The authors thank the staff of the University Hospital animal facility (UTE) of Nantes for animal husbandry and care, the cellular and tissular imaging core facility of Nantes University (MicroPICell) for imaging, and the Cytometry facility (Cytocell) from Nantes for their expert technical assistance. This work was funded by INSERM, CNRS, Universit&#233; de Nantes, Institut National du Cancer (INCa#PLBio2014-155), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer (AO InterRegional 2017), and the European consortium ERA-Net Transcan2 (Immunoglio). The team is funded by the Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale (DEQ20170839118). This work was realized in the context of the LabEX IGO and the IHU-Cesti programs, supported by the National Research Agency Investissements d'Avenir via the programs ANR-11-LABX-0016-01 and ANR-10-IBHU-005, respectively. The IHU-Cesti project is also supported by Nantes Metropole and the Pays de la Loire Region. The authors thank Chirine Rafia for providing help in correcting the manuscript.

The following procedure involving animal subjects was performed according to institutional guidelines (Agreement #00186.02; regional ethics committee of the Pays de la Loire [France]). Human PBMCs were isolated from the blood collected from informed healthy donors (Etablissement Fran&#231;ais du Sang Nantes, France). All steps are performed under sterile conditions.
1. Non-specific Expansion of Cytotoxic Effector T Lymphocytes
<ol>
	<li>Prepare and irradiate feeder cells at 35 Gy. For the stimulation of 2 x 105 - 4 x 105 effector cells, prepare 10 x 106 PBMCs and 1 x 106 BLCLs from three distinct, healthy donors.</li>
	<li>Resuspend both feeder cells and effector cells in 15 mL of RPMI supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FCS, 2 mM L-glutamine, penicillin (100 IU/mL), and streptomycin (0.1 &#181;g/mL) and 300 IU/mL recombinant IL-2.</li>
	<li>Add PHA-L at a final concentration of 1 &#181;g/mL, carefully mix, and distribute 150 &#181;L of the cell suspension per well in 96-well U-bottomed plates.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 37 &#176;C and with 5% CO2 in a humidified atmosphere.</li>
	<li>Daily check the plate until large cell clumps form in the culture wells (~day 7).</li>
	<li>Transfer the cells into a culture flask at 1 x 106 cells/mL in fresh culture medium.</li>
	<li>Determine the total cell number by counting (2x a week) and maintain them at 1 x 106 cells/mL in fresh culture medium. 
	NOTE: Effector immune cells should be ready for the therapeutic administration at a resting state (usually 3 weeks after initial amplification stimulus). The purity and the reactivity of these effector cells should be checked prior to in vivo injections (e.g., with in vitro assays).</li>
</ol>
2. Pre-operative Effector Cells Preparation
<ol>
	<li>After checking the effector cell count, collect the effector cells in a 50-mL tube by centrifugation (300 x g for 5 min). 
	NOTE: To compensate for any loss, prepare an excess of cells (e.g., 50 x 106).</li>
	<li>Carefully remove the supernatant and resuspend the cells in 15 mL of sterile PBS and centrifuge for 5 min at 300 x g to perform the wash.</li>
	<li>Carefully and completely remove the supernatant and then resuspend the cell pellet in 1 mL of sterile PBS.</li>
	<li>Transfer the resuspended cells in a 1.5-mL microtube for centrifugation at 300 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Carefully and completely remove the supernatant by pipetting slowly.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in 8 &#181;L of sterile PBS per mouse. 
	NOTE: This is a critical step.</li>
	<li>Measure the volume of the cell suspension by using a micropipette. If necessary, add sterile PBS (20 x 106 cells in 15 &#181;L of PBS per dose) and mix carefully.</li>
	<li>Check, by using a micropipette, that the final volume per mouse is between 15 and 20 &#956;L (imperatively &#60; 20 &#181;L).</li>
	<li>Keep the cells on ice until stereotactic injection. 
	NOTE: More than 3-h timepoints were not tested.</li>
</ol>
3. Stereotactic Injection
<ol>
	<li>Equipment set-up
	<ol>
		<li>Assemble and calibrate a small animal stereotactic frame according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to ensure the accuracy of intracranial injections (e.g., syringe size, desired volume, and rate of injection). 
		NOTE: A slow infusion rate is recommended (i.e., 2 - 3 &#181;L/min).</li>
		<li>Install the material under a microbial safety cabinet (MSC) to maintain the sterility of the instruments and to protect the mice from infections. 
		NOTE: Place&#34; isothermal blocs&#34; in a water bath at 37 &#176;C. This system limits the hypothermia of mice during the surgery. Heating pads, which are necessary for post-procedural care, must be used during the continuous temperature monitoring.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pre-operative animal preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize a mouse with an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (10 mg/mL) and xylazine (0.1 mg/mL) at 10 &#181;L/g of body weight of the mouse.</li>
		<li>Perform a toe pinch test to ensure the complete anesthesia and analgesia of the animal. 
		NOTE: Any movement is an indication of non-deep analgesia and, if that occurs, a few more minutes are required before repeating the operation.</li>
		<li>Once the mouse is properly anesthetized, use scissors to remove the fur from the surgical site (between the two ears, up to the nose).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pre-operative cell preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Carefully resuspend the cells with a pipette (several times) prior to each injection to prevent any cell clumping.</li>
		<li>Carefully draw the required cell suspension volume (15 - 20 &#181;L) into the 22-G microsyringe to avoid the aspiration of bubbles. 
		NOTE: This cell-loading step into the microsyringe is important to minimize variances in injected volumes. Reload cells for each individual injection between procedures to prevent any cell clumping and to ensure an even number of effector cells administration in the cohort.</li>
		<li>Then, place the syringe into the adapted syringe pump.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Procedural care
	<ol>
		<li>Disinfect the surgical site with swabs soaked in povidone-iodine 5% solution at least 3x.</li>
		<li>Place a lubricating ophthalmic ointment in the mouse&#39;s eyes to prevent any drying of the corneas.</li>
		<li>Position the anesthetized mouse on the stereotactic frame, on a warm isothermal block covered with a sterile plastic wrap to maintain the mouse&#39;s temperature during surgery and limit the mortality. 
		NOTE: The mouse&#39;s nose and teeth should be appropriately positioned above the tooth bar, to ensure adequate respiratory flow during the procedure.</li>
		<li>Once the mouse is positioned above the tooth bar, tighten the ear bars firmly under the mouse&#39;s ears to immobilize the head. 
		NOTE: Be careful to not damage the eardrums or to compromise the respiration.</li>
		<li>Make a 1 - 2 cm midline sagittal skin incision with sterile scissors along the upper part of the cranium from anterior to posterior to expose the skull.</li>
		<li>Identify the intersection of the sagittal and coronal sutures (Bregma) to serve as landmarks for stereotactic localization prior to the injection (shown in Figure 1).</li>
		<li>Place the microsyringe above this point.</li>
		<li>Move the microsyringe 2 mm right lateral and 0.5 mm anterior of the Bregma.</li>
		<li>Using a microdrill, make a small hole in the skull with a sterile drill bit at predetermined coordinates. Be careful to remain superficial in order to avoid any traumatic injury of the brain. 
		NOTE: In this protocol, immune cells were injected within an established tumor (one week after tumor cell injection). The skin should be reopened (scar) and the injection is performed at the same coordinates used for the tumor cell implantation (the hole is generally still present up to 2 weeks after the injection). Coordinates were selected for injecting tumor and effector cells in the brain parenchyma13,14.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Injection of immune effector cells
	<ol>
		<li>Carefully insert the microsyringe into the drilled hole and, moving slowly, forward the needle 3 mm down in the dura and then backward 0.5 mm to a final depth of 2.5 mm prior to injecting the effector cells.</li>
		<li>Run the effector cell injection at 2 - 3 &#181;L/min and monitor the mice all along the injection time.</li>
		<li>Once the injection is complete, withdraw the needle for only 1 mm and keep the microsyringe in place for one additional minute before slowly withdrawing completely the microsyringe, to prevent any leakage from the infusion site. 
		NOTE: Following the removal of the animal from the stereotactic device, immediately clean the injection equipment for upcoming experiments.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Post-operative care and follow-up of mouse
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the animal from the stereotactic frame and immediately apply povidone-iodine 5% solution on the incision site and close the skin with an appropriate surgical suture.</li>
		<li>Apply 2% lidocaine gel directly on the wound and administer 0.15 &#181;g/g of buprenorphine by a subcutaneous injection for post-procedural analgesia.</li>
		<li>Place back the anesthetized mouse to its cage above a heating pad set to 37 &#176;C to maintain an appropriate mouse body temperature and to avoid any hypothermia. 
		NOTE: Separate housing is not necessary.</li>
		<li>Monitor the mouse until it is fully recovered from anesthesia and transfer it to a housing room. 
		NOTE: To date, this protocol is well supported as few unforeseen complications have occurred (&#60; 5% of injected mice).</li>
		<li>Daily monitor the mice and euthanize them when any declining health signs are observed (e.g., hunched posture, reduced mobility, prostration, or significant body weight loss [&#8805; 15%]).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

