This project was supported by NIH grants DA19112 (DGW) and DA026994 (CMO). Illustration was provided by Katherine Louderback. Experiments were performed in the Vanderbilt Murine Neurobehavioral Laboratory.

1. Write program to run operant test sessions using varied visual and auditory stimuli as a reinforcer
<ol>
	<li>For fixed ratio (FR) sessions: make sessions one hour in length with house light and fan turned on during session. For progressive ratio sessions, make sessions two hours in length. Have both levers extended for the duration of the session and counterbalance which lever is designated "active" vs. "inactive" across animals (lever assignment for each animal never changes).</li>
	<li>Code the program in such a way that each reinforcer is varied according to the following parameters:
	<ul>
		<li>each reinforcer has one of the following durations chosen randomly: 2, 4, 6, or 8 sec.</li>
		<li>each reinforcer has one of the following stimulus lamp flash rates chosen randomly: 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, or 5 Hz, each with a 50% duty cycle.</li>
		<li>each stimulus lamp flash is randomly on either the left or the right side of the chamber.</li>
		<li>provide an auditory stimulus for the duration of the reinforcer; in our laboratory, we trigger an infusion pump which provides sound approximately 3 dB above the background noise in the chamber.</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li>Code the program to display the following values in real time: 1. Number of active lever presses, 2. Number of inactive lever presses, 3. Number of reinforcers, 4. Time (in 0.1 second increments).</li>
</ol>
2. Handle animals (3 day procedure)
<ol>
	<li>After acclimation to the animal facility, begin handling the animals. This will habituate the animals to being picked up and transported.</li>
	<li>Start by placing gloved hands into the cage and letting them sit for 90 sec. If every mouse has not investigated your hands in that time, gently move hands toward mice and wait for each one to sniff and/or contact your hands before proceeding.</li>
	<li>Carefully pick up each mouse one by one by the base of the tail and place it on your hand, quickly lifting it up and bringing it back down to allow the mouse to walk off of your hand back into the cage.</li>
	<li>Repeat for each mouse 5-10 times, depending on the demeanor of the mouse. The final time this is done, hold the mouse high (with it standing on your hand) for a period of time, depending on the day. Day 1: 5 sec, Day 2: 10 sec, Day 3: 15 sec. Ensure that each mouse meets this criterion for the day. On Day 1, change gloves between cages.</li>
	<li>Beginning on Day 2, stroke the animal's back while the mouse is on your hand. Also on Day 2, begin weighing the animals daily. Mark each animal's tail with a Sharpie to denote subject number.</li>
	<li>If injections will be given during the experiment, begin habituating mice to injections on Day 2. This should be done after all mice in the cage have been handled and met the criterion for the day.</li>
</ol>
3. Clean and test equipment
<ol>
	<li>Wash bottom pan with hot water.</li>
	<li>Clean operant chamber walls and floors with 30% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Run a test program that turns on house light, fan, and stimulus lights, extends levers, and records lever presses.</li>
	<li>Ensure that all lights and fans are operating correctly and test the program to ensure that all lever presses are recorded.</li>
	<li>Clean levers with 30% ethanol.</li>
</ol>
4. Perform operant session (sessions should be 5-6 days/week at the same time of day)
<ol>
	<li>Weigh each mouse.</li>
	<li>Load the program into each chamber and annotate the experiment appropriately. The active lever should be counterbalanced between animals (i.e., the active lever is assigned to the left lever for half of the mice; the right lever is active for the other half), but the active lever side never changes once mouse a mouse has been assigned.</li>
	<li>Transport each mouse to its designated chamber, close the chamber, and start the session.</li>
	<li>After the session ends, promptly remove the mouse and re-mark the tail.</li>
	<li>Clean chambers as described in Section 3.</li>
	<li>Analyze data for number of active and inactive lever presses. Number of reinforcers and/or lever accuracy (% active lever presses) can also be reported. If mice are going to be tested for the effect of a treatment on OSS, ensure that all mice to be tested have met acquisition criteria (for example, &gt;20 active lever presses and >65% active lever presses for final three FR-1 sessions) prior to beginning treatment.</li>
	<li>After acquisition of FR-1 responding, the schedule of reinforcement can be changed (for example, a higher fixed ratio, progressive ratio, random ratio, etc.).</li>
</ol>
5. Representative Results
An example of OSS acquisition by male C57Bl/6J mice is shown in Figure 1 (reproduced from 23). Control mice underwent identical conditions, except that lever presses on either lever had no consequence. Another cohort of mice is shown in Figure 2. In this experiment, one group of mice received OSS reinforcement, while another group received food reinforcement. We have found that under conditions of ad libitum access to food, both fixed and progressive ratio responding are similar between OSS and responding for 10% Ensure (Figure 2, A and B). This allows for effective comparisons of a manipulation on two different reinforcement types (sensory and food) that avoids potential confounds resulting from hunger state or differences in response rate.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2292/2292fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1: Lever presses by OSS mice and controls. OSS mice received varied visual and auditory stimuli following each active lever press (FR-1 schedule of reinforcement), while inactive lever presses had no consequence. Control mice underwent the same conditions but there was no consequence of pressing either lever (levers are denoted 1 and 2 and are counterbalanced across animals in the same manner that active and inactive levers are counterbalanced for OSS mice). Active lever pressing by OSS mice was increased relative to inactive lever pressing (*p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01) and to non-reinforced lever pressing by controls (n=7 8, $p&lt;0.05, $$p&lt;0.01). Figure reproduced from 23.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2292/2292fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> Figure 2: Lever presses by OSS mice and mice responding for food. A.) Mice responded on an FR-1 schedule of reinforcement for OSS stimuli or food reinforcer (10% Ensure). All mice had ad libidum access to food for the duration of the experiments. B.) After FR-1 sessions, mice were advanced to a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement for five days. Data represent the means of values from days four and five for each animal. The final ratio completed is reported on the right Y-axis and refers to the number of responses required to obtain the corresponding reinforcer (i.e. 30 responses are required to obtain the 10th reinforcer after previously earning nine reinforcers).

