Bu araştırma minnetle bir doktora eğitim hibe yoluyla finanse Mühendislik ve Fizik Bilimleri Araştırma Konseyi (EPSRC) desteği ile yürütülmektedir. Açık erişim makale işleme ücretleri (APC) Araştırma Konseyleri UK (RCUK) tarafından finanse edildi. Tüm veriler çalışmanın sonuçları bölümde tam olarak verilmektedir. Temsilcisi sonuçları önceden yazarlar 42 tarafından yayınlanmıştır. Biz hücrelerinin elektriksel performansını karakterize yaptığı yardım için Exeter Üniversitesi&#39;nden Dr. Senthilarasu Sundaram teşekkür etmek istiyorum.

1. Mürekkep Formülasyon Not: Mürekkep formülasyonları genellikle üreticiler tarafından oldukça korunan gizli tutulur. Başarılı formülasyonlar denge jeti, fonksiyonel performans yanında oluşumu, ıslatma ve kurutma davranışı bırakın. Genellikle fonksiyonel malzeme bir çözücü içinde dağıtılır ve en az bir başka bileşen bunları jettable yapmak. Bu bölümde mürekkep püskürtmeli baskı içinde kullanılmak üzere bir TiO2 mürekkep gelişimini göstermektedir. mürekkep bir küçük ölçekli, aşağıdaki yöntem ile hazırlanmıştır. Dikkat: Mürekkep preparat, göz koruyucu gözlük ve Lateks eldiven ederken, bir davlumbaz altında, uygun bir havalandırmalı bir alanda, örneğin yapılmalıdır. <ol><li> yaklaşık 4 olan bir pH elde etmek hidroklorik asit (HCI) içindeki bir 0.1 mM sulu çözelti hazırlayın. </li><li> (Örneğin, dimetilformamid (DMF) gibi), su daha yüksek bir kaynama noktasına ve en düşük yüzey gerilimine sahip uygun bir çözücü içinde 8 g asit çözeltisi 32 g ekleyin. bir ko-Solv ilavesibir kurutma maddesi olarak ent görür damlacık 21 yüzeyi üzerine nanopartiküllerinin tek tip bir yerleşime gelen mürekkep buharlaşır mürekkep damlacığı içindeki sirkülasyon akışı başlatmak için. </li><li> katkı maddesi (propilen glikol ve su içinde tetrametil-5-desin-4,7-diol,% 45 aktif çözelti) dağıtıcı 1.5 g ekleyin. </li><li> memelerde kurumasını önlemek için bir nemlendirici olarak, etilen glikol, 10 g ekleyin. </li><li> gelişmekte olan hava kabarcıklarını önlemek için mürekkep köpük giderici ajan (methoxypolyethyleneglycol içinde asetilenik diol 20% aktif çözelti) 0.5 g ekleyin. </li><li> kapalı bir kap içine mürekkep bir kısım alarak basit bir sarsıntı testi yapın ve 60 saniye boyunca elle çalkalanır. köpüğü görülmektedir sonra mürekkep köpük alma maddesi bir başka 0.5 g ekleyin. </li><li> Oda sıcaklığında homojenliği sağlamak için manyetik bir karıştırma çubuğu kullanılarak 8 saat çözüm karıştırın. </li><li> Titanyum dioksit 1.5 g ekleme (TiO2) birincil 21 nm parçacık boyutu ve yüzey alanı Nanopartiküllerin35-65 m2 / g. </li><li> 60 Hz&#39;lik bir frekansta, 15 dakika boyunca ultrasonik prob kullanılarak karışımın sonikasyon. </li><li> bu meme açıklıklarından kolay akacak sağlamak için, üreticinin protokolüne göre olan dinamik ışık saçılımı (DLS) gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak, tanecik boyutları ölçün. Aynı koşullar altında, ölçüm (örn., Aynı çözücü, pH, dağıtıcı madde konsantrasyonu) mürekkep içinde topakların oluşumunu etkileyen her parça mürekkep için kullanılacak sağlayın. Başarılı jeti için, sıvı içinde parçacıkların meme açıklığı 100 kat daha küçük olmalıdır. </li><li> mürekkep püskürtmeli baskı 2 ila 20 centipoise (cP) düşük viskoziteli mürekkep gerektirir baskı kafası güvenilir jeti sağlamak için, üreticinin protokolüne uygun olarak bu tür bir döner viskometre gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak, mürekkebin viskozitesi ölçülür. Additi ile viskoziteyi arttırmakpolimerik malzemeler veya selüloz bazlı malzeme ile; Ancak bu baskılı film 22 içinde boya siteleri boşaltmak için birikimi sonra kaldırılması gerekir. </li><li> güvenilir jeti sağlamak için, üreticinin protokolüne göre, bir tansiyometre gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak, mürekkep yüzey gerilimi ölçülür. mürekkep püskürtmeli yazıcılar için jettable sıvı formülasyon yönergeleri güvenilir yazdırmayı etkinleştirmek için 28 ve 33 mN / m arasında bir yüzey gerilimini göstermektedir. </li></ol> 2. Mürekkep Püskürtmeli Baskı <ol><li> baskı öncesinde (bir sulu baz içinde, anyonik ve iyonik olmayan yüzey aktif maddelerin bir karışımının maddeleri, alkaliler, fosfat-olmayan deterjan etkinliğini arttırıcı maddeleri ve kompleks dengeleyici maddeler) ve deterjanın bir temizleme ağırlıkça% 2 çözeltisi içinde, cam substratlar emmek deiyonize su. kirlenme ve deterjan temizlik izlerini silmek için temizleme çözeltisinden çıkarılır en kısa sürede, deiyonize su ile iyice cam durulayın. </li&gt; <li> Bu üreticinin protokolüne göre bir tansiyometre gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak substrata yüzey enerjisini, ölçün. / M 15 mN - iyi