An adoptive transfer of selected native or engineered immune effector cells represents a promising approach to efficiently treat tumors, such as infiltrative brain cancers, taking care of limiting reactivities against non-transformed cells15,16,17,18. However, the central nervous system, which comprises the brain, has a particular immune status, notably due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier and the lack of a classical lymphatic drainage system19,20. These physiological features affect tissue trafficking and might compromise systemic injections of immune cells. To overcome these hindrances, intraparenchymal injections have been explored on the principle that antitumor cells are rather locally delivered, closely to the tumor site, as for microspheres that contain pharmacological compounds21,22. On one hand, the limited dilution of lymphocytes within the organ might improve their antitumor efficiency, but it can also amplify deleterious mechanical or tumor adaptation effects, such as tissular compression, which is developing along brain tumor growth. This implies that this procedure requires small volumes of immunotherapeutic injections. This issue is even more critical in animal experimental models in which brain tumors cannot be surgically excised. This article describes a therapeutic approach for the preparation and the local delivery of brain tumor-specific cellular effectors, based on stereotactic injection(s) of allogeneic human T lymphocytes.
This study shows the preparation and the stereotaxic delivery of allogeneic human V&#978;9V&#948;2 T lymphocytes in immunodeficient NSG mice carrying human GBM xenografts. The first stage of this protocol describes a simple procedure for amplifying allogeneic T lymphocytes from PBMCs of healthy donors, using a standard nonspecific PHA-feeders-IL2 stimulation that produces large quantities of pure effector T lymphocytes, allowing their therapeutical utilization23,24. The second stage of this article focuses on the preparation of resting T lymphocyte suspensions on the day of the stereotaxic administration. A particular focus was placed on this important step that requires a high cellular density that should not affect the viability and the function of the selected effector T lymphocytes. Finally, regarding in vivo experiments, the preparation of effector T lymphocytes and their injection within the tumor core is associated with their dissemination, not only within the tumor but also in the surrounding brain tissues, highlighting their particular ability to patrol and to track invasive tumor cells. Importantly, these preparation and injection methods retain the ability of these T lymphocytes to be activated within the brain upon a specific recognition of brain tumor cells. Altogether, these compelling characteristics ensure the ability of T lymphocytes to specifically and efficiently target and eliminate deep infiltrative brain tumor cells which are a hallmark of GBM25. Of note, a special care has to be taken during the injection and the removal of the microsyringe to minimize any brain lesion or effector cell leaks.
In conclusion, this article describes an efficient procedure for delivering large amounts of allogeneic human anti-tumor lymphocytes, such as resting human V&#978;9V&#948;2T lymphocytes, within the vicinity of brain tumors. Importantly, this therapeutical procedure is not accompanied with adverse effects either on the transferred T lymphocytes (e.g., viability, reactivity) or on the brain tissues. Recent studies, based on murine orthotopic models of primary human GBM, have demonstrated that V&#978;9V&#948;2T lymphocytes efficiently target GBM cells, including tumor cells which have deeply infiltrated the brain parenchyma9,11. These elements open opportunities for the development of novel adoptive T lymphocytes transfer procedures that could be applied in the first instance in mice carrying orthotopic brain tumors and, then, in clinical studies in GBM patients.

