We would like to thank Dr. Jue Liu for his kind assistance. This study was supported by grants from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2022YFD1800300), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 32130105), and the Earmarked Fund for Modern Agro-Industry Technology Research System (No. CARS-40), China.

The details of the reagents and the equipment used in the study are listed in the Table of Materials.
1. Preparation of sample cells
<ol>
	<li>Culture DF-1 (immortal chicken embryo fibroblasts) cells in six-well plates (5 x 105 cells per well) with Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) in a 5% CO2 incubator at 38 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>When the cells reach 80% confluence, discard the serum-containing cell culture medium, wash the cells three times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and then add 2 mL of serum-free cell culture medium to each well.</li>
	<li>Add the IBDV virus solution (containing calculated MOI) to each well, and set up a mock-infected control by adding the volume of DMEM equal to that of the virus solution.</li>
	<li>After 1 h of virus adsorption, discard the culture medium, wash the cells with PBS three times, add 2 mL of DMEM supplemented with 2% FBS to each well, and continue cell cultures for 24 h.</li>
	<li>24 h post-IBDV infection, perform trypsin treatment (500 &#181;L per well) for 1 min and subsequently neutralize by DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS (2 mL per well). Afterward, the cells must be harvested to prepare single-cell suspensions for flow cytometry.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cells at 400 x g for 5 min at 2-8 &#176;C. Discard the supernatant using a pipette.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in PBS and gently vortex the tubes for 3 s.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cells as described in step 1.6 (400 x g for 5 min at 2-8 &#176;C).</li>
	<li>Repeat the wash of cells as described in step 1.7 and step 1.8.</li>
	<li>Perform cell counting using a hemocytometer under a microscope. Then, resuspend the cells in an appropriate volume of flow cytometry staining buffer (so that the final cell concentration is 1 x 107 cells/mL). Gently vortex the suspensions.</li>
</ol>
2. Cell staining for flow cytometry
<ol>
	<li>Add 100 &#181;L of the single-cell suspensions from step 1.10 into 5 mL round-bottom polystyrene tubes (12 mm &#215; 75 mm). Prepare mock- and IBDV-infected cells for anti-chGSDME-NT/CT antibody staining, and use normal mouse IgG as an isotype control. Meanwhile, prepare blank control and single stained tubes with IBDV-infected cells.</li>
	<li>Add 1 &#181;g of either Alexa Fluor 647-labeled anti-chGSDME-NT McAb, anti-chGSDME-CT McAb, or normal mouse IgG (as an isotype control) to IBDV-infected and mock-control tubes, respectively. Subsequently, gently vortex the tubes for 3 s.</li>
	<li>Incubate the stained cells at 2-8 &#176;C or on ice for 30 min in the dark. Gently vortex tubes every 10 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the cells with 1 mL of flow cytometry staining buffer by centrifugation at 400 x g for 5 min at 2-8 &#176;C. Discard the supernatant using a pipette.</li>
	<li>Repeat the wash of cells as described in step 2.4.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet in 100 &#181;L of flow cytometry staining buffer.</li>
	<li>Stain the cells of the IBDV-infected group and mock-infected group, as well as the PI-single stained tubes, with 10 &#181;g/mL of PI for 10 min at room temperature, followed by adding 400 &#181;L of flow cytometry staining buffer for the flow cytometry assay.</li>
</ol>
3. Conducting the flow cytometry assay
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the flow cytometer to initialize the instrument and launch the software.</li>
	<li>Begin with running the blank control tube followed by the single stained tubes to adjust the voltage and compensation parameters of the flow cytometer. Utilize FL3 and FL4 fluorescence channels, which emit at 635 nm, for detecting PI and Alexa Fluor 647 fluorophores, respectively.</li>
	<li>After configuring all the parameters, run all the samples sequentially.</li>
</ol>
4. Analysis of flow cytometry data
<ol>
	<li>Analyze the Alexa Fluor 647 staining of each sample in the FL4 channel histogram.</li>
	<li>To assess the proportion of double-positive cells in each sample, utilize the four-quadrant dot plot of FL3/FL4.</li>
	<li>Set positive thresholds based on isotype control IgG/PI dual-stained samples, ensuring that the proportion of double-positive cells remains below 1%. This approach facilitates measuring the proportion of double-positive cells in all samples.</li>
</ol>

