Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term "cell" based on the ...

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Human DNA is almost two meters long. However, it is compressed inside a tiny nucleus measuring only a few microns in diameter. To make this degree of ...

Nucleosomes are the DNA-histone complex, where the DNA strand is wound around the histone core. The histone core is an octamer containing two copies of ...

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base pairs of DNA. Each base pair is 0.34 nm long, meaning each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of ...

The endoplasmic reticulum or ER makes up for more than half of the membranes in a cell and accounts for 10% of total cell volume. It is also the primary ...

Properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles that exit the ER. Motor proteins transport these vesicles to the Golgi ...

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Mitochondria are eukaryotic cellular organelles that are known to produce energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Besides their primary ...

A single mitochondrion is a bean-shaped organelle enclosed by a double-membrane system. The outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth and contains many ...

Peroxisomes are specialized organelles present in fungi, plant, and animal cells. It can vary in number, size, morphology, and activity depending on the ...

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway is a well-known mechanism utilized by eukaryotic cells to remove cytoplasmic proteins that are misfolded, damaged, or no ...

Eukaryotic cells can degrade proteins through several pathways. One of the most important among these is the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. It helps the ...

Overview of the Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Most animal cells comprise a pair of centrioles together called a centrosome. The cell duplicates its centrosome and contains two centrosomes ...

Microtubules are thick hollow cylindrical proteins that help form the cytoskeleton. Microtubules have varied roles in the cell. These filaments help form ...

The ciliary structures were first seen in 1647 by Antonie Leeuwenhoek while observing the protozoans. In lower organisms, these appendages are responsible ...

Microvilli are tiny finger-like projections found on the surface of certain cells. Their purpose is to increase the surface area of the cell's apical ...