We acknowledge research funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences grant R43GM125420-01to support commercial development of a benchtop FPOP device and R01GM127267 for the development of standardization and dosimetry protocols for high-energy FPOP.

Joshua S. Sharp discloses a significant financial interest in GenNext Technologies, Inc., a small company seeking to commercialize technologies for protein higher order structure analysis including hydroxyl radical protein footprinting.

Mass spectrometry-based structural techniques, including hydrogen-deuterium exchange, chemical cross-linking, covalent labeling, and native spray mass spectrometry and ion mobility have been rapidly growing in popularity due to their flexibility, sensitivity, and ability to handle complex mixtures. FPOP boasts several advantages that has boosted its popularity in the area of mass spectrometry-based structural techniques. Like most covalent labeling strategies, it provides a stable chemical snapshot of protein topography ...

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is an emerging technique for the determination of protein topographical changes by ultra-fast covalent modification of the solvent-exposed surface area of proteins followed by detection by LC-MS1. FPOP generates a high concentration of hydroxyl radicals in situ by UV laser flash photolysis of hydrogen peroxide. These hydroxyl radicals are very reactive and short lived, consumed on roughly a microsecond timescale under FPOP conditions2. These hydroxyl radicals diffuse through water and oxidize various organic components in solution at kinetic rates generally ranging from fast (~106 M-1 s-1) to diffusion-controlled3. When the hydroxyl radical encounters a protein surface, the radical will oxidize the amino acid side chains on the protein surface, resulting in a mass shift of that amino acid (most commonly the net addition of one oxygen atom)4. The rate of the oxidation reaction at any amino acid depends on two factors: the inherent reactivity of that amino acid (which depends on the side chain and the sequence context)4,5 and the accessibility of that side chain to the diffusing hydroxyl radical, which closely correlates to the average solvent accessible surface area6,7. All of the standard amino acids except glycine have been observed as labeled by these highly reactive hydroxyl radicals in FPOP experiments, albeit at widely differing yields; in practice, Ser, Thr, Asn, and Ala are rarely seen as oxidized in most samples except under high radical doses and identified by careful and sensitive targeted ETD fragmentation8,9. After oxidation, samples are quenched to remove hydrogen peroxide and secondary oxidants (superoxide, singlet oxygen, peptidyl hydroperoxides, etc.) The quenched samples are then proteolytically digested to generate mixtures of oxidized peptides, where the structural information is frozen as a chemical &#8220;snapshot&#8221; in the patterns of oxidation products of the various peptides (Figure 1). Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is used to measure the amount of oxidation of amino acids in a given proteolytic peptide based on the relative intensities of the oxidized and unoxidized versions of that peptide. By comparing this oxidative footprint of the same protein obtained under different conformational conditions (e.g., ligand-bound versus ligand-free), differences in the amount of oxidation of a given region of the protein can be directly correlated with differences in the solvent-accessible surface area of that region6,7. The ability to provide protein topographical information makes FPOP an attractive technology for the higher-order structure determination of proteins, including in protein therapeutic discovery and development10,11.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61580/61580fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Overview of FPOP.&#160;The surface of the protein is covalently modified by highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. The hydroxyl radicals will react with amino acid side chains of the protein at a rate that is strongly influenced by the solvent accessibility of the side chain. Topographical changes (for example, due to the binding of a ligand as shown above) will protect amino acids in the region of interaction from reacting with hydroxyl radicals, resulting in a decrease in the intensity of modified peptide in the LC-MS signal. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/61580/61580fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Different constituents present in the FPOP solution (e.g., ligands, excipients, buffers) have different scavenging activity towards the hydroxyl radicals generated upon the laser photolysis of hydrogen peroxide3. Similarly, a small change in peroxide concentration, laser fluence, and buffer composition may change the effective radical dose, making the reproduction of FPOP data challenging across the samples and between different labs. Therefore, it is important to be able to compare the hydroxyl radical dose available to react with protein in each sample using one of several available hydroxyl radical dosimeters12,13,14,15,16. Hydroxyl radical dosimeters act by competing with the analyte (and with all scavengers in solution) for the pool of hydroxyl radicals; the effective dose of hydroxyl radicals is measured by measuring the amount of oxidation of the dosimeter. Note that &#8220;effective hydroxyl radical dose&#8221; is a function of both the initial concentration of hydroxyl radical generated and the half-life of the radical. These two parameters are partially dependent on one another, making the theoretical kinetic modeling somewhat complex (Figure 2). Two samples could have wildly different initial radical half-lives while still maintaining the same effective radical dose by changing the initial concentration of hydroxyl radical formed; they will still generate identical footprints17. Adenine13 and Tris12 are convenient hydroxyl radical dosimeters because their level of oxidation can be measured by UV spectroscopy in real-time, allowing for researchers to quickly identify when there is a problem with effective hydroxyl radical dose and to troubleshoot their problem. To solve this issue, an inline dosimeter located in the flow system directly after the site of irradiation that can monitor the signal from adenine absorbance changes in real-time is important. This helps in carrying out FPOP experiments in buffers or any other excipient with widely differing levels of hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity17. This radical dosage compensation can be performed in real-time, yielding statistically indistinguishable results for the same conformer by adjusting the effective radical dose.