GBM (WHO grade IV astrocytoma), is the most frequent and aggressive primary brain cancer in adults. In spite of aggressive treatments that combine surgery and radio-chemotherapy, GBM remains associated with an extremely poor prognosis (median survival of 14.6 months and a 2-year-mortality &#62; 73%)1. This evidences that few efficient therapeutic advances have been validated over the last decade2. Among candidates for the design of more effective therapeutic strategies3,4,5, immunotherapies6 are currently explored to track and eliminate highly invasive and radio/chemo-resistant tumor cells, suspected for their key contribution to rapid and fatal tumor relapse7. Various potential immunological targets were identified and proposed for immunotherapies, involving natural or modified &#945;&#946; or &#978;&#948; T lymphocytes such as GBM-specific tumor antigens or stress-induced molecules8,9,10. The possibility to administrate selected GBM-reactive immune cell effectors represents a unique opportunity to deliver elevated amounts of effector lymphocytes directly into the site of residual malignancy. To support this strategy, we have recently shown that models based on immunodeficient mice carrying orthotopic primary human GBM xenografts faithfully recapitulate the development of brain tumors in GBM patients9,11. Moreover, these models were used to demonstrate the strong antitumor efficiency of adoptively transferred allogeneic human V&#978;9V&#948;2T lymphocytes.
This protocol describes the critical experimental steps for achieving stereotactic immunotherapies of brain tumors, such as GBM, based on the adoptive transfer of allogeneic T lymphocytes. The article shows: (i) the amplification of therapeutic allogeneic immune effector T lymphocytes, such as human V&#978;9V&#948;2T lymphocytes; (ii) the preparation of these effector T lymphocytes for injection; (iii) the procedure for stereotactic administration within the brain, near the tumor. This article also provides insight into the behavior of these cellular effectors after stereotactic injection.
The therapeutic approach presented here is based on the injection of 20 x 106 effector cells per dose for each brain tumor-bearing immunodeficient mouse. An initial in vitro expansion step is required to produce large quantities of immune cells. Therefore, non-specific cell expansions are performed using phytohemagglutinin (PHA-L) and irradiated allogeneic feeder cells: peripheral-blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors and Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)-transformed B-lymphoblastoid cell lines (BLCLs), derived from PBMCs by in vitro infection with EBV-containing culture supernatant from the Marmoset B95-8 cell line, in the presence of 1 &#181;g/mL cyclosporin-A.
GBM-reactive effector immune cells are compared and selected from in vitro assays9. These effector cells are activated and amplified using standard protocols, according to their nature (e.g., human V&#947;9V&#948;2 T lymphocytes9 or human anti-herpes virus &#945;&#946; T lymphocytes12) with a minimum purity of &#62; 80%, as routinely checked by cytometric analysis. The cell expansion procedure detailed below applies to various human lymphocyte subsets.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:825px;" width="825">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">PBMCs</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:232px;">from 3 different healthy donors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">BLCLs</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>from 3 different donors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:339px;">Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium (RPMI)</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Gibco</td>
			<td>31870-025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:339px;">FCS</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Dutscher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S1810-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">L-glutamine</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">25030-024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">IL-2</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Novartis</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">proleukin</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">PHA-L</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>L4144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Stereotaxic frame</td>
			<td>Stoelting Co.</td>
			<td align="right">51600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Mouse adaptator for stereotaxic frame&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Stoelting Co.</td>
			<td align="right">51624</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">microsyringe pump injector&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UMP3-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NanoFil Syringe</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NF34BV-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">NSG mice</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Charles River</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NSGSSFE07S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Ketamine</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Merial</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Imalg&#232;ne 1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Bayer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Rompur 2%</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Scissors</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">201758</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Forceps</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">501215</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">OmniDrill 115/230V</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">WPI</td>
			<td align="right">503598</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Vicryl 4-0</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Ethicon</td>
			<td>VCP397H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:339px;">Xylocaine</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Astrazeneca</td>
			<td>3634461</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

stereotactic adoptive transfer of cytotoxic immune cells in murine models of orthotopic human glioblastoma multiforme xenografts