bir yapışma için, alt-tabakanın yüzey enerjisi 10 daha sıvının yüzey gerilimini aşmamalıdır. Bu uygun değilse, bu korona muamelesi 23, plazma işlemi 24 ve kimyasal aşındırma 25 gibi yöntemler kullanılarak alt-tabakanın yüzey enerjisini değiştirir. </li><li> üreticinin protokolüne göre yazıcının içine substrat yükleyin. </li><li> rezervuar ve memeleri içinde herhangi bir hava veya temizleme solüsyonu yerinden başın yan tarafında bulunan bağlantı noktası üzerinden mürekkep ile baskı kafasını yıkayın. </li><li> yazıcının içine yazıcı kafası takın. Baş kişilik yönetim kurulu ile yazıcı kafasını takın. </li><li> Sadece memeleri yapışmasına neden olabilir büyük parçacık agrega kaldırmak için kartuş içine yüklemeden önce doğru boyutta filtre ile mürekkebi Filtre.Yazıcı kafası, bu çalışmada kullanılan 40 um bir çapı olan ağzı vardır (örneğin Konica KM512.); Bu nedenle, mürekkep çapı 400 nm&#39;den parçacıklar içermemesi gerekir. herhangi bir büyük partikülleri ortadan kaldırmak için bir 1.2 um poliviniliden florit (PVDF), filtre ve ardından, 5 um, üzerinden süspansiyonlar geçirin. </li><li> baskı kafasına mürekkep malzemeleri baskı kafası üzerinde bulunan 150 ml şırınga, içine mürekkep yükleyin. şırınganın üstünde hava geçirmez kapağı takın ve vakum pompası açın. </li><li> vakum pompası üzerinde bulunan &#39;tasfiye&#39; düğmesine basarak memeler boyunca mürekkebi temizleyin. </li><li> coğrafi bilgi sistemi (CBS) baskı sunucusu aracılığıyla, set-up dalga ve baskı parametrelerini. ancak bu mürekkep için saniyede 0.3 metre baskı hızı optimum kaplama sağlamak bulunmuştur yazıcı, saniyede 1.5 metre hıza kadar yazdırabilirsiniz unutmayın </li><li> Açık CBS kullanıcı arayüzü yazılımı ve istenilen desen yükleyin. </li><li> Prüreticinin protokolüne uygun olarak yüklenen kartuş int. </li><li> levhanın alt tabakanın çıkarın ve 30 dakika daha ya da sıcak bir levha ya da bir fırın içinde 250 ° C, ardından 30 dakika boyunca 150 ° C&#39;de baskılı film, ısı. </li></ol> Baskılı Filmleri 3. Analiz <ol><li> basılı filmlerin gözenekliliğini analiz yüzey morfolojisi analiz düşük büyütme (100X) basılan filmlerin yüzeyinde ve yüksek büyütme (35,000X) bakmak için bir optik mikroskop ya da taramalı elektron mikroskobu (SEM) kullanın. görüntüler hiçbir çatlak ve iyi gözenekli homojen bir kapsama gösterdiğini kontrol edin. SEM işleyişi hakkında ayrıntılı bilgi aşağıdaki referanslarda 26,27 bulunabilir. </li><li> Bu üreticinin protokolüne göre bir yüzey Profiler gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak, basılı tabaka kalınlığı ölçülür. TiO2 tabakası zekâ kalınlığı ve gözenekliliğihin DSSCs dolayısıyla hücre 18 genel elektrik dönüşüm verimliliği etkileyen nanopartiküllerinin yüzeyi üzerine absorbe edilebilir boya miktarını etkilemektedir. Nedenle, ortaya koymak için de önemli bir parametredir. basılı filmlerin kalınlığını ölçmek için bir yüzey profiler (1 nm hassasiyet) kullanın. </li><li> Böyle çok görünür ışık baskılı film boyunca iletir nasıl belirlemek için bir ultraviyole-görünür (UV-VIS) spektrofotometre gibi uygun bir ölçüm tekniği kullanılarak, filmin geçirgenliği ölçün. Üreticinin protokolü kullanın. </li></ol> 4. Hücre yapma <ol><li> 8 saat için bir manyetik karıştırıcı kullanılarak, bir cam beher içinde, 20 ml etanol ve rutenyum boya 2 mg karıştırılarak bir boya çözeltisini yapın. </li><li> Boya TiO2 parçacıkların yüzeyi üzerine absorbe sağlamak için 24 saat boyunca oda sıcaklığında çözeltisi (20-25 ° C) TiO2 kaplanmış cam daldırın. </li><li> TiO 2 Kaldır </kağıt mendil üzerine çözüm ve yerden alt&gt; kaplamalı cam (kirlenmeyi önlemek için yukarı bakacak TiO2) ile herhangi bir aşırı boya çözümü kadar emmek için. </li><li> TiO2 kaplama etrafında, iletken cam üstünde önceden kesilmiş 60 mikron kalınlığında termoplastik sızdırmazlık ayırıcı yerleştirin. </li><li> anot ve katot aktif tarafları birbirine bakacak şekilde önceden kesilmiş 60 mikron kalınlığında termoplastik sızdırmazlık ara parçasının üstünde platin kaplı sayaç elektrot yerleştirin. bir elektriksel kontak, iletken cam ile yapılabilir, böylece iki cam arasında yeterli üst üste izin verin. Bu, elektrolit, daha sonra dolgu sağlamak için merkezi bir önceden delinmiş delik olmalıdır. </li><li> Sızdırmazlık ara parçasının alanı üzerinde cımbız kullanarak 110 ° C&#39;lik bir sıcaklıkta bir sıcak plaka üzerinde ısı ve geçerli ışık basıncı. 30 saniye sonra elektrotlar birlikte kapatılmalıdır. </li><li> Bir iyodür / tri-iyodür elektro iki elektrot arasındaki boşluğu doldurmakBir şırınga kullanılarak platin kaplı cam önceden delinmiş bir delikten enjekte edilerek 50 mM bir konsantrasyonda, asetonitril lit. </li></ol>