In this protocol, we have detailed procedures for performing a typical FPOP experiment with radical dosage compensation using adenine as an internal optical radical dosimeter. This method allows investigators to compare footprints across FPOP conditions that have different scavenging capacity by performing compensation in real-time.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61580/61580fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Kinetic simulation of dosimetry-based compensation.&#160;1 mM adenine dosimeter response is measured in 5 &#181;M lysozyme analyte with a 1 mM initial hydroxyl radical concentration (&#9642;OH t1/2=53 ns), and set as a target dosimeter response (black). Upon the addition of 1 mM of the scavenger excipient histidine, the dosimeter response (blue) decreases along with the amount of protein oxidation in a proportional manner (cyan). The half-life of the hydroxyl radical also decreases (&#9642;OH t1/2=39 ns). When the amount of hydroxyl radical generated is increased to give an equivalent yield of oxidized dosimeter in the sample with 1 mM histidine scavenger as achieved with 1 mM hydroxyl radical in the absence of scavenger (red), the amount of protein oxidation that occurs similarly becomes identical (magenta), while the hydroxyl radical half-life decreases even further (&#9642;OH t1/2=29 ns). Adapted with permission from Sharp J.S., Am Pharmaceut Rev 22, 50-55, 2019. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/61580/61580fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Adenine</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>147440250</td>
			<td>Soluble in water upto 3.5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aperture</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>39-905</td>
			<td>1000 &#956;m Aperture Diameter, Gold-Plated Copper Aperture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aperture holder</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>53-287</td>
			<td>25.8mm Outer Diameter, Precision Pinhole Mount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Catalse</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C-40</td>
			<td>Catalase from bovine liver, lyophilized powder, &#8805;10,000 units/mg protein</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>COMPex Pro laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>1113836</td>
			<td>COMPexPRO 102, F-Vversion, KrF laser, No XeCl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiotheitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>V3151</td>
			<td>DTT, Molecular Grade (DL-Dithiothreitol)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fraction collector</td>
			<td>GenNext Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Automated fraction collector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fused silica capillay</td>
			<td>Molex</td>
			<td>1068150023</td>
			<td>Polymicro Flexible Fused Silica Capillary Tubing, Inner Diameter 100 &#181;m, Outer Diameter 375 &#181;m, TSP100375</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamine</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>119951000</td>
			<td>L(+)-Glutamine, 99%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Holder for lens</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>03-668</td>
			<td>53 mm Outer Diameter, Three-Screw Adjustable Ring Mount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen peroxide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>H325-100</td>
			<td>Hydrogen Peroxide, 30% (Certified ACS), Fisher Chemical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LC-MS/MS system</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>IQLAAEGAAPFADBMBCX</td>
			<td>Dionex Ultimate 3000 coupled to Orbitap Fusion Tribrid mass spectrometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mas spec grade Acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A955-1</td>
			<td>Acetonitrile, Optima LC/MS Grade, Fisher Chemical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass spec grade formic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A117-50</td>
			<td>Formic Acid, 99.0+%, Optima&#8482; LC/MS Grade, Fisher Chemical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass spec grade water</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>W6-4</td>
			<td>Water, Optima LC/MS Grade, Fisher Chemical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MES buffer</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M0164</td>
			<td>MES hemisodium salt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methionine amide</td>
			<td>Bachem</td>
			<td>4000594.0005</td>
			<td>H-met-NH2.HCl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro V clamp</td>
			<td>Thor Labs</td>
			<td>VK250</td>
			<td>Micro V-clamp with stainless steel blades</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motorized stage</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>68-638</td>
			<td>50mm Travel Motorized Stage System with Manual Control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nano C18 colum</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>164534</td>
			<td>Acclaim PepMap 100 C18 HPLC Columns</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical bench</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>56-935</td>
			<td>18&#34; x 18&#34; breadboard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pioneer FPOP Module System</td>
			<td>GenNext Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Inline FPOP Radical Dosimetry System</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Post holder</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>58-979</td>
			<td>3&#34; Length, &#188;-20 Thread, Post Holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP331-500</td>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate Dibasic Heptahydrate (Colorless-to-White Crystals), Fisher BioReagents</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP330-500</td>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate Monobasic Monohydrate (Colorless-to-white Crystals), Fisher BioReagents</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>81065</td>
			<td>100 &#181;L, Model 1710 RN SYR, Small Removable NDL, 22s ga, 2 in, point style 3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>KD Scientific</td>
			<td>788101</td>
			<td>Legato&#160;101 syringe pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trap C18 column</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>160454</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific&#160;Acclaim PepMap 100 C18 HPLC Columns</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>252859</td>
			<td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>V5111</td>
			<td>Sequencing Grade Modified Trypsin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV plano convex lens</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>84-285</td>
			<td>30 mm Dia. x 120 mm FL Uncoated, UV Plano-Convex Lens</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