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most frequent and aggressive primary brain cancer in adults, is generally associated with a poor prognosis, and scarce efficient therapies have been proposed over the last decade. Among the promising candidates for designing novel therapeutic strategies, cellular immunotherapies have been targeted to eliminate highly invasive and chemo-radioresistant tumor cells, likely involved in a rapid and fatal relapse of this cancer. Thus, administration(s) of allogeneic GBM-reactive immune cell effectors, such as human V&#978;9V&#948;2 T lymphocytes, in the vicinity of the tumor would represents a unique opportunity to deliver efficient and highly concentrated therapeutic agents directly into the site of brain malignancies. Here, we present a protocol for the preparation and the stereotaxic administration of allogeneic human lymphocytes in immunodeficient mice carrying orthotopic human primary brain tumors. This study provides a preclinical proof-of-concept for both the feasibility and the antitumor efficacy of these cellular immunotherapies that rely on stereotactic injections of allogeneic human lymphocytes within intrabrain tumor beds.

This study describes the strategy of adoptive transfers of cellular immune effector cells within the brain of tumor-carrying mice, based on stereotactic injections performed directly within the tumor bed.
To minimize any risk of brain injury associated with a large injection volume, the effector cell suspension needs to be concentrated (20 x 106 cells in 15 - 20 &#181;L of PBS). To check whether this cell concentration step might affect the viability of the effector cells, these cells were prepared according to the described protocol and loaded into the microsyringe. The effector cells were collected immediately, or 10 min after loading them into the microsyringe. The cells were stained with propidium iodide (PI), a fluorescent DNA intercalating agent that is not permeant to live cells and analyzed by flow cytometry at different timepoints (0, 24, and 72 hours). The results show that the preparation and the loading into the microsyringe do not significantly affect the viability of effector cells for at least 24 hours (Figure&#160;2A and 2B). At 72 hours, a slight, but non-significant, increase of PIpositive cells was observed (14% compared to 11% for unloaded cells). In a similar way, the antitumor reactivity of effector cells that were prepared and maintained on ice for 3 hours was analyzed. Effector cells were cocultured with brain tumor cells for 4 hours in presence of an anti-CD107a mAb. The upregulation of the activation marker CD107a, similar to the value obtained in the control conditions, indicates that the reactivity of effector cells is not affected by the preparation and the loading into the microsyringe (Figure 2C).
To evaluate whether effector cells survive and move within the brain parenchyma following their intra-tumoral implantation, 20 x 106 effector cells were injected into the tumor site of mice carrying a brain tumor (GBM-111). One week later, the brains were collected, fixed, sectioned, and stained for hematoxylin, eosin, and safran coloration (HES) and anti-human CD3 mAb (IHC). HES coloration identified the structure of the brain tumors (Figure 3, left panel). The CD3 staining identified and localized the effector immune T lymphocytes (here, human V&#978;9V&#948;2 T cells) (Figure 3, right panel). Interestingly, effector T lymphocytes were detected around the tumor (Figure 3, upper right panel), in the tumor core (Figure 3, middle right panel), but also in the contralateral hemisphere (Figure 3, bottom right panel). Moreover, the function of human T lymphocytes isolated from the mouse brain 48 hours after their injection (4x106 &#945;&#946; T cells), which represent 2% of the brain cells, was analyzed. The results indicate that collected brain-injected effector allogeneic &#945;&#946; T cells expand and proliferate upon a non-specific PHA-feeder cells activation performed in the presence of IL-2 (Figure 4).
Together, these results show that effector T cells prepared and administrated under these procedures survive for hours in the brain and can patrol within the tumor and healthy brain tissues. These procedures have been used for assessing the antitumor efficiency of therapeutic stereotactic administrations of allogeneic human resting V&#978;9V&#948;2 T cells to control the development of human GBM brain tumors9,11. These studies evidence that injections of allogeneic human effector T lymphocytes in the tumor bed significantly improve the survival of mice carrying brain tumors. Interestingly, surviving mice did not carry detectable tumor cells, thus indicating a complete tumor rejection.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1:&#160;Picture of the main anatomical landmarks on the mouse skull. This includes sagittal (red line) and coronal (blue line) sutures and their intersection (Bregma) used to orient the site of injection. The scale bar is indicated. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Survival and activation of prepared effector T lymphocytes. Effector cells (here, resting human peripheral V&#978;9V&#948;2 T cells) were amplified and prepared according to the described procedure. Staining of lymphocytes with propidium iodide (PI), a DNA intercalating fluorescent compound that is not permeant to live cells, and functional activation were performed. (A) This panel shows a representative plot of forward (FSC-H) versus side (SSC-H) scatter gating of effector lymphocytes (left panel). The histogram shows the PI staining of gated control lymphocytes (right panel). The percentage of PIpositive lymphocytes is indicated. (B) This panel shows the percentage of dead lymphocytes (PIpositive) collected immediately (light blue line) or after 10 min (dark blue line) in the microsyringe, measured at the indicated timepoints. As control, unloaded prepared cells were used (grey line). (n = 3; mean &#177; SD; ns = not significant.) (C) CD107a surface mobilization was measured by flow cytometry on either V&#948;2positive control cells (unprepared) or prepared lymphocytes maintained on ice (prepared + 3 h) following a coculture with target human primary brain tumor cells. The percentage of lymphocytes is indicated in each cytometric quadrant. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Detection and localization of effector T lymphocytes within the brain of tumor-bearing mice. One week after glioblastoma brain tumor implantation, effector immune cells (here, resting human peripheral V&#978;9V&#948;2 T cells) were injected into the brains of mice. One week after the immunotherapeutic treatment, the brains were collected, fixed, and sectioned. Brain sections were colored for immunohistochemistry analysis (hematoxylin, eosin, and safran [HES] coloration) (left panel) or stained with anti-human CD3 antibody (right panel). The results shown are representative of three independent experiments. The scale bar is indicated.&#160;
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57870/57870fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Activation of effector T lymphocytes collected from the brain of treated mice. Resting human T lymphocytes (here, 4 x 106 human &#945;&#946; T lymphocytes) were injected into the brains of NSG mice. After 48 hours, the brains were collected and dissociated. The percentage of human brain-infiltrating T lymphocytes was measured by flow cytometry using an anti-human CD3 antibody (bottom panel). The collected cells were seeded (10 cells/well) in 96-well U-bottomed plates and stimulated (PHA-feeder cells and IL-2) for 20 days (16 doubling cycles). Note, on day 10, 13.3 x 106 of human T lymphocytes were obtained (right panel).