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R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+To+Minimize+Measurement+Errors+In+Solar+Cell+Testing.">How To Minimize Measurement Errors In Solar Cell Testing.</a> Solar Industry Magazine. , (2011).</li><li>Gr&#228;tzel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dye-sensitized+solar+cells.">Dye-sensitized solar cells.</a> J. Photochem. Photobiol. C: Photochem. Rev. 4, 145-153 (2003).</li><li>Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y., Warta, W., Dunlop, E. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solar+cell+efficiency+tables+(version+46).">Solar cell efficiency tables (version 46).</a> Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 23, 805-812 (2015).</li><li>Shockley, W., Queisser, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detailed+Balance+Limit+of+Efficiency+of+p-n+Junction+Solar+Cells.">Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells.</a> J. Appl. Phys. 32, 510-519 (1961).</li><li>Snaith, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimating+the+Maximum+Attainable+Efficiency+in+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Estimating the Maximum Attainable Efficiency in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 13-19 (2010).</li><li>Jeng, M. -. J., Wung, Y. -. L., Chang, L. -. B., Chow, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Particle+Size+Effects+of+TiO2+Layers+on+the+Solar+Efficiency+of+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Particle Size Effects of TiO2 Layers on the Solar Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Int. J. Photoenergy. 2013, 9 (2013).</li><li>Song-Yuan, D., Kong-Jia, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimum+Nanoporous+TiO2+Film+and+Its+Application+to+Dye-sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Optimum Nanoporous TiO2 Film and Its Application to Dye-sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Chin. Phys. Lett. 20, 953-955 (2002).</li><li>Baglio, V., Girolamo, M., Antonucci, V., Aric&#242;, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+TiO2+Film+Thickness+on+the+Electrochemical+Behaviour+of+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Influence of TiO2 Film Thickness on the Electrochemical Behaviour of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 6, 3375-3384 (2011).</li><li>Ito, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-Efficiency+Organic-Dye-+Sensitized+Solar+Cells+Controlled+by+Nanocrystalline-TiO2+Electrode+Thickness.">High-Efficiency Organic-Dye- Sensitized Solar Cells Controlled by Nanocrystalline-TiO2 Electrode Thickness.</a> Adv. Mater. 18, 1202-1205 (2006).</li><li>Ito, S., Kalyanasundaram, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Dye sensitized solar cells. , 251-266 (2010).</li><li>Tsai, J., Hsu, W., Wu, T., Meen, T., Chong, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+compressed+TiO2+nanoparticle+thin+film+thickness+on+the+performance+of+dye-sensitized+solar+cells.">Effect of compressed TiO2 nanoparticle thin film thickness on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells.</a> Nanoscale Res Lett. 8, 1-6 (2013).</li><li>Shin, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+TiO2+thickness+effect+on+characteristic+of+a+dye-sensitized+solar+cell+by+using+electrochemical+impedance+spectroscopy.">Analysis of TiO2 thickness effect on characteristic of a dye-sensitized solar cell by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.</a> Curr. Appl. Phys. 10, 422-424 (2010).</li><li>Brus, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electronic+wave+functions+in+semiconductor+clusters:+experiment+and+theory.">Electronic wave functions in semiconductor clusters: experiment and theory.</a> J. Phys. Chem. 90, 2555-2560 (1986).</li><li>Jung, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=All-Inkjet-Printed,+All-Air-Processed+Solar+Cells.">All-Inkjet-Printed, All-Air-Processed Solar Cells.</a> Adv Energy Mater. 4, 1-9 (2014).</li><li>Cherrington, R., Hughes, D. J., Senthilarasu, S., Goodship, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet-Printed+TiO2+Nanoparticles+from+Aqueous+Solutions+for+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells+(DSSCs).">Inkjet-Printed TiO2 Nanoparticles from Aqueous Solutions for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs).</a> Energy Technology. 3, (2015).</li></ol>

Yazarlar ifşa hiçbir şey yok.

A particular challenge when formulating inks is the natural tendency for nanoparticles to cluster together. These are known as either aggregates or agglomerates, depending on the nature and strength of the bonds between the particles. The energy of simply stirring particles into water or binder is not great enough to overcome the particle attractive forces preventing the breakup of agglomerates. Ball milling, high shear mixing or ultrasonication are commonly used to break up agglomerated nanoparticles. Various anionic, nonionic, and cationic surfactants and polymers can also be used to provide long-term stabilization. By minimizing the number of these agglomerates, a good quality suspension can be achieved. The fluids should be filtered through the correct size filter just before loading into the cartridge to remove large particle aggregates which can clog the nozzles.
The particle size within the TiO2 layer also has been shown to influence the overall efficiency of DSSCs. The photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide increases as particle sizes decrease due to an increase in the specific surface area40. A study comparing the efficiency of DSSCs incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles with 5 different sizes ranging from 400 nm to 14 nm and found that those with smaller particle sizes resulted in better electrical conversion efficiencies33.
Inkjet printing is a non-contact deposition technique capable of multi-pass printing. This presents the unique opportunity to rapidly fabricate multilayer devices in one operation on a wide range of substrates with minimal material waste. It also potentially provides a way to integrate other components (such as batteries) into the system through the printing of functional materials41. Although the representative results shown for the inkjet printed devices do not perform as well as the doctor-bladed devices, it demonstrates the potential for the deposition technique. With further ink optimization, it could perform on a comparable level to currently used methods and may provide further scope for cost-effective, environmentally friendly integration of photovoltaic cells onto a wide range of substrates. We hope to improve the efficiency of the inkjet printed devices by increasing the thickness of the printed layer closer to that of the doctor-bladed TiO2 and will continue to look at the printing of other materials and layers within DSSCs.