enabling real-time compensation in fast photochemical oxidations of proteins for the determination of protein topography changes

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a mass spectrometry-based structural biology technique that probes the solvent-accessible surface area of proteins. This technique relies on the reaction of amino acid side chains with hydroxyl radicals freely diffusing in solution. FPOP generates these radicals in situ by laser photolysis of hydrogen peroxide, creating a burst of hydroxyl radicals that is depleted on the order of a microsecond. When these hydroxyl radicals react with a solvent-accessible amino acid side chain, the reaction products exhibit a mass shift that can be measured and quantified by mass spectrometry. Since the rate of reaction of an amino acid depends in part on the average solvent accessible surface of that amino acid, measured changes in the amount of oxidation of a given region of a protein can be directly correlated to changes in the solvent accessibility of that region between different conformations (e.g., ligand-bound versus ligand-free, monomer vs. aggregate, etc.) FPOP has been applied in a number of problems in biology, including protein-protein interactions, protein conformational changes, and protein-ligand binding. As the available concentration of hydroxyl radicals varies based on many experimental conditions in the FPOP experiment, it is important to monitor the effective radical dose to which the protein analyte is exposed. This monitoring is efficiently achieved by incorporating an inline dosimeter to measure the signal from the FPOP reaction, with laser fluence adjusted in real-time to achieve the desired amount of oxidation. With this compensation, changes in protein topography reflecting conformational changes, ligand-binding surfaces, and/or protein-protein interaction interfaces can be determined in heterogeneous samples using relatively low sample amounts.