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Stereotactic Adoptive Transfer of Cytotoxic Immune Cells in Murine Models of Orthotopic Human Glioblastoma Multiforme Xenografts at JoVE.com

Stereotactic Adoptive Transfer of Cytotoxic Immune Cells in Murine Models of Orthotopic Human Glioblastoma Multiforme Xenografts

Here, we present a protocol for the preparation and the stereotaxic administration of allogeneic human lymphocytes in immunodeficient mice carrying orthotopic human primary brain tumors. This study provides a proof-of-concept for both the feasibility and the antitumor efficacy of intrabrain-delivered cellular immunotherapies.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most frequent and aggressive primary brain cancer in adults, is generally associated with a poor prognosis, and scarce ...

stereotactic-adoptive-transfer-cytotoxic-immune-cells-murine-models

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

7.8K Views.  CRCINA. Here, we present a protocol for the preparation and the stereotaxic administration of allogeneic human lymphocytes in immunodeficient mice carrying orthotopic human primary brain tumors. This study provides a proof-of-concept for both the feasibility and the antitumor efficacy of intrabrain-delivered cellular immunotherapies.

Video: Stereotactic Adoptive Transfer of Cytotoxic Immune Cells in Murine Models of Orthotopic Human Glioblastoma Multiforme Xenografts

Experimental Metastasis and CTL Adoptive Transfer Immunotherapy Mouse Model

Experimental metastasis mouse model is a simple and yet physiologically relevant metastasis model. The tumor cells are injected intravenously (i.v) into mouse tail veins and colonize in the lungs, thereby, resembling the last steps of tumor cell spontaneous metastasis: survival in the circulation, extravasation and colonization in the distal organs. From a therapeutic point of view, the experimental metastasis model is the simplest and ideal model since the target of therapies is often the end point of metastasis: established metastatic tumor in the distal organ. In this model, tumor cells are injected i.v into mouse tail veins and allowed to colonize and grow in the lungs. Tumor-specific CTLs are then injected i.v into the metastases-bearing mouse. The number and size of the lung metastases can be controlled by the number of tumor cells to be injected and the time of tumor growth. Therefore, various stages of metastasis, from minimal metastasis to extensive metastasis, can be modeled. Lung metastases are analyzed by inflation with ink, thus allowing easier visual observation and quantification.

An experimental lung metastasis and CTL immunotherapy mouse model for analysis of tumor cells-T cell interaction in vivo.

Experimental metastasis mouse model is a simple and yet physiologically relevant metastasis model. The tumor cells are injected intravenously (i.v) into ...

Seven Steps to Stellate Cells

Hepatic stellate cells are liver-resident cells of star-like morphology and are located in the space of Disse between liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatocytes1,2. Stellate cells are derived from bone marrow precursors and store up to 80% of the total body vitamin A1, 2. Upon activation, stellate cells differentiate into myofibroblasts to produce extracellular matrix, thus contributing to liver fibrosis3. Based on their ability to contract, myofibroblastic stellate cells can regulate the vascular tone associated with portal hypertension4. Recently, we demonstrated that hepatic stellate cells are potent antigen presenting cells and can activate NKT cells as well as conventional T lymphocytes5. 

