis. The EIS analysis enables monitoring variations of the properties of the electrochemical system that are dominant at these length scales. With the ability to monitor changes of both charge transfer and diffusional resistance with the biosensor, we demonstrate the selectivity to complementary ssDNA targets, a calculated detection limit of 3.8 nM, and a 13% cross-reactivity with other non-complementary ssDNA following 20 min&#160;of incubation. This methodology can improve the performance of miniaturized devices by elucidating on the behavior of diffusion at the micro-scale regime and by enabling the study of DNA hybridization events.

We present a microfluidic-based electrochemical biochip for DNA hybridization detection. Following ssDNA probe functionalization, the specificity, sensitivity, and detection limit are studied with complementary and non-complementary ssDNA targets. Results illustrate the influence of the DNA hybridization events on the electrochemical system, with a detection limit of 3.8 nM.

Miniaturization of analytical benchtop procedures into the micro-scale provides significant advantages in regards to reaction time, cost, and integration ...

A Label-free Technique for the Spatio-temporal Imaging of Single Cell Secretions

Inter-cellular communication is an integral part of a complex system that helps in maintaining basic cellular activities. As a result, the malfunctioning of such signaling can lead to many disorders. To understand cell-to-cell signaling, it is essential to study the spatial and temporal nature of the secreted molecules from the cell without disturbing the local environment. Various assays have been developed to study protein secretion, however, these methods are typically based on fluorescent probes which disrupt the relevant signaling pathways. To overcome this limitation, a label-free technique is required.
In this paper, we describe the fabrication and application of a label-free localized surface plasmon resonance imaging (LSPRi) technology capable of detecting protein secretions from a single cell. The plasmonic nanostructures are lithographically patterned onto a standard glass coverslip and can be excited using visible light on commercially available light microscopes. Only a small fraction of the coverslip is covered by the nanostructures and hence this technique is well suited for combining common techniques such as fluorescence and bright-field imaging.
A multidisciplinary approach is used in this protocol which incorporates sensor nanofabrication and subsequent biofunctionalization, binding kinetics characterization of ligand and analyte, the integration of the chip and live cells, and the analysis of the measured signal. As a whole, this technology enables a general label-free approach towards mapping cellular secretions and correlating them with the responses of nearby cells.

Inter-cellular communication is critical for controlling various physiological activities within and outside the cell. This paper describes a protocol for measuring the spatio-temporal nature of single cell secretions. To achieve this, a multidisciplinary approach is used which integrates label-free nanoplasmonic sensing with live cell imaging.

Inter-cellular communication is an integral part of a complex system that helps in maintaining basic cellular activities. As a result, the malfunctioning ...

Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental studies on the behavior of molecules. Single molecule detection techniques commonly utilize labels such as fluorescent tags or quantum dots, however, labels are not always available, increase cost and complexity, and can perturb the events being studied. Optical resonators have emerged as a promising means to detect single molecules without the use of labels. Currently the smallest particle detected by a non-plasmonically-enhanced bare optical resonator system in solution is a 25 nm polystyrene sphere1. We have developed a technique known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that can surpass this limit and achieve label-free single molecule detection in aqueous solution2. As signal strength scales with particle volume, our work represents a &#62; 100x improvement in the signal to noise ratio (SNR) over the current state of the art. Here the procedures behind FLOWER are presented in an effort to increase its usage in the field.

We have developed a label-free biosensing system based on optical resonator technology known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that is capable of detecting single molecules in solution. Here the procedures behind this work are described and presented.

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental ...

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan electron-paramagnetic-resonance (RS-EPR), which can provide quantitative information under in vivo conditions on oxygen concentration, pH, redox status and concentration of signaling molecules (i.e., OH&#8226;, NO&#8226;). The RS-EPR technique has a higher sensitivity, improved spatial resolution (1 mm), and shorter acquisition time in comparison to the standard continuous wave (CW) technique. A variety of phantom configurations have been tested, with spatial resolution varying from 1 to 6 mm, and spectral width of the reporter molecules ranging from 16 &#181;T (160 mG) to 5 mT (50 G). A cross-loop bimodal resonator decouples excitation and detection, reducing the noise, while the rapid scan effect allows more power to be input to the spin system before saturation, increasing the EPR signal. This leads to a substantially higher signal-to-noise ratio than in conventional CW EPR experiments.

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

A new electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) method, rapid scan EPR (RS-EPR), is demonstrated for 2D spectral spatial imaging which is superior to the traditional continuous wave (CW) technique and opens new venues for in vivo imaging. Results are demonstrated at 250 MHz, but the technique is applicable at any frequency.

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan ...

A Microfluidic Platform for High-throughput Single-cell Isolation and Culture

Studying the heterogeneity of single cells is crucial for many biological questions, but is technically difficult. Thus, there is a need for a simple, yet high-throughput, method to perform single-cell culture experiments. Here, we report a microfluidic chip-based strategy for high-efficiency single-cell isolation (~77%) and demonstrate its capability of performing long-term single-cell culture (up to 7 d) and cellular heterogeneity analysis using clonogenic assay. These applications were demonstrated with KT98 mouse neural stem cells, and A549 and MDA-MB-435 human cancer cells. High single-cell isolation efficiency and long-term culture capability are achieved by using different sizes of microwells on the top and bottom of the microfluidic channel. The small microwell array is designed for precisely isolating single-cells, and the large microwell array is used for single-cell clonal culture in the microfluidic chip. This microfluidic platform constitutes an attractive approach for single-cell culture applications, due to its flexibility of adjustable cell culture spaces for different culture strategies, without decreasing isolation efficiency.