Quantifying Pyroptosis in Infectious Bursal Disease Virus-Infected DF-1 Cells

<ol>
	<li>He, W. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gasdermin+D+is+an+executor+of+pyroptosis+and+is+required+for+interleukin-1&#946;+secretion.">Gasdermin D is an executor of pyroptosis and is required for interleukin-1&#946; secretion.</a> Cell Res. 25 (12), 1285-1298 (2015).</li><li>Kayagaki, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caspase-11+cleaves+Gasdermin+D+for+non-canonical+inflammasome+signalling.">Caspase-11 cleaves Gasdermin D for non-canonical inflammasome signalling.</a> Nature. 526 (7575), 666-671 (2015).</li><li>Shi, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cleavage+of+GSDMD+by+inflammatory+caspases+determines+pyroptotic+cell+death.">Cleavage of GSDMD by inflammatory caspases determines pyroptotic cell death.</a> Nature. 526 (7575), 660-665 (2015).</li><li>Angosto-Bazarra, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+analyses+of+the+Dasdermin+family+suggest+conserved+roles+in+infection+response+despite+loss+of+pore-forming+functionality.">Evolutionary analyses of the Dasdermin family suggest conserved roles in infection response despite loss of pore-forming functionality.</a> BMC Biol. 20 (1), 9 (2022).</li><li>De Schutter, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Punching+holes+in+cellular+membranes:+Biology+and+evolution+of+gasdermins.">Punching holes in cellular membranes: Biology and evolution of gasdermins.</a> Trends Cell Biol. 31 (6), 500-513 (2021).</li><li>Kovacs, S. B., Miao, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gasdermins:+Effectors+of+pyroptosis.">Gasdermins: Effectors of pyroptosis.</a> Trends Cell Biol. 27 (9), 673-684 (2017).</li><li>Jiang, S., Gu, H., Zhao, Y., Sun, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Teleost+gasdermin+E+is+cleaved+by+caspase+1,+3,+and+7+and+induces+pyroptosis.">Teleost gasdermin E is cleaved by caspase 1, 3, and 7 and induces pyroptosis.</a> J Immunol. 203 (5), 1369-1382 (2019).</li><li>Li, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Duck+gasdermin+E+is+a+substrate+of+caspase-3/-7+and+an+executioner+of+pyroptosis.">Duck gasdermin E is a substrate of caspase-3/-7 and an executioner of pyroptosis.</a> Front Immunol. 13, 1078526 (2022).</li><li>M&#252;ller, H., Islam, M. R., Raue, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Research+on+infectious+bursal+disease-the+past,+the+present+and+the+future.">Research on infectious bursal disease-the past, the present and the future.</a> Vet Microbiol. 97 (1), 153-165 (2003).</li><li>M&#252;ller, H., Scholtissek, C., Becht, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genome+of+infectious+bursal+disease+virus+consists+of+two+segments+of+double-stranded+RNA.">The genome of infectious bursal disease virus consists of two segments of double-stranded RNA.</a> J Virol. 31 (3), 584-589 (1979).</li><li>Cubas-Gaona, L. L., Diaz-Beneitez, E., Ciscar, M., Rodr&#237;guez, J. F., Rodr&#237;guez, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exacerbated+apoptosis+of+cells+infected+with+infectious+bursal+disease+virus+upon+exposure+to+interferon+alpha.">Exacerbated apoptosis of cells infected with infectious bursal disease virus upon exposure to interferon alpha.</a> J Virol. 92 (11), (2018).</li><li>Duan, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epigenetic+upregulation+of+chicken+microRNA-16-5p+expression+in+DF-1+cells+following+infection+with+infectious+bursal+disease+virus+(IBDV)+enhances+IBDV-induced+apoptosis+and+viral+replication.">Epigenetic upregulation of chicken microRNA-16-5p expression in DF-1 cells following infection with infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) enhances IBDV-induced apoptosis and viral replication.</a> J Virol. 94 (2), e01724 (2020).</li><li>Li, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Critical+role+for+voltage-dependent+anion+channel+2+in+infectious+bursal+disease+virus-induced+apoptosis+in+host+cells+via+interaction+with+VP5.">Critical role for voltage-dependent anion channel 2 in infectious bursal disease virus-induced apoptosis in host cells via interaction with VP5.</a> J Virol. 86 (3), 1328-1338 (2012).</li><li>Rodr&#237;guez-Lecompte, J. C., Ni&#241;o-Fong, R., Lopez, A., Frederick Markham, R. J., Kibenge, F. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infectious+bursal+disease+virus+(IBDV)+induces+apoptosis+in+chicken+B+cells.">Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) induces apoptosis in chicken B cells.</a> Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 28 (4), 321-337 (2005).</li><li>Wang, S., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Sun, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+for+monitoring+cancer+cell+pyroptosis.">Methods for monitoring cancer cell pyroptosis.</a> Cancer Biol Med. 19 (4), 398-414 (2021).</li><li>Zhang, Y., Chen, X., Gueydan, C., Han, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma+membrane+changes+during+programmed+cell+deaths.">Plasma membrane changes during programmed cell deaths.</a> Cell Research. 28 (1), 9-21 (2018).</li><li>Chen, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pyroptosis+is+driven+by+non-selective+gasdermin-d+pore+and+its+morphology+is+different+from+mlkl+channel-mediated+necroptosis.">Pyroptosis is driven by non-selective gasdermin-d pore and its morphology is different from mlkl channel-mediated necroptosis.</a> Cell Research. 26 (9), 1007-1020 (2016).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This article describes an effective method for examining pyroptosis using flow cytometry, achieved through dual staining of infected cells with Alexa Fluor 647-labeled anti-chGSDME-NT McAb and PI. This approach can also be applied across various cell types to differentiate pyroptosis from other types of cell death, such as apoptosis and necrosis.
Pyroptosis, an inflammatory type of programmed cell death primarily reliant on Gasdermin (GSDM) D-induced plasma membrane pore formation i...