 Here we present a method for the efficient preparation of hepatic stellate cells from mouse liver. Due to their perisinusoidal localization, the isolation of hepatic stellate cells is a multi-step process. In order to render stellate cells accessible to isolation from the space of Disse, mouse livers are perfused in situ with the digestive enzymes Pronase E and Collagenase P. Following perfusion, the liver tissue is subjected to additional enzymatic treatment with Pronase E and Collagenase P in vitro. Subsequently, the method takes advantage of the massive amount of vitamin A-storing lipid droplets in hepatic stellate cells. This feature allows the separation of stellate cells from other hepatic cell types by centrifugation on an 8% Nycodenz gradient. The protocol described here yields a highly pure and homogenous population of stellate cells. Purity of preparations can be assessed by staining for the marker molecule glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), prior to analysis by fluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry. Further, light microscopy reveals the unique appearance of star-shaped hepatic stellate cells that harbor high amounts of lipid droplets. 


 Taken together, we present a detailed protocol for the efficient isolation of hepatic stellate cells, including representative images of their morphological appearance and GFAP expression that help to define the stellate cell entity.

Here we describe a method for the isolation of hepatic stellate cells from mouse liver. For stellate cell purification, mouse livers are digested in situ and in vitro by pronase-collagenase treatment prior to density gradient centrifugation. This technique yields highly pure hepatic stellate cells.

Hepatic stellate cells are liver-resident  cells of star-like morphology and are located in the space of Disse between  liver sinusoidal endothelial cells ...

Flow Cytometry Analysis of Immune Cells Within Murine Aortas

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory process of medium and large size vessels that is characterized by the formation of plaques consisting of foam cells, immune cells, vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, platelets, extracellular matrix, and a lipid-rich core with extensive necrosis and fibrosis of surrounding tissues.1 The innate and adaptive arms of the immune response are involved in the initiation, development and persistence of atherosclerosis.2, 3 There is a significant body of evidence that different subsets of the immune cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, T and B lymphocytes, are present within the aortas of healthy and atherosclerosis-prone mice4. Additionally, immune cells are found in the surrounding aortic adventitia which suggests an important role of this tissue in atherogenesis.2
For some time, the quantitative detection of different types of immune cells, their activation status, and the cellular composition within the aortic wall was limited by RT-PCR and immunohistochemical methods for the study of atherosclerosis. Few attempts were made to perform flow cytometry using human aortas, and a number of problems, such as a high autofluorescence, have been reported5,6. Human atherosclerotic plaques were digested with collagenase 1, and free cells were collected and stained for CD14+/CD11c+ to highlight macrophage-derived foam cells. In this study, a "mock" channel was used to avoid false-positive staining.6 Necrotic materials accumulating during the digestion process give rise in a large amount of debris that generates a high autofluorescence in aortic samples. To resolve this problem, a panel of negative and positive controls has been proposed, but only double staining could be applied in these samples. We have developed a new flow cytometry-based method7 to analyze the immune cell composition and characterize the activation, proliferation, differentiation of immune cells in healthy and atherosclerosis-prone aorta. This method allows the investigation of the immune cell composition of the aortic wall and opens possibilities to use a broad spectrum of immunological methods for investigations of immune aspects of this disease.

This paper presents a flow cytometry-based method to investigate the immune composition of aortas. The paper also illustrates an additional technique that allows examining surrounding adventitia and vessel wall separately. This method opens possibilities to perform phenotypical analyses of aortic leukocytes and apply several immunological assays for atherosclerosis studies.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory process of medium and large size vessels that is characterized by the formation of plaques consisting of foam ...

Flow Cytometric Isolation of Primary Murine Type II Alveolar Epithelial Cells for Functional and Molecular Studies

Throughout the last years, the contribution of alveolar type II epithelial cells (AECII) to various aspects of immune regulation in the lung has been increasingly recognized. AECII have been shown to participate in cytokine production in inflamed airways and to even act as antigen-presenting cells in both infection and T-cell mediated autoimmunity 1-8. Therefore, they are especially interesting also in clinical contexts such as airway hyper-reactivity to foreign and self-antigens as well as infections that directly or indirectly target AECII. However, our understanding of the detailed immunologic functions served by alveolar type II epithelial cells in the healthy lung as well as in inflammation remains fragmentary. Many studies regarding AECII function are performed using mouse or human alveolar epithelial cell lines 9-12. Working with cell lines certainly offers a range of benefits, such as the availability of large numbers of cells for extensive analyses. However, we believe the use of primary murine AECII allows a better understanding of the role of this cell type in complex processes like infection or autoimmune inflammation. Primary murine AECII can be isolated directly from animals suffering from such respiratory conditions, meaning they have been subject to all additional extrinsic factors playing a role in the analyzed setting. As an example, viable AECII can be isolated from mice intranasally infected with influenza A virus, which primarily targets these cells for replication 13. Importantly, through ex vivo infection of AECII isolated from healthy mice, studies of the cellular responses mounted upon infection can be further extended.
Our protocol for the isolation of primary murine AECII is based on enzymatic digestion of the mouse lung followed by labeling of the resulting cell suspension with antibodies specific for CD11c, CD11b, F4/80, CD19, CD45 and CD16/CD32. Granular AECII are then identified as the unlabeled and sideward scatter high (SSChigh) cell population and are separated by fluorescence activated cell sorting 3.
In comparison to alternative methods of isolating primary epithelial cells from mouse lungs, our protocol for flow cytometric isolation of AECII by negative selection yields untouched, highly viable and pure AECII in relatively short time. Additionally, and in contrast to conventional methods of isolation by panning and depletion of lymphocytes via binding of antibody-coupled magnetic beads 14, 15, flow cytometric cell-sorting allows discrimination by means of cell size and granularity. Given that instrumentation for flow cytometric cell sorting is available, the described procedure can be applied at relatively low costs. Next to standard antibodies and enzymes for lung disintegration, no additional reagents such as magnetic beads are required. The isolated cells are suitable for a wide range of functional and molecular studies, which include in vitro culture and T-cell stimulation assays as well as transcriptome, proteome or secretome analyses 3, 4.