Conventional silicon solar cells are made from highly pure materials that require expensive and high-energy consuming specialist equipment. These conventional silicon cells incorporate a p-n junction that requires highly pure materials at the interface to generate electron-hole pairs. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have a fundamentally different working principle, where charge generation takes place at the materials interface. This means that processing under vacuum, ultrahigh temperatures or the use of clean room facilities are not required1. Therefore they are seen as a potentially low cost alternative; however up-scaling from small laboratory test cells into large prototypes for industrial manufacturing involves overcoming several issues including the rapid patterning of substrates.
Electronics manufacturing generally requires a degree of patterning, which is either achieved by masking or selective removal of the material after deposition. These steps can be removed through the use of "additive" digital printing techniques such as inkjet printing or spray coating. Digital printing is a promising method for direct deposition of functional materials for electronic devices. The technique can be described as printing from a digital-based pattern directly to a variety of substrates2. They are non-contact methods, which will not damage or contaminate the substrate surface and deposit material only where it is required, resulting in little or no wastage3. These techniques have been highlighted as being ideally suited to being scaled up to high-volume production3. Since digital printing methods use liquid forms of materials dispersed in a solvent, it is critical to understand the deposition of ink to determine the applications of the technique. 
DSSCs have three main components: a porous layer of wide bandgap metal oxide material, a dye that covers the particles, and a "charge transporter" that infiltrates the pores within the porous layer of semiconductor. These are sandwiched in between a transparent conductive electrode and a counter electrode4. The counter electrode is coated with a catalytic material for electron transfer, which in most cases is platinum. Under illumination, the dye molecules will absorb energy in the form of photons. The dye molecules then become excited and charge separation occurs at the interface of the titanium dioxide and the dye. Electrons are ejected into the adjacent metal oxide particles and 'holes' are left behind on the dye molecule. The injected electrons travel through the metal oxide particles and reach the transparent conductive electrode. When a load is connected, the electrons move to the counter electrode through the external circuit and are finally reunited with their counter charges through the redox couple present in the electrolyte1. The nano-structured metal oxide layer within DSSCs plays a critical role in the overall performance of the cell, with material choice, processing methods and nature of the structure all having influencing factors5-10. One of the most important requirements for the photoanode is that it needs to have an extremely large surface area. This is achieved through the deposition of nanoparticle materials, commonly TiO21,11. This has been fabricated by countless different processes, however wet coating techniques such as screen-printing and doctor-blading, are still the most popular approach9,12,13. 
Inkjet technology is a potential manufacturing route for dye-sensitized solar cells. It uses the movement of a piezoelectric crystal to expel a fixed quantity of liquid through a nozzle onto the desired substrate. This deposition method allows material to be jetted very accurately but also at high frequency with a potentially high print speed or deposition rate. Inkjet technology is sensitive to the viscosity of the ink used and this was previously a barrier to the development of functional inks. Recent work in the development of solvents suitable for ink formulation has helped to alleviate this problem, and printing of electronic components using 2D layered materials such as graphene has been demonstrated14. The viscosity of nanoparticle suspensions such as these has been found to depend on the nanoparticle size and concentration15. High concentrations of nanoparticles result in higher viscosities, therefore particle loadings are usually around 10 wt% to avoid nozzle blockages16, however higher concentrations have been achieved17.
The key advantages of inkjet technology include it being non-contact, additive patterning and maskless18. The latter two attributes are due to the ability to position many nozzles together on one or more printheads, with each nozzle separately addressable by the control software. This allows highly complex, multi-layered patterns to be created very rapidly as the printheads move across the substrate. No masking between materials or layers is required as the position of each ink drop is accurately controlled, in some systems to an accuracy of ~1.5 &#181;m19. One of the key benefits is that inkjet technology is mature, with significant development carried out in the latter half of the twentieth century. The result is that the inkjet is a very scalable technology, with roll-to-roll systems capable of printing accurately onto flexible substrates at rates of many meters per second. Traditionally this was used for high volume production, e.g., newspapers. However, developments in technology have allowed the inkjet to be used in roll-to-roll production of electronic circuits using nanoparticulate silver inks20. The inkjet is therefore an attractive process for the potential production of dye-sensitized solar cells by digital printing.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium dioxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>718467</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Supplied from a filter in the laboratory</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid, 2M(2N)&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>J/4250/17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylformamide (DMF)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D/3840/08</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>20721.33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispersing additive&#160;</td>
			<td>Air Products</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Defoaming agent</td>
			<td>Air Products</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene glycol</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>107-21-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) syringe filter</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cleaning detergent&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10335650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass, 8 &#937;/sq</td>
			<td>Pilkington</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ruthenizer dye</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>21613</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pre-cut 60 &#181;m thick thermoplastic sealing film&#160;</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>74301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mM iodide/tri-iodide electrolyte&#160; in acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>31111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum coated FTO glass&#160;</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>74201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vac&#39;n&#39;Fill Syringe</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>65209</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyimide tape (6.35 mm)</td>
			<td>Onecall Farnell</td>
			<td>1676087</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

digital printing of titanium dioxide for dye sensitized solar cells

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less environmentally damaging with lower processing temperatures presenting a viable and low cost alternative to conventional production. This paper further enhances these environmental credentials by evaluating the digital printing and therefore additive production route for these cells. This is achieved here by investigating the formation and performance of a metal oxide photoelectrode using nanoparticle sized titanium dioxide. An ink-jettable material was formulated, characterized and printed with a piezoelectric inkjet head to produce a 2.6 &#181;m thick layer. The resultant printed layer was fabricated into a functioning cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and a power conversion efficiency of 3.5%. The binder-free formulation resulted in a reduced processing temperature of 250 &#176;C, compatible with flexible polyamide substrates which are stable up to temperatures of 350 &#730;C. The authors are continuing to develop this process route by investigating inkjet printing of other layers within dye sensitized solar cells.