Comparison of the heavy chain peptide footprint of the adalimumab biosimilar in phosphate buffer and when heated at 55 &#176;C for 1 h show interesting results. Student&#8217;s t-test is used for the identification of peptides that are significantly changed in these two conditions (p &#8804; 0.05). The peptides 20-38, 99-125, 215-222, 223-252, 260-278, 376-413, and 414-420 show significant protection from solvent when the protein is heated to form aggregates (Figure 5)30</s...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Enabling Real-Time Compensation in Fast Photochemical Oxidations of Proteins for the Determination of Protein Topography Changes at JoVE.com

Enabling Real-Time Compensation in Fast Photochemical Oxidations of Proteins for the Determination of Protein Topography Changes

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins is an emerging technique for the structural characterization of proteins. Different solvent additives and ligands have varied hydroxyl radical scavenging properties. To compare the protein structure in different conditions, real-time compensation of hydroxyl radicals generated in the reaction is required to normalize reaction conditions.

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a mass spectrometry-based structural biology technique that probes the solvent-accessible surface area ...

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JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

5.2K Views.  University of Mississippi. Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins is an emerging technique for the structural characterization of proteins. Different solvent additives and ligands have varied hydroxyl radical scavenging properties. To compare the protein structure in different conditions, real-time compensation of hydroxyl radicals generated in the reaction is required to normalize reaction conditions.

Video: Enabling Real-Time Compensation in Fast Photochemical Oxidations of Proteins for the Determination of Protein Topography Changes

Time-resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Studying Protein Structure and Dynamics

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange (HDX) measured at rapid time scales is uniquely suited to detect structures and hydrogen bonding networks that are briefly populated, allowing for the characterization of transient conformers in native ensembles. Coupling of HDX to mass spectrometry offers several key advantages, including high sensitivity, low sample consumption and no restriction on protein size. This technique has advanced greatly in the last several decades, including the ability to monitor HDX labeling times on the millisecond time scale. In addition, by incorporating the HDX workflow onto a microfluidic platform housing an acidic protease microreactor, we are able to localize dynamic properties at the peptide level. In this study, Time-Resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TRESI-MS) coupled to HDX was used to provide a detailed picture of residual structure in the tau protein, as well as the conformational shifts induced upon hyperphosphorylation.

Conformational flexibility plays a critical role in protein function. Herein, we describe the use of time-resolved electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled to hydrogen-deuterium exchange for probing the rapid structural changes that drive function in ordered and disordered proteins.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. ...

Real-time Tracking of DNA Fragment Separation by Smartphone

Slab gel electrophoresis (SGE) is the most common method for the separation of DNA fragments; thus, it is broadly applied to the field of biology and others. However, the traditional SGE protocol is quite tedious, and the experiment takes a long time. Moreover, the chemical consumption in SGE experiments is very high. This work proposes a simple method for the separation of DNA fragments based on an SGE chip. The chip is made by an engraving machine. Two plastic sheets are used for the excitation and emission wavelengths of the optical signal. The fluorescence signal of the DNA bands is collected by smartphone. To validate this method, 50, 100, and 1,000 bp DNA ladders were separated. The results demonstrate that a DNA ladder smaller than 5,000 bp can be resolved within 12 min and with high resolution when using this method, indicating that it is an ideal substitute for the traditional SGE method.

Traditional slab gel electrophoresis (SGE) experiments require a complicated apparatus and high chemical consumption. This work presents a protocol that describes a low-cost method to separate DNA fragments within a short timeframe.

Slab gel electrophoresis (SGE) is the most common method for the separation of DNA fragments; thus, it is broadly applied to the field of biology and ...