We describe the rapid isolation of primary murine type II alveolar epithelial cells (AECII) by flow cytometric negative selection. These AECII show high viability and purity and are suitable for a wide range of functional and molecular studies regarding their role in respiratory conditions such as autoimmune or infectious diseases.

Throughout  the last years, the contribution of alveolar type II epithelial cells (AECII)  to various aspects of immune regulation in the lung has been ...

Accelerated Type 1 Diabetes Induction in Mice by Adoptive Transfer of Diabetogenic CD4+ T Cells

The nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse spontaneously develops autoimmune diabetes after 12 weeks of age and is the most extensively studied animal model of human Type 1 diabetes (T1D). Cell transfer studies in irradiated recipient mice have established that T cells are pivotal in T1D pathogenesis in this model. We describe herein a simple method to rapidly induce T1D by adoptive transfer of purified, primary CD4+ T cells from pre-diabetic NOD mice transgenic for the islet-specific T cell receptor (TCR) BDC2.5 into NOD.SCID recipient mice. The major advantages of this technique are that isolation and adoptive transfer of diabetogenic T cells can be completed within the same day, irradiation of the recipients is not required, and a high incidence of T1D is elicited within 2 weeks after T cell transfer. Thus, studies of pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions in T1D can proceed at a faster rate than with methods that rely on heterogenous T cell populations or clones derived from diabetic NOD mice.

We provide a reproducible method to induce type 1 diabetes (T1D) in mice within two weeks by the adoptive transfer of islet antigen-specific, primary CD4+ T cells.

The nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse spontaneously develops autoimmune diabetes after 12 weeks of age and is the most extensively studied animal model of ...

Assessing the Development of Murine Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells in Peyer's Patches Using Adoptive Transfer of Hematopoietic Progenitors

This protocol details a method to analyze the ability of purified hematopoietic progenitors to generate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) in intestinal Peyer&#39;s patch (PP). Common dendritic cell progenitors (CDPs, lin- c-kitlo CD115+ Flt3+) were purified from the bone marrow of C57BL6 mice by FACS and transferred to recipient mice that lack a significant pDC population in PP; in this case, Ifnar-/- mice were used as the transfer recipients. In some mice, overexpression of the dendritic cell growth factor Flt3 ligand (Flt3L) was enforced prior to adoptive transfer of CDPs, using hydrodynamic gene transfer (HGT) of Flt3L-encoding plasmid. Flt3L overexpression expands DC populations originating from transferred (or endogenous) hematopoietic progenitors. At 7-10 days after progenitor transfer, pDCs that arise from the adoptively transferred progenitors were distinguished from recipient cells on the basis of CD45 marker expression, with pDCs from transferred CDPs being CD45.1+ and recipients being CD45.2+. The ability of transferred CDPs to contribute to the pDC population in PP and to respond to Flt3L was evaluated by flow cytometry of PP single cell suspensions from recipient mice. This method may be used to test whether other progenitor populations are capable of generating PP pDCs. In addition, this approach could be used to examine the role of factors that are predicted to affect pDC development in PP, by transferring progenitor subsets with an appropriate knockdown, knockout or overexpression of the putative developmental factor and/or by manipulating circulating cytokines via HGT. This method may also allow analysis of how PP pDCs affect the frequency or function of other immune subsets in PPs. A unique feature of this method is the use of Ifnar-/- mice, which show severely depleted PP pDCs relative to wild type animals, thus allowing reconstitution of PP pDCs in the absence of confounding effects from lethal irradiation.

This protocol describes experimental procedures to assess the differentiation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in Peyer&#8217;s patch from common dendritic cell progenitors, using techniques involving FACS-mediated cell isolation, hydrodynamic gene transfer, and flow analysis of immune subsets in Peyer&#8217;s patch.

This protocol details a method to analyze the ability of purified hematopoietic progenitors to generate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) in intestinal ...

Generation of CAR T Cells for Adoptive Therapy in the Context of Glioblastoma Standard of Care

Adoptive T cell immunotherapy offers a promising strategy for specifically targeting and eliminating malignant gliomas. T cells can be engineered ex vivo to express chimeric antigen receptors specific for glioma antigens (CAR T cells). The expansion and function of adoptively transferred CAR T cells can be potentiated by the lymphodepletive and tumoricidal effects of standard of care chemotherapy and radiotherapy. We describe a method for generating CAR T cells targeting EGFRvIII, a glioma-specific antigen, and evaluating their efficacy when combined with a murine model of glioblastoma standard of care. T cells are engineered by transduction with a retroviral vector containing the anti-EGFRvIII CAR gene. Tumor-bearing animals are subjected to host conditioning by a course of temozolomide and whole brain irradiation at dose regimens designed to model clinical standard of care. CAR T cells are then delivered intravenously to primed hosts. This method can be used to evaluate the antitumor efficacy of CAR T cells in the context of standard of care.