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+pharmacotherapies+for+drug+addiction:+a+Rosetta+stone+approach.">Development of pharmacotherapies for drug addiction: a Rosetta stone approach.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 8, 500-515 (2009).</li><li>Arnold, J. M., Roberts, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critique+of+fixed+and+progressive+ratio+schedules+used+to+examine+the+neural+substrates+of+drug+reinforcement.">A critique of fixed and progressive ratio schedules used to examine the neural substrates of drug reinforcement.</a> Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 57, 441-447 (1997).</li><li>O'Brien, C. P., Gardner, E. 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No conflicts of interest declared.

Operant sensation seeking is a useful alternative to intravenous drug self-administration when the mouse is the animal of choice. The fact that neither surgery nor catheter maintenance is required is advantageous, as these are significant technical hurdles in the mouse. OSS is also attractive because it may be measuring aspects of reinforcement distinct from other natural reinforcers such as food.
It is useful to note that behavioral measures in the mouse can be highly variable across different environmental conditions 24. This issue has arisen in our own laboratory with OSS. When the procedure was first characterized, animals were housed in a facility that had high traffic and a large number of people working in it throughout the day. During this time, mice were housed on a "normal" light cycle (lights on: 0600-1800 h; experiments run ~0800-1400). After moving to a dedicated housing facility within the Vanderbilt Neurobehavioral Laboratory, we found that progressive ratio performance of OSS was much lower than we had previously observed; responding declined over five days instead of remaining stable. This facility has much less traffic and personnel are trained to work quietly and be aware of the sensitive nature of experiments performed in the facility. We have since adjusted the mice to a light cycle that promotes wakefulness during the time of experimentation (lights on: 1500-0300 h; experiments run ~0800-1400 h) and OSS performance has returned to what we have previously noted.
The following is a description of our standard conditions for OSS experiments. Male C57Bl/6J mice are ordered at 3 weeks of age from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, ME) and housed in the modified light cycle for at least one week prior to experiments. Animals are housed in groups of 2-5 in corn cobb bedding supplemented with a small amount of cellulose (Care Fresh). Experiments are performed 5-6 days per week and cage changes are only performed prior to a day without experiments. While these are our standard conditions, we have found that female and older mice (up to 20 weeks) are also capable of acquiring OSS. We are currently examining other variables that may affect OSS performance. While it is known that static visual stimuli are capable of serving as reinforcers in mice 17, it is unknown whether the approach of enhancing the dynamics of the stimuli that we and others have employed 20,22,23 lead to increased reinforcement in the current conditions. Another variable that may affect OSS is mouse strain. Strain differences have been described in mice for a variety of behavioral and neurological measures 25-29, and differential performance on OSS and operant responding for food may provide insight into genetic underpinnings of this behavior.