Here, we present a protocol for isolating and culturing single cells with a microfluidic platform, which utilizes a new microwell design concept to allow for high-efficiency single cell isolation and long-term clonal culture.

Studying the heterogeneity of single cells is crucial for many biological questions, but is technically difficult. Thus, there is a need for a simple, yet ...

PIP-on-a-chip: A Label-free Study of Protein-phosphoinositide Interactions

Numerous cellular proteins interact with membrane surfaces to affect essential cellular processes. These interactions can be directed towards a specific lipid component within a membrane, as in the case of phosphoinositides (PIPs), to ensure specific subcellular localization and/or activation. PIPs and cellular PIP-binding domains have been studied extensively to better understand their role in cellular physiology. We applied a pH modulation assay on supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) as a tool to study protein-PIP interactions. In these studies, pH sensitive ortho-Sulforhodamine B conjugated phosphatidylethanolamine is used to detect protein-PIP interactions. Upon binding of a protein to a PIP-containing membrane surface, the interfacial potential is modulated (i.e. change in local pH), shifting the protonation state of the probe. A case study of the successful usage of the pH modulation assay is presented by using phospholipase C delta1 Pleckstrin Homology (PLC-&#948;1 PH) domain and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) interaction as an example. The apparent dissociation constant (Kd,app) for this interaction was 0.39 &#177; 0.05 &#181;M, similar to Kd,app values obtained by others. As previously observed, the PLC-&#948;1 PH domain is PI(4,5)P2 specific, shows weaker binding towards phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate, and no binding to pure phosphatidylcholine SLBs. The PIP-on-a-chip assay is advantageous over traditional PIP-binding assays, including but not limited to low sample volume and no ligand/receptor labeling requirements, the ability to test high- and low-affinity membrane interactions with both small and large molecules, and improved signal to noise ratio. Accordingly, the usage of the PIP-on-a-chip approach will facilitate the elucidation of mechanisms of a wide range of membrane interactions. Furthermore, this method could potentially be used in identifying therapeutics that modulate protein&#39;s capacity to interact with membranes.

Here we present a supported lipid bilayer in the context of a microfluidic platform to study protein-phosphoinositide interactions using a label-free method based on pH modulation.

Numerous cellular proteins interact with membrane surfaces to affect essential cellular processes. These interactions can be directed towards a specific ...

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

In the last decade, microfluidic techniques have been applied to study small animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and have proved useful as a convenient live imaging platform providing capabilities for precise control of experimental conditions in real time. In this article, we demonstrate live imaging of individual worms employing WormSpa, a previously-published custom microfluidic device. In the device, multiple worms are individually confined to separate chambers, allowing multiplexed longitudinal surveillance of various biological processes. To illustrate the capability, we performed proof-of-principle experiments in which worms were infected in the device with pathogenic bacteria, and the dynamics of expression of immune response genes and egg laying were monitored continuously in individual animals. The simple design and operation of this device make it suitable for users with no previous experience with microfluidic-based experiments. We propose that this approach will be useful for many researchers interested in longitudinal observations of biological processes under well-defined conditions.

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this article, we demonstrate live imaging of individual worms employing a custom microfluidic device. In the device, multiple worms are individually confined to separate chambers, allowing multiplexed longitudinal surveillance of various biological processes.

In the last decade, microfluidic techniques have been applied to study small animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and have proved ...

An Ultrahigh-throughput Microfluidic Platform for Single-cell Genome Sequencing

Sequencing technologies have undergone a paradigm shift from bulk to single-cell resolution in response to an evolving understanding of the role of cellular heterogeneity in biological systems. However, single-cell sequencing of large populations has been hampered by limitations in processing genomes for sequencing. In this paper, we describe a method for single-cell genome sequencing (SiC-seq) which uses droplet microfluidics to isolate, amplify, and barcode the genomes of single cells. Cell encapsulation in microgels allows the compartmentalized purification and tagmentation of DNA, while a microfluidic merger efficiently pairs each genome with a unique single-cell oligonucleotide barcode, allowing &gt;50,000 single cells to be sequenced per run. The sequencing data is demultiplexed by barcode, generating groups of reads originating from single cells. As a high-throughput and low-bias method of single-cell sequencing, SiC-seq will enable a broader range of genomic studies targeted at diverse cell populations.

Single-cell sequencing reveals genotypic heterogeneity in biological systems, but current technologies lack the throughput necessary for the deep profiling of community composition and function. Here, we describe a microfluidic workflow for sequencing &gt;50,000 single-cell genomes from diverse cell populations.

Sequencing technologies have undergone a paradigm shift from bulk to single-cell resolution in response to an evolving understanding of the role of ...

Mechano-Node-Pore Sensing: A Rapid, Label-Free Platform for Multi-Parameter Single-Cell Viscoelastic Measurements

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A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

An Ultrahigh-throughput Microfluidic Platform for Single-cell Genome Sequencing