The lymphodepletive and immunomodulatory effects of chemotherapy and radiation standard of care can be leveraged to enhance the antitumor efficacy of T cell immunotherapy. We outline a method for generating EGFRvIII-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells and administering them in the context of glioblastoma standard of care.

Adoptive T cell immunotherapy offers a promising strategy for specifically targeting and eliminating malignant gliomas. T cells can be engineered ex vivo ...

Induction of Murine Intestinal Inflammation by Adoptive Transfer of Effector CD4+CD45RBhigh T Cells into Immunodeficient Mice

There are many different animal models available for studying the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), each with its own advantages and disadvantages. We describe here an experimental colitis model that is initiated by adoptive transfer of syngeneic splenic CD4+CD45RBhigh T cells into T and B cell deficient recipient mice. The CD4+CD45RBhigh T cell population that largely consists of na&#239;ve effector cells is capable of inducing chronic intestinal inflammation, closely resembling key aspects of human IBD. This method can be manipulated to study aspects of disease onset and progression. Additionally it can be used to study the function of innate, adaptive, and regulatory immune cell populations, and the role of environmental exposures, i.e., the microbiota, in intestinal inflammation. In this article we illustrate the methodology for inducing colitis with a step-by-step protocol. This includes a video demonstration of key technical aspects required to successfully develop this murine model of experimental colitis for research purposes.

Induction of Murine Intestinal Inflammation by Adoptive Transfer of Effector CD4+CD45RBhigh T Cells into Immunodeficient Mice

Here, we present a protocol to induce colonic inflammation in mice by adoptive transfer of syngeneic CD4+CD45RBhigh T cells into T and B cell deficient recipients. Clinical and histopathological features mimic human inflammatory bowel diseases. This method allows the study of the initiation of colonic inflammation and progression of disease.

There are many different animal models available for studying the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), each with its own advantages ...

Assessment of the Cytotoxic and Immunomodulatory Effects of Substances in Human Precision-cut Lung Slices

Respiratory diseases in their broad diversity need appropriate model systems to understand the underlying mechanisms and enable development of new therapeutics. Additionally, registration of new substances requires appropriate risk assessment with adequate testing systems to avoid the risk of individuals being harmed, for example, in the working environment. Such risk assessments are usually conducted in animal studies. In view of the 3Rs principle and public skepticism against animal experiments, human alternative methods, such as precision-cut lung slices (PCLS), have been evolving. The present paper describes the ex vivo technique of human PCLS to study the immunomodulatory potential of low-molecular-weight substances, such as ammonium hexachloroplatinate (HClPt). Measured endpoints include viability and local respiratory inflammation, marked by altered secretion of cytokines and chemokines. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;), and interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1&#945;) were significantly increased in human PCLS after exposure to a sub-toxic concentration of HClPt. Even though the technique of PCLS has been substantially optimized over the past decades, its applicability for the testing of immunomodulation is still in development. Therefore, the results presented here are preliminary, even though they show the potential of human PCLS as a valuable tool in respiratory research.

In view of the 3Rs principle, respiratory models as alternatives to animal studies are evolving. Especially for risk assessment of respiratory substances, there is a lack of appropriate assays. Here, we describe the use of human precision-cut lung slices for the assessment of airborne substances.

Respiratory diseases in their broad diversity need appropriate model systems to understand the underlying mechanisms and enable development of new ...

Light-sheet Microscopy for Three-dimensional Visualization of Human Immune Cells

In vivo, activation, proliferation, and function of immune cells all occur in a three-dimensional (3D) environment, for instance in lymph nodes or tissues. Up to date, most in vitro systems rely on two-dimensional (2D) surfaces, such as cell-culture plates or coverslips. To optimally mimic physiological conditions in vitro, we utilize a simple 3D collagen matrix. Collagen is one of the major components of extracellular matrix (ECM) and has been widely used to constitute 3D matrices. For 3D imaging, the recently developed light-sheet microscopy technology (also referred to as single plane illumination microscopy) is featured with high acquisition speed, large penetration depth, low bleaching, and photocytotoxicity. Furthermore, light-sheet microscopy is particularly advantageous for long-term measurement. Here we describe an optimized protocol how to set up and handle human immune cells, e.g. primary human cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells in the 3D collagen matrix for usage with the light-sheet microscopy for live cell imaging and fixed samples. The procedure for image acquisition and analysis of cell migration are presented. A particular focus is given to highlight critical steps and factors for sample preparation and data analysis. This protocol can be employed for other types of suspension cells in a 3D collagen matrix and is not limited to immune cells.

Here, we present a protocol to visualize immune cells embedded in a three-dimensional (3D) collagen matrix using light-sheet microscopy. This protocol also elaborates how to track cell migration in 3D. This protocol can be employed for other types of suspension cells in the 3D matrix.