Determination of the Glycogen Content in Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria accumulate glycogen as a major intracellular carbon and energy storage&#160;during photosynthesis. Recent developments in research have highlighted complex mechanisms of glycogen metabolism, including the diel cycle of biosynthesis and catabolism, redox regulation, and the involvement of non-coding RNA. At the same time, efforts are being made to redirect carbon from glycogen to desirable products in genetically engineered cyanobacteria to enhance product yields. Several methods are used to determine the glycogen contents in cyanobacteria, with variable accuracies and technical complexities. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the reliable determination of the glycogen content in cyanobacteria that can be performed in a standard life science laboratory. The protocol entails the selective precipitation of glycogen from the cell lysate and the enzymatic depolymerization of glycogen to generate glucose monomers, which are detected by a glucose oxidase-peroxidase (GOD-POD) enzyme coupled assay. The method has been applied to Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002, two model cyanobacterial species that are widely used in metabolic engineering. Moreover, the method successfully showed differences in the glycogen contents between the wildtype and mutants defective in regulatory elements or glycogen biosynthetic genes.

Here, we present a reliable and easy assay to measure the glycogen content in cyanobacterial cells. The procedure entails precipitation, selectable depolymerization, and the detection of glucose residues. This method is suitable for both wildtype and genetically engineered strains and can facilitate the metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria accumulate glycogen as a major intracellular carbon and energy storage&#160;during photosynthesis. Recent developments in research have ...

Regeneration of Arrayed Gold Microelectrodes Equipped for a Real-Time Cell Analyzer

The label-free cell-based assay is advantageous for biochemical study because of it does not require the use of experimental animals. Due to its ability to provide more dynamic information about cells under physiological conditions than classical biochemical assays, this label-free real-time cell assay based on the electric impedance principle is attracting more attention during the past decade. However, its practical utilization may be limited due to the relatively expensive cost of measurement, in which costly consumable disposable gold microchips are used for the cell analyzer. In this protocol, we have developed a general strategy to regenerate arrayed gold microelectrodes equipped for a commercial label-free cell analyzer. The regeneration process includes trypsin digestion, rinsing with ethanol and water, and a spinning step. The proposed method has been tested and shown to be effective for the regeneration and repeated usage of commercial electronic plates at least three times, which will help researchers save on the high running cost of real-time cell assays.

This protocol describes a general strategy to regenerate commercial arrayed gold microelectrodes equipped for a label-free cell analyzer aimed at saving on the high running costs ofmicrochip-based assays. The regeneration process includes trypsin digestion, rinsing with ethanol and water, and a spinning step, which enables repeated usage of microchips.

The label-free cell-based assay is advantageous for biochemical study because of it does not require the use of experimental animals. Due to its ability ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and captures double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) non-specifically to interrogate it for a homologous sequence. After encountering homology, Rad51 catalyzes DNA strand exchange to mediate pairing of the ssDNA with the complementary strand of the dsDNA. This reaction is highly regulated by numerous accessary proteins in vivo. Although conventional biochemical assays have been successfully employed to examine the role of such accessory protein in vitro, kinetic analysis of intermediate formation and its progression into a final product has proven challenging due to the unstable and transient nature of the reaction intermediates. To observe these reaction steps directly in solution, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based real-time observation systems of this reaction were established. Kinetic analysis of real-time observations shows that the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 obeys a three-step reaction model involving the formation of a three-strand DNA intermediate, maturation of this intermediate, and the release of ssDNA from the mature intermediate. The Swi5-Sfr1 complex, an accessary protein conserved in eukaryotes, strongly enhances the second and third steps of this reaction. The FRET-based assays presented here enable us to uncover the molecular mechanisms through which recombination accessary proteins stimulate the DNA strand exchange activity of Rad51. The primary goal of this protocol is to enhance the repertoire of techniques available to researchers in the field of homologous recombination, particularly those working with proteins from species other than Schizosaccharomyces pombe, so that the evolutionary conservation of the findings presented herein can be determined.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based real-time observation systems of the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 were developed. Using the protocols presented here, we are able to detect the formation of reaction intermediates and their conversion into products, while also analyzing the enzymatic kinetics of the reaction.

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament ...