Bir TiO2 mürekkep tarif edilen prosedüre uygun olarak formüle edilmiştir. mürekkep içinde süspanse parçacıkların boyutu, dinamik ışık saçılımı (DLS) ile gözlendi 80 nanometre (nm) arasında bir ortalama parçacık boyutuna kullanılarak ölçülmüştür. Bu çalışmada, mürekkebin viskozitesinin küçük bir örnek adaptörü ile döner viskometre ve 18 mm Mil çapı kullanılarak ölçülmüştür, 3 cP olduğu bulunmuştur. yüzey gerilimi gerilimölçer kullanılarak ölçüldü ve / m 26 mN arasında bir ortalama olduğu hesaplandı. FTO cam yüzey enerjisi temas açısı ve yüzey serbest enerjisi ölçümü ile sert bir yüzey ıslatılabilirliğini belirlemek için, Avrupa Standardı EN 828 uyarınca hesaplanmıştır. Üç farklı sıvılar (su, etilen glikol ve diiyodometan) on damla düzlem test parçası yüzeyi üzerine dağıtılmıştır. Her damla için, sol ve sağ temas açısı kuv vardıEd. onun yüzey gerilimi ile birlikte her sıvının ortalama temas açılardan, deney parçasının yüzey serbest enerjisi hesaplanır. Fowkes yöntemi dağıtıcı etkileşimler (γd) ve γnon -yayındırma etkileşimler (γp) katkılarıyla toplamından toplam yüzey enerjisini (γ) hesaplar. Bu yöntem, FTO kaplanmış cam için 26.45 mN / m bir yüzey serbest enerjisi ile sonuçlanmıştır. Baskı edilen prosedüre göre yukarıdaki 5 mm kare üretmek üzere gerçekleştirilmiştir. Cam üzerinde baskılı tabakanın kalınlığı, yüzey Profiler kullanılarak ölçülmüştür. baskılı tabakanın merkezinde maksimum kalınlığı 2.6 um olarak ölçülmüştür. Kaplanmış cam geçirgenliği bir UV spektrometre kullanılarak ölçülmüştür. 700 nm&#39;lik bir dalga boyunda, bir% 60 geçirgenlik FTO cam için% 78 ile karşılaştırıldığında, TiO2 baskılı film ölçülmüştür. <p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.withinSayfalık = &quot;1&quot;&gt; Fotovoltaik cihazlar yukarıda özetlenen prosedürü uygun olarak üretilmiş ve havadaki su ve oksijen neden bozulması etkisini en aza indirmek için imalattan sonra direkt olarak karakterize edildi. Karakterize ve güneş hücreleri 28 karşılaştırmak için kullanılan beş elektriksel performans parametreleri vardır. Kısa devre akımı (I sc) ve açık devre voltajı (V oc) değerleri akım-gerilim (IV) eğrisi elde edilebilir. Bunlar daha sonra bir dolgu faktörüne (FF) ve güç dönüşüm verimliliği (η) belirlenmesi için de kullanılabilir. FF açık devre voltaj ve kısa devre 29 akım ürüne hücrelerin oranı gerçek maksimum güç çıkışı verir. Bu güneş pillerinin performansını değerlendirirken önemli bir parametredir. Düşük FF iyileştirme için bir oda var olduğunu gösterir ise yüksek FF, düşük elektrokimyasal zararları ifade eder. Çeşitli faktörler hücre içinde tabakaların kalitesini ve arayüz içeren FF etkilemekte olarak da bilinirler. DSAVM&#39;ler% 11,9 raporun kayıt verimliliği ile bir iyodür / triiyodür redoks çift 0.71 30 faktörleri dolgu içeren. Bu parametrelerin Tüm aygıt sıcaklığı 25 ˚C, ışığın spektral radyasyonu dağılımı 1.5&#39;lik bir hava kütlesi vardır standart test koşulları altında tespit edilmesi gerekmektedir, toplam ışınım güneş pili de (E m) 100 mW / cm ölçülen 2. Tek bir pn eklemi hücresinin dönüşüm verimliliği için teorik maksimum yaygın ancak DSSCs için maksimum verim 920 nm 32 bir emme başlangıcı ile% 15,1 daha yakın olduğunu rapor edilmiştir,% 37.7 31 olarak rapor edilmiştir. Çıkış akımı ve gerilim hücreleri 1.5 bir atmosfer hacmi ile spektral radyasyonu dağılımı eşleştirmek için bir filtre takılmış 100 mW / cm2 ışık kaynağı ile aydınlatılır iken kaynak sayacı kullanılarak ölçüldü. Sonuçlar pılı ıle karşılaştırılmıştıranataz partikülleri 20 nm ve 450 nm bir karışımı olan bir piyasada mevcut macun kullanılarak bir doktor ağızlı TiO2 katmanını kullanarak üretti. Baskılı tabaka, 0.25 cm2&#39;lik bir alana ve bir yüzey Profiler kullanarak ölçüldü 18 um arasında bir ortalama kalınlığa sahip olmuştur. İki cihaz arasındaki fotoelektrik performansı karşılaştırma, Şekil 1 ve Tablo 1 &#39;de gösterilmiştir. Çeşitli çalışmalar TiO2 tabakasının kalınlığı ve DSSCs içinde dönüşüm verimliliği arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemiştir. Sonuçlar TiO2 basılı katmanları ve verimlilik kalınlıkları özetliyor her yerde 33-39 mikron mikron 9.5 ile 20. Tablo 1 bildirilen optimum film kalınlığı ile önemli ölçüde değişir. TiO2 basılı inkjet kalınlığı sonuçlanan TiO2 bıçaklı doktor önemli ölçüde daha azdaha düşük bir verim. Gelecek çalışma inkjet basılmış tabakasının kalınlığını artırmak için mürekkep formülasyonu içinde organik bağlayıcıların kullanımını araştırmak olacaktır. <img alt="Şekil 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53963/53963fig1.jpg" /> TiO2 tabakası ve bir doktor ağızlı TiO2 tabakası basılmış bir inkjet içeren DSSCs için Mürekkep Baskılı ve Doktor Kanat TiO2 Katmanlar ile DSSCs Şekil 1. Performans Eğrileri. Akım yoğunluğu / gerilim eğrileri. TiO baskılı inkjet ile cihazda kısa devre akım yoğunluğu 2 kat daha düşük bir genel dönüşüm verimliliği ile sonuçlanan doktor bıçaklı TiO2 tabakası ile cihazın önemli ölçüde düşüktür. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/53963/53963fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Bu rakamın büyük halini görmek için lütfen buraya tıklayınız.</a> <table><tbody><tr><tdrowspan = &quot;3&quot;&gt; </td><td> Kısa devre akımı </td><td> Açık devre voltajı </td><td rowspan="3"> Doldurma faktörü </td><td> verim </td><td> Kalınlık </td></tr><tr><td> (mA / cm2) </td><td> (MV) </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td> (%) </td><td> (Um) </td></tr><tr><td> Mürekkep Püskürtmeli baskılı </td><td> 9.42 </td><td> 760 </td><td> 0.49 </td><td> 3.5 </td><td> 2.6 </td></tr><tr><td> doktor bıçaklı </td><td> 11 </td><td> 756 </td><td> 0.58 </td><td> 4.8 </td><td> 18 </td></tr></tbody></table> Şekil 1. Bu tablo, belirtilen ışığı altında etkinliğini (η) belirleyen açık devre gerilimi (V oc), kısa devre akımı (I sc) de dahil olmak üzere güneş pili anahtar parametreleri karşılaştırır içinde Hücreleri Tablo 1. Temel Performans Özellikleri koşul sunulmaktadır. parametreler oBir doktor ağızlı TiO2 tabakası kullanılarak üretilen fa hücre de karşılaştırma amacıyla dahil edilmiştir. Her iki cihaz dolgu faktörleri (FF), genellikle hücre içinde yüksek bir iç direnç atfedilen hangi oldukça düşüktür.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells at JoVE.com

Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

This paper investigates the suitability of inkjet printing for the manufacturing of dye-sensitized solar cells. A binder-free TiO2 nanoparticle ink was formulated and printed onto a FTO glass substrate. The printed layer was fabricated into a cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and an efficiency of 3.5%.

Boya duyarlı güneş pilleri için Titanyum Dioksit Dijital Baskı

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less ...

digital-printing-of-titanium-dioxide-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

12.7K Görüntüleme.  University of Warwick. This paper investigates the suitability of inkjet printing for the manufacturing of dye-sensitized solar cells. A binder-free TiO2 nanoparticle ink was formulated and printed onto a FTO glass substrate. The printed layer was fabricated into a cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and an efficiency of 3.5%.

Video: Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

Micro 3D Printing Using a Digital Projector and its Application in the Study of Soft Materials Mechanics

Buckling is a classical topic in mechanics. While buckling has long been studied as one of the major structural failure modes1, it has recently drawn new attention as a unique mechanism for pattern transformation. Nature is full of such examples where a wealth of exotic patterns are formed through mechanical instability2-5. Inspired by this elegant mechanism, many studies have demonstrated creation and transformation of patterns using soft materials such as elastomers and hydrogels6-11. Swelling gels are of particular interest because they can spontaneously trigger mechanical instability to create various patterns without the need of external force6-10. Recently, we have reported demonstration of full control over buckling pattern of micro-scaled tubular gels using projection micro-stereolithography (P&mu;SL), a three-dimensional (3D) manufacturing technology capable of rapidly converting computer generated 3D models into physical objects at high resolution12,13. Here we present a simple method to build up a simplified P&mu;SL system using a commercially available digital data projector to study swelling-induced buckling instability for controlled pattern transformation.
A simple desktop 3D printer is built using an off-the-shelf digital data projector and simple optical components such as a convex lens and a mirror14. Cross-sectional images extracted from a 3D solid model is projected on the photosensitive resin surface in sequence, polymerizing liquid resin into a desired 3D solid structure in a layer-by-layer fashion. Even with this simple configuration and easy process, arbitrary 3D objects can be readily fabricated with sub-100 &mu;m resolution.
This desktop 3D printer holds potential in the study of soft material mechanics by offering a great opportunity to explore various 3D geometries. We use this system to fabricate tubular shaped hydrogel structure with different dimensions. Fixed on the bottom to the substrate, the tubular gel develops inhomogeneous stress during swelling, which gives rise to buckling instability. Various wavy patterns appear along the circumference of the tube when the gel structures undergo buckling. Experiment shows that circumferential buckling of desired mode can be created in a controlled manner. Pattern transformation of three-dimensionally structured tubular gels has significant implication not only in mechanics and material science, but also in many other emerging fields such as tunable matamaterials.

We demonstrate controlled pattern transformation of swelling gel tubes by elastic instability. A simple projection micro stereo-lithography setup is built using an off-the-shelf digital data projector to fabricate three-dimensional polymeric structures in a layer-by-layer fashion. Swelling hydrogel tubes under mechanical constraint display various circumferential buckling modes depending on dimension.