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		<div>
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		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
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<tr>
<td>Drug self-administration test package for mouse: extra-wide chamber and retractable levers</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.med-associates.com/">Med Associates, Inc</a></td>
<td>MED-307W-CT-D1</td>
<td>Levers are ultra-sensitive (require ~2 grams force) and are mounted 2.2 cm above the floor. Yellow stimulus lamps are mounted 2 cm above each lever.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Interface and software package</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.med-associates.com/">Med Associates, Inc</a></td>
<td>MED-SYST-16</td>
<td>This is the package for up to 16 chambers.</td>
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operant sensation seeking in the mouse

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior. These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug addiction research due to their high construct validity. Operant studies provide researchers a tool for preclinical investigation of several aspects of the addiction process. For example, mechanisms of acute reinforcement (both drug and non-drug) can be tested using pharmacological or genetic tools to determine the ability of a molecular target to influence self-administration behavior1-6. Additionally, drug or food seeking behaviors can be studied in the absence of the primary reinforcer, and the ability of pharmacological compounds to disrupt this process is a preclinical model for discovery of molecular targets and compounds that may be useful for the treatment of addiction3,7-9. One problem with performing intravenous drug self-administration studies in the mouse is the technical difficulty of maintaining catheter patency. Attrition rates in these experiments are high and can reach 40% or higher10-15. Another general problem with drug self-administration is discerning which pharmacologically-induced effects of the reinforcer produce specific behaviors. For example, measurement of the reinforcing and neurological effects of psychostimulants can be confounded by their psychomotor effects. Operant methods using food reinforcement can avoid these pitfalls, although their utility in studying drug addiction is limited by the fact that some manipulations that alter drug self-administration have a minimal impact on food self-administration. For example, mesolimbic dopamine lesion or knockout of the D1 dopamine receptor reduce cocaine self-administration without having a significant impact on food self-administration 12,16. 
Sensory stimuli have been described for their ability to support operant responding as primary reinforcers (i.e. not conditioned reinforcers)17-22. Auditory and visual stimuli are self-administered by several species18,21,23, although surprisingly little is known about the neural mechanisms underlying this reinforcement. The operant sensation seeking (OSS) model is a robust model for obtaining sensory self-administration in the mouse, allowing the study of neural mechanisms important in sensory reinforcement24. An additional advantage of OSS is the ability to screen mutant mice for differences in operant behavior that may be relevant to addiction. We have reported that dopamine D1 receptor knockout mice, previously shown to be deficient in psychostimulant self-administration, also fail to acquire OSS24. This is a unique finding in that these mice are capable of learning an operant task when food is used as a reinforcer. While operant studies using food reinforcement can be useful in the study of general motivated behavior and the mechanisms underlying food reinforcement, as mentioned above, these studies are limited in their application to studying molecular mechanisms of drug addiction. Thus, there may be similar neural substrates mediating sensory and psychostimulant reinforcement that are distinct from food reinforcement, which would make OSS a particularly attractive model for the study of drug addiction processes. The degree of overlap between other molecular targets of OSS and drug reinforcers is unclear, but is a topic that we are currently pursuing. While some aspects of addiction such as resistance to extinction may be observed with OSS, we have found that escalation 25 is not observed in this model24. Interestingly, escalation of intake and some other aspects of addiction are observed with self-administration of sucrose26. Thus, when non-drug operant procedures are desired to study addiction-related processes, food or sensory reinforcers can be chosen to best fit the particular question being asked. 
In conclusion, both food self-administration and OSS in the mouse have the advantage of not requiring an intravenous catheter, which allows a higher throughput means to study the effects of pharmacological or genetic manipulation of neural targets involved in motivation. While operant testing using food as a reinforcer is particularly useful in the study of the regulation of food intake, OSS is particularly apt for studying reinforcement mechanisms of sensory stimuli and may have broad applicability to novelty seeking and addiction.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse at JoVE.com

Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

In this protocol we describe a method of operant learning using sensory stimuli as a reinforcer in the mouse. It requires no prior training or food restriction, and it allows the study of motivated behavior without the use of a pharmacological or natural reinforcer such as food.