Real-Time, Semi-Automated Fluorescent Measurement of the Airway Surface Liquid pH of Primary Human Airway Epithelial Cells

In recent years, the importance of mucosal surface pH in the airways has been highlighted by its ability to regulate airway surface liquid (ASL) hydration, mucus viscosity and activity of antimicrobial peptides, key parameters involved in innate defense of the lungs. This is of primary relevance in the field of chronic respiratory diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF) where these parameters are dysregulated. While different groups have studied ASL pH both in vivo and in vitro, their methods report a relatively wide range of ASL pH values and even contradictory findings regarding any pH differences between non-CF and CF cells. Furthermore, their protocols do not always provide enough details in order to ensure reproducibility, most are low throughput and require expensive equipment or specialized knowledge to implement, making them difficult to establish in most labs. Here we describe a semi-automated fluorescent plate reader assay that enables the real-time measurement of ASL pH under thin film conditions that more closely resemble the in vivo situation. This technique allows for stable measurements for many hours from multiple airway cultures simultaneously and, importantly, dynamic changes in ASL pH in response to agonists and inhibitors can be monitored. To achieve this, the ASL of fully differentiated primary human airway epithelial cells (hAECs) are stained overnight with a pH-sensitive dye in order to allow for the reabsorption of the excess fluid to ensure thin film conditions. After fluorescence is monitored in the presence or absence of agonists, pH calibration is performed in situ to correct for volume and dye concentration. The method described provides the required controls to make stable and reproducible ASL pH measurements, which ultimately could be used as a drug discovery platform for personalized medicine, as well as adapted to other epithelial tissues and experimental conditions, such as inflammatory and/or host-pathogen models.

We present a protocol to make dynamic measurements of the airway surface liquid pH under thin film conditions using a plate-reader.

In recent years, the importance of mucosal surface pH in the airways has been highlighted by its ability to regulate airway surface liquid (ASL) ...

Characterizing Cellular Proteins with In-cell Fast Photochemical Oxidation of Proteins

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting method used to characterize protein structure and interactions. FPOP uses a 248 nm excimer laser to photolyze hydrogen peroxide producing hydroxyl radicals. These radicals oxidatively modify solvent exposed side chains of 19 of the 20 amino acids. Recently, this method has been used in live cells (IC-FPOP) to study protein interactions in their native environment. The study of proteins in cells accounts for intermolecular crowding and various protein interactions that are disrupted for in vitro studies. A custom single cell flow system was designed to reduce cell aggregation and clogging during IC-FPOP. This flow system focuses the cells past the excimer laser individually, thus ensuring consistent irradiation. By comparing the extent of oxidation produced from FPOP to the protein&#39;s solvent accessibility calculated from a crystal structure, IC-FPOP can accurately probe the solvent accessible side chains of proteins.

Here, we characterize protein structure and interaction sites in living cells using a protein footprinting technique termed in-cell fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (IC-FPOP).

Fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting method used to characterize protein structure and interactions. ...

Measuring Nucleotide Binding to Intact, Functional Membrane Proteins in Real Time

We have developed a method to measure binding of adenine nucleotides to intact, functional transmembrane receptors in a cellular or membrane environment. This method combines expression of proteins tagged with the fluorescent non-canonical amino acid ANAP, and FRET between ANAP and fluorescent (trinitrophenyl) nucleotide derivatives. We present examples of nucleotide binding to ANAP-tagged KATP ion channels measured in unroofed plasma membranes and excised, inside-out membrane patches under voltage clamp. The latter allows for simultaneous measurements of ligand binding and channel current, a direct readout of protein function. Data treatment and analysis are discussed extensively, along with potential pitfalls and artefacts. This method provides rich mechanistic insights into the ligand-dependent gating of KATP channels and can readily be adapted to the study of other nucleotide-regulated proteins or any receptor for which a suitable fluorescent ligand can be identified.

This protocol presents a method for measuring adenine nucleotide binding to receptors in real time in a cellular environment. Binding is measured as F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between trinitrophenyl nucleotide derivatives and protein labeled with a non-canonical, fluorescent amino acid.

We have developed a method to measure binding of adenine nucleotides to intact, functional transmembrane receptors in a cellular or membrane environment. ...