Yumuşak Malzemelerin Mekaniği Çalışması Dijital Projektör ve Uygulama Kullanarak Mikro 3D Baskı

Buckling is a classical topic in mechanics. While buckling has long been studied as one of the major structural failure modes1, it has recently drawn new ...

Mühendislik

Integrating a Triplet-triplet Annihilation Up-conversion System to Enhance Dye-sensitized Solar Cell Response to Sub-bandgap Light

The poor response of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) to red and infrared light is a significant impediment to the realization of higher photocurrents and hence higher efficiencies. Photon up-conversion by way of triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA-UC) is an attractive technique for using these otherwise wasted low energy photons to produce photocurrent, while not interfering with the photoanodic performance in a deleterious manner. Further to this, TTA-UC has a number of features, distinct from other reported photon up-conversion technologies, which renders it particularly suitable for coupling with DSC technology. In this work, a proven high performance TTA-UC system, comprising a palladium porphyrin sensitizer and rubrene emitter, is combined with a high performance DSC (utilizing the organic dye D149) in an integrated device. The device shows an enhanced response to sub-bandgap light over the absorption range of the TTA-UC sub-unit resulting in the highest figure of merit for up-conversion assisted DSC performance to date.

An integrated device, incorporating a dye-sensitized solar cell and triplet-triplet annihilation up-conversion unit was produced, affording enhanced light harvesting, from a wider section of the solar spectrum. Under modest irradiation levels a significantly enhanced response to low energy photons was demonstrated, yielding a record figure of merit for dye-sensitized solar cells.

Bir Üçüz-üçlü Annihilation&#39;ın Up-dönüşüm Sistemi entegre Alt-bandaralıklı Işık Boya duyarlı Solar Hücre Yanıtı arttırmak için

The poor response of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) to red and infrared light is a significant impediment to the realization of higher photocurrents ...

Ambient Method for the Production of an Ionically Gated Carbon Nanotube Common Cathode in Tandem Organic Solar Cells

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two solution-processed polymeric cells connected in parallel by a transparent carbon nanotubes (CNT) interlayer. This structure includes improvements in fabrication techniques for tandem OPV devices. First the need for ambient-processed cathodes is considered. The CNT anode in the tandem device is tuned via ionic gating to become a common cathode. Ionic gating employs electric double layer charging to lower the work function of the CNT electrode. Secondly, the difficulty of sequentially stacking tandem layers by solution-processing is addressed. The devices are fabricated via solution and dry-lamination in ambient conditions with parallel processing steps. The method of fabricating the individual polymeric cells, the steps needed to laminate them together with a common CNT cathode, and then provide some representative results are described. These results demonstrate ionic gating of the CNT electrode to create a common cathode and addition of current and efficiency as a result of the lamination procedure.

A method of fabricating, in ambient conditions, organic photovoltaic tandem devices in a parallel configuration is presented. These devices feature an air-processed, semi-transparent, carbon nanotube common cathode.

Tandem Organik Güneş Pilleri bir iyonik Geçitli Karbon Nanotüp Ortak Katot Üretimi için ortam Yöntemi

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two ...

Integration of Light Trapping Silver Nanostructures in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Transfer Printing

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly known as plasmonic effects, play an important role. Research in this field has, however, been impeded owing to the difficulty of fabricating devices containing the desired functional metal nanostructures. In order to provide a viable strategy to this issue, we herein show a transfer printing-based approach that allows the quick and low-cost integration of designed metal nanostructures with a variety of device architectures, including solar cells. Nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps were fabricated from a commercially available nanohole plastic film as a master mold. On this nanopatterned PDMS stamps, Ag films were deposited, which were then transfer-printed onto block copolymer (binding layer)-coated hydrogenated microcrystalline Si (&#181;c-Si:H) surface to afford ordered Ag nanodisk structures. It was confirmed that the resulting Ag nanodisk-incorporated &#181;c-Si:H solar cells show higher performances compared to a cell without the transfer-printed Ag nanodisks, thanks to plasmonic light trapping effect derived from the Ag nanodisks. Because of the simplicity and versatility, further device application would also be feasible thorough this approach.

A viable transfer printing-based methodology to introduce plasmonic metal nanostructures in solar cells is described. Using nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) stamps, an Ag-based ordered nanodisk array was integrated with standard hydrogenated microcrystalline Si solar cells, which led to improved device performances due to plasmonic light trapping.

Transfer Baskı ile Hidrojene Mikrokristal Silikon Güneş Pilleri Işık Yakalama Gümüş Nanoyapıların Entegrasyonu

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly ...

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices have used devices prepared by spin coating, a process that is not amenable to large-scale fabrication. This mismatch in device fabrication makes it difficult to translate quantitative results obtained in the laboratory to the commercial level, making optimization difficult. Using a mini-slot die coater, this mismatch can be resolved by translating the commercial process to the laboratory and characterizing the structure formation in the active layer of the device in real time and in situ as films are coated onto a substrate. The evolution of the morphology was characterized under different conditions, allowing us to propose a mechanism by which the structures form and grow. This mini-slot die coater offers a simple, convenient, material efficient route by which the morphology in the active layer can be optimized under industrially relevant conditions. The goal of this protocol is to show experimental details of how a solar cell device is fabricated using a mini-slot die coater and technical details of running in situ structure characterization using the mini-slot die coater.

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate organic thin film solar cells using a mini-slot die coater and related in-line structure characterizations using synchrotron scattering techniques.