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior.  These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug ...

Nanyang Technological University

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Neuroscience

12.9K Views.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center. In this protocol we describe a method of operant learning using sensory stimuli as a reinforcer in the mouse. It requires no prior training or food restriction, and it allows the study of motivated behavior without the use of a pharmacological or natural reinforcer such as food.

Video: Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

A Procedure for Studying the Footshock-Induced Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Laboratory Rats

The most insidious aspect of drug addiction is the high propensity for relapse. Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been used extensively to study the neurobiology and phenomenology of relapse to drug use. Although procedural variations have emerged over the past several decades, the most conventional reinstatement procedures are based on the drug self-administration (SA) model. In this model, an animal is trained to perform an operant response to obtain drug. Subsequently, the behavior is extinguished by withholding response-contingent reinforcement. Reinstatement of drug seeking is then triggered by a discrete event, such as an injection of the training drug, re-exposure to drug-associated cues, or exposure to a stressor 1.
Reinstatement procedures were originally developed to study the ability of acute non-contingent exposure to the training drug to reinstate drug seeking in rats and monkeys 1, 2. Reinstatement procedures have since been modified to study the role of environmental stimuli, including drug-associated cues and exposure to various forms of stress, in relapse to drug seeking 1, 3, 4.
Over the past 15 years, a major focus of the reinstatement literature has been on the role of stress in drug relapse. One of the most commonly used forms of stress for studying this relationship is acute exposures to mild, intermittent, electric footshocks. The ability of footshock stress to induce reinstatement of drug seeking was originally demonstrated by Shaham and colleagues (1995) in rats with a history of intravenous heroin SA5. Subsequently, the effect was generalized to rats with histories of intravenous cocaine, methamphetamine, and nicotine SA, as well as oral ethanol SA 3, 6.
Although footshock-induced reinstatement of drug seeking can be achieved reliably and robustly, it is an effect that tends to be sensitive to certain parametrical variables. These include the arrangement of extinction and reinstatement test sessions, the intensity and duration of footshock stress, and the presence of drug-associated cues during extinction and testing for reinstatement. Here we present a protocol for footshock-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking that we have used with consistent success to study the relationship between stress and cocaine seeking.

Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been used extensively to study the role of stress in relapse to drug seeking. Here, we report on a method for inducing the reinstatement of cocaine seeking in laboratory rats via acute exposures to mild, intermittent electric footshock.

The most insidious aspect of drug addiction is the high propensity for relapse.  Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been ...

Multiple-mouse Neuroanatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The field of mouse phenotyping with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is rapidly growing, motivated by the need for improved tools for characterizing and evaluating mouse models of human disease. MRI is an excellent modality for investigating genetically altered animals. It is capable of whole brain coverage, can be used in vivo, and provides multiple contrast mechanisms for investigating different aspects of neuranatomy and physiology. The advent of high-field scanners along with the ability to scan multiple mice simultaneously allows for rapid phenotyping of novel mutations.
Effective mouse MRI studies require attention to many aspects of experiment design. In this article, we will describe general methods to acquire quality images for mouse phenotyping using a system that images mice concurrently in shielded transmit/receive radio frequency (RF) coils in a common magnet (Bock et al., 2003). We focus particularly on anatomical phenotyping, an important and accessible application that has shown a high potential for impact in many mouse models at our imaging centre. Before we can provide the detailed steps to acquire such images, there are important practical considerations for both in vivo brain imaging (Dazai et al., 2004) and ex vivo brain imaging (Spring et al., 2007) that should be noted. These are discussed below.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become an increasingly popular tool for examining the phenotype of genetically altered mice. This article illustrates the methods necessary to achieve high-throughput phenotyping of genetically altered mice using multiple-mouse MRI.

The field of mouse phenotyping with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is rapidly growing, motivated by the need for improved tools for characterizing and ...

Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. The central component of neuritic plaques is a small filamentous protein called amyloid &beta; protein (A&beta;)1, which is derived from sequential proteolytic cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &beta;-secretase and &gamma;-secretase. The amyloid hypothesis entails that A&gamma;-containing plaques as the underlying toxic mechanism in AD pathology2. The postmortem analysis of the presence of neuritic plaque confirms the diagnosis of AD. To further our understanding of A&gamma; neurobiology in AD pathogenesis, various mouse strains expressing AD-related mutations in the human APP genes were generated. Depending on the severity of the disease, these mice will develop neuritic plaques at different ages. These mice serve as invaluable tools for studying the pathogenesis and drug development that could affect the APP processing pathway and neuritic plaque formation. In this protocol, we employ an immunohistochemical method for specific detection of neuritic plaques in AD model mice. We will specifically discuss the preparation from extracting the half brain, paraformaldehyde fixation, cryosectioning, and two methods to detect neurotic plaques in AD transgenic mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thiofalvin S staining method.

One of the pathological characteristics of AD is the formation of Amyloid &#x03B2; protein positive neuritic plaques. In this protocol we describe two methods to detect neuritic plaques in transgenic AD model mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thioflavin S staining method.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks ...

The Mouse Forced Swim Test

The forced swim test is a rodent behavioral test used for evaluation of antidepressant drugs, antidepressant efficacy of new compounds, and experimental manipulations that are aimed at rendering or preventing depressive-like states. Mice are placed in an inescapable transparent tank that is filled with water and their escape related mobility behavior is measured. The forced swim test is straightforward to conduct reliably and it requires minimal specialized equipment. Successful implementation of the forced swim test requires adherence to certain procedural details and minimization of unwarranted stress to the mice. In the protocol description and the accompanying video, we explain how to conduct the mouse version of this test with emphasis on potential pitfalls that may be detrimental to interpretation of results and how to avoid them. Additionally, we explain how the behaviors manifested in the test are assessed.

The forced swim test is validated as an experimental approach to assess potential antidepressant efficacy in rodents. Experimental animals are placed in a tank of water and escape-related mobility behavior is quantified. The common procedures for the mouse version of this test are described.

The forced swim test is a rodent behavioral test used for evaluation of antidepressant drugs, antidepressant efficacy of new compounds, and experimental ...

Microdialysis of Ethanol During Operant Ethanol Self-administration and Ethanol Determination by Gas Chromatography

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol. However, ethanol is typically self-administered orally, rather than intravenously like many other drugs of abuse. The pharmacokinetics of orally administered drugs are more complex than intravenously administered drugs. Because understanding the relationship between the pharmacological and behavioral effects of ethanol requires knowledge of the time course of ethanol reaching the brain during and after drinking, we use in vivo microdialysis and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection to monitor brain dialysate ethanol concentrations over time. 
Combined microdialysis-behavioral experiments involve the use of several techniques. In this article, stereotaxic surgery, behavioral training and microdialysis, which can be adapted to test a multitude of self-administration and neurochemical centered hypotheses, are included only to illustrate how they relate to the subsequent phases of sample collection and dialysate ethanol analysis. Dialysate ethanol concentration analysis via gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection, which is specific to ethanol studies, is described in detail. Data produced by these methods reveal the pattern of ethanol reaching the brain during the self-administration procedure, and when paired with neurochemical analysis of the same dialysate samples, allows conclusions to be made regarding the pharmacological and behavioral effects of ethanol.

A method to determine the time course of ethanol concentration in the brains of rats during operant ethanol self-administration is described. Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection is used to quantify ethanol in the dialysate samples, because it has the sensitivity required for the small volumes that are generated.

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol.  ...

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We demonstrate a simple way to tap into the fly reward system, modify experiences related to natural reward, and use voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states. The approach serves as a relevant tool to study the neurons and genes that play a role in experience-mediated changes of internal state. The protocol is composed of two discrete parts: exposing the flies to rewarding and nonrewarding experiences, and assaying voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure of the motivation to obtain a drug reward. The two parts can be used independently to induce the modulation of experience as an initial step for further downstream assays or as an independent two-choice feeding assay, respectively. The protocol does not require a complicated setup and can therefore be applied in any laboratory with basic fly culture tools.