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory type of programmed cell death that mainly depends on the formation of plasma membrane pores by Gasdermin (GSDM) D in mammals1,2,3. Due to the genetic deficiency of GSDMD in chickens4,5, the mechanism of pyroptosis in chickens remains elusive. The Gasdermin family comprises conserved proteins, including GSDMA, GSDMB, GSDMC, GSDMD, GSDME, and DFNB593,6. Studies have reported that GSDME from teleost fish and ducks is cleaved by caspase-1/3/7 or caspase-3/7 to induce pyroptotic cell death7,8. However, the role of GSDME-mediated pyroptosis in the host response to pathogenic infections in chickens remains to be elucidated.
Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is an acute, highly contagious, and immunosuppressive poultry disease caused by IBDV9. IBDV, a non-enveloped bi-segmented double-stranded (ds) RNA virus, belongs to the genus Avibirnavirus in the Birnaviridae family10. Previous studies by others and our laboratory have shown that IBDV infection induces cell death in host cells via different pathways11,12,13,14. Previous findings have demonstrated that IBDV infection triggers the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), an indicator of lytic cell death6,15, suggesting that IBDV infection induces lytic cell death in host cells. Furthermore, the data show that IBDV-infected cells exhibit morphological features of pyroptotic cell death, including cell swelling with large bubbles blowing from the plasma membrane and propidium iodide (PI)-staining positive, suggesting that IBDV infection induces pyroptosis in cells.
Considering that the formation of membrane pores in pyroptotic cells by the N-terminal fragment of cleaved GSDM (GSDM-NT) is a hallmark of pyroptosis, theoretically, pyroptotic cells could be detected by flow cytometry by examining GSDM-NT on the cell membrane using specific antibodies. In avian pyroptotic cells, the N-terminal fragment of chicken Gasdermin E (chGSDME-NT) forms membrane pores, allowing propidium iodide (PI) to pass through and bind DNA. Thus, the proportion of pyroptotic cells can be detected using flow cytometry, thereby distinguishing pyroptosis from other forms of cell death, such as apoptosis and necrosis. However, the method for examining pyroptotic cells by flow cytometry has not been reported. In this study, DF-1 cells were infected with IBDV, and flow cytometry was conducted to examine pyroptotic cells using monoclonal antibodies (McAb) against the chGSDME-NT fragment (membrane-bound) and PI staining. Surprisingly, pyroptotic cells were effectively detected by flow cytometry. Furthermore, the proportion of pyroptotic cells could be quantified. These findings provide a powerful and effective means to determine pyroptosis.
This article describes a method for examining pyroptosis in IBDV-infected cells by flow cytometry using anti-chGSDME-NT McAb and PI staining. This method can also be extended to other pathogen-infected cells and applied to examine various cell types with pyroptosis, distinguishing them from other forms of cell death.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL round-bottom polystyrene tube (12 &#215; 75 mm)</td>
			<td>Corning Falcon</td>
			<td>352052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 Well Cell Culture Plate</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 647 antibody labeling kits</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A20186</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-chGSDME-CT McAb</td>
			<td>SAE Biomedical Tech Company (Zhongshan, China)</td>
			<td>EU0228</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-chGSDME-NT McAb</td>
			<td>SAE Biomedical Tech Company (Zhongshan, China)</td>
			<td>EU0227</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CellQuest software</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>3100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryogenic Freezing Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM)&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco by Life Technologies</td>
			<td>C11995500BT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F0193-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>FACSCalibur</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow Cytometry Staining Buffer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>00-4222-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemocytometer</td>
			<td>Qiu-jing Biochemical Reagent &#38; Instrument Company (Shanghai, China)</td>
			<td>YX-JSB52</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IBDV Lx strain</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>IBDV Lx strain was kindly provided by Dr. Jue Liu, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, Beijing, China</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Microscope</td>
			<td>Chongqing Photoelectric Instrument Company</td>
			<td>XDS-1B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Mouse IgG</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>M&#38;C&#160; Gene Technology</td>
			<td>CC017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propidium Iodide(PI)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA, 0.25%</td>
			<td>M&#38;C&#160; Gene Technology</td>
			<td>CC008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex Oscillator</td>
			<td>MIULAB</td>
			<td>MIX-28+</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

examination of pyroptosis by flow cytometry

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory type of programmed cell death predominantly driven by the formation of plasma membrane pores by the N-terminus generated from the cleaved Gasdermin (GSDM) family proteins. Examination of membrane-attached GSDM-NT by Western Blot is the most commonly used method for evaluating pyroptosis. However, it is difficult to differentiate cells with pyroptosis from other forms of cell death using this method. In this study, Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV)-infected DF-1 cells were employed as a model to quantify the proportion of cells undergoing pyroptosis by flow cytometry, utilizing specific antibodies against the N-terminal fragment of chicken GSDME (chGSDME-NT) and propidium iodide (PI) staining. The chGSDME-NT-positive cells were readily detectable by flow cytometry using Alexa Fluor 647-labeled anti-chGSDME-NT antibodies. Moreover, the