Toplu Heterojonksiyonlar Solar Hücre Baskı İmalatı ve<em&gt; In Situ</em&gt; Morfoloji Karakterizasyonu

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical properties. The possibility of doping was investigated by adding monovalent cation halides with similar ionic radii to Pb2+, including Cu+, Na+, and Ag+. A shift in the Fermi level and a remarkable decrease of sub-bandgap optical absorption, along with a lower energetic disorder in the perovskite, was achieved. An order-of-magnitude enhancement in the bulk hole mobility and a significant reduction of transport activation energy within an additive-based perovskite device was attained. The confluence of the aforementioned improved properties in the presence of these cations led to an enhancement in the photovoltaic parameters of the perovskite solar cell. An increase of 70 mV in open circuit voltage for AgI and a 2 mA/cm2 improvement in photocurrent density for NaI- and CuBr-based solar cells were achieved compared to the pristine device. Our work paves the way for further improvements in the optoelectronic quality of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite and subsequent devices. It highlights a new avenue for investigations on the role of dopant impurities in crystallization and controls the electronic defect density in perovskite structures.

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we present a protocol to adjust the properties of solution-processed CH3NH3PbI3 through the incorporation of monovalent cation additives in order to achieve highly efficient perovskite solar cells.

CH tek değerlikli katyon doping<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; NH<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; PBI<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; Verimli Perovskit Güneş Pilleri için

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical ...

Electrospinning of Photocatalytic Electrodes for Dye-sensitized Solar Cells

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of electrospun titanium dioxide nanofibers (TiO2-NFs) on top of a blocking layer made of commercially available titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs). This is achieved by first electrospinning a solution of titanium (IV) butoxide, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and glacial acetic acid in ethanol to obtain composite PVP/TiO2 nanofibers. These are then calcined at 500 &#176;C to remove the PVP and to obtain pure anatase-phase titania nanofibers. This material is characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). The photoanode is prepared by first creating a blocking layer through the deposition of a TiO2-NPs/terpineol slurry on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass slide using doctor blading techniques. A subsequent thermal treatment is performed at 500 &#176;C. Then, the light-scattering layer is formed by depositing a TiO2-NFs/terpineol slurry on the same slide, using the same technique, and calcinating again at 500 &#176;C. The performance of the photoanode is tested by fabricating a dye-sensitized solar cell and measuring its efficiency through J-V curves under a range of incident light densities, from 0.25-1 Sun.

The overall goal of this project was to use electrospinning to fabricate a photoanode with improved performance for dye-sensitized solar cells.

Boya Duyarlılaştırılmış Güneş Pilleri için Fotokatalitik Elektrotların Elektrospinning

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

Situ Güneş hücreleri ve modüllerin hızlandırılmış performans düşüşü izleme: Cu (In, Ga) Se2 güneş hücreleri için bir örnek çalışma

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Indoor Experimental Assessment of the Efficiency and Irradiance Spot of the Achromatic Doublet on Glass (ADG) Fresnel Lens for Concentrating Photovoltaics

We present a method to characterize achromatic Fresnel lenses for photovoltaic applications. The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens is composed of two materials, a plastic and an elastomer, whose dispersion characteristics (refractive index variation with wavelength) are different. We first designed the lens geometry and then used ray-tracing simulation, based on the Monte Carlo method, to analyze its performance from the point of view of both optical efficiency and the maximum attainable concentration. Afterwards, ADG Fresnel lens prototypes were manufactured using a simple and reliable method. It consists of a prior injection of plastic parts and a consecutive lamination, together with the elastomer and a glass substrate to fabricate the parquet of ADG Fresnel lenses. The accuracy of the manufactured lens profile is examined using an optical microscope while its optical performance is evaluated using a solar simulator for concentrator photovoltaic systems. The simulator is composed of a xenon flash lamp whose emitted light is reflected by a parabolic mirror. The collimated light has a spectral distribution and an angular aperture similar to the real Sun. We were able to assess the optical performance of the ADG Fresnel lenses by taking photographs of the irradiance spot cast by the lens using a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and measuring the photocurrent generated by several types of multi junction (MJ) solar cells, which have been previously characterized at a solar simulator for concentrator solar cells. These measurements have demonstrated the achromatic behavior of ADG Fresnel lenses and, as a consequence, the suitability of the modelling and manufacturing methods.

Indoor Experimental Assessment of the Efficiency and Irradiance Spot of the Achromatic Doublet on Glass ADG Fresnel Lens for Concentrating Photovoltaics

The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens makes use of two materials with differing dispersion to reduce chromatic aberration and increase attainable concentration. In this paper, a protocol for the complete characterization of the ADG Fresnel lens is presented.

Verimlilik ve fotovoltaik konsantre için cam (ADG) Fresnel Lens üzerinde akromatik eş fincan olma kapalı deneysel değerlendirilmesi

We present a method to characterize achromatic Fresnel lenses for photovoltaic applications. The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens is ...

Developing High Performance GaP/Si Heterojunction Solar Cells

To improve the efficiency of Si-based solar cells beyond their Shockley-Queisser limit, the optimal path is to integrate them with III-V-based solar cells. In this work, we present high performance GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells with a high Si minority-carrier lifetime and high crystal quality of epitaxial GaP layers. It is shown that by applying phosphorus (P)-diffusion layers into the Si substrate and a SiNx layer, the Si minority-carrier lifetime can be well-maintained during the GaP growth in the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). By controlling the growth conditions, the high crystal quality of GaP was grown on the P-rich Si surface. The film quality is characterized by atomic force microscopy and high-resolution x-ray diffraction. In addition, MoOx was implemented as a hole-selective contact that led to a significant increase in the short-circuit current density. The achieved high device performance of the GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells establishes a path for further enhancement of the performance of Si-based photovoltaic devices.

Here, we present a protocol to develop high-performance GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells with a high Si minority-carrier lifetime.

Yüksek performanslı GaP/Si Heterojunction güneş hücreleri gelişmekte

To improve the efficiency of Si-based solar cells beyond their Shockley-Queisser limit, the optimal path is to integrate them with III-V-based solar ...