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for inducing rewarding and nonrewarding experiences in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) using voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states.

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We ...

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their consequences. This process is integral to the normal human behavior and has been shown to be disrupted by neurological and psychiatric disorders such as addiction, schizophrenia, and depression. Rodents have long been used to uncover the neurobiology of human cognition. To this end, several behavioral tasks have been developed; however, most are non-automated and are labor-intensive. The recent development of the open-source microcontroller has enabled researchers to automate operant-based tasks for assessing a variety of cognitive tasks, standardizing the stimulus presentation, improving the data recording and consequently, improving the research output. Here, we describe an automated delay-based reinforcement-guided decision-making task, using an operant T-maze controlled by custom-written software programs. Using these decision-making tasks, we show the changes in the local field potential activities in the anterior cingulate cortex of a rat whilst it performs a delay-based cost-and-benefit decision-making task.

A cost-benefit analysis is a weighing-scale approach that the brain performs during the course of decision making. Here, we propose a protocol to train rats on an operant-based decision-making paradigm where rats choose higher rewards at the expense of waiting for 15 s to receive them.

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...

Localization of the Locus Coeruleus in the Mouse Brain

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional abnormalities of LC impact several brain regions including cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum and may contribute to depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, as well as Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease. These disorders are often associated with metal misbalance, but the role of metals in LC is only partially understood. Morphologic and functional studies of LC are needed to better understand the human pathologies and contribution of metals. Mice are a widely used experimental model, but the mouse LC is small (~0.3 mm diameter) and hard to identify for a non-expert. Here, we describe a step-by-step immunohistochemistry-based protocol to localize the LC in the mouse brain. Dopamine-&#946;-hydroxylase (DBH), and alternatively, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), both enzymes highly expressed in the LC, are used as immunohistochemical markers in brain slices. Sections adjacent to LC-containing sections can be used for further analysis, including histology for morphological studies, metabolic testing, as well as metal imaging by X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM).

The locus coeruleus is a small cluster of neurons involved in a variety of physiological processes. Here, we describe a protocol to prepare mouse brain sections for studies of proteins and metals in this nucleus.

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional ...

Cochlear Surface Preparation in the Adult Mouse

Auditory processing in the cochlea depends on the integrity of the mechanosensory hair cells. Over a lifetime, hearing loss can be acquired from numerous etiologies such as exposure to excessive noise, the use of ototoxic medications, bacterial or viral ear infections, head injuries, and the aging process. Loss of sensory hair cells is a common pathological feature of the varieties of acquired hearing loss. Additionally, the inner hair cell synapse can be damaged by mild insults. Therefore, surface preparations of cochlear epithelia, in combination with immunolabeling techniques and confocal imagery, are a very useful tool for the investigation of cochlear pathologies, including losses of ribbon synapses and sensory hair cells, changes in protein levels in hair cells and supporting cells, hair cell regeneration, and determination of report gene expression (i.e., GFP) for verification of successful transduction and identification of transduced cell types. The cochlea, a bony spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear, holds the auditory sensory end organ, the organ of Corti (OC). Sensory hair cells and surrounding supporting cells in the OC are contained in the cochlear duct and rest on the basilar membrane, organized in a tonotopic fashion with high-frequency detection occurring in the base and low-frequency in the apex. With the availability of molecular and genetic information and the ability to manipulate genes by knockout and knock-in techniques, mice have been widely used in biological research, including in hearing science. However, the adult mouse cochlea is miniscule, and the cochlear epithelium is encapsulated in a bony labyrinth, making microdissection difficult. Although dissection techniques have been developed and used in many laboratories, this modified microdissection method using cell and tissue adhesive is easier and more convenient. It can be used in all types of adult mouse cochleae following decalcification.

This article presents a modified cochlear surface preparation method that requires decalcification and use of a cell and tissue adhesive to adhere the pieces of cochlear epithelia to 10 mm round cover slips for immunohistochemistry in adult mouse cochleae.

Auditory processing in the cochlea depends on the integrity of the mechanosensory hair cells. Over a lifetime, hearing loss can be acquired from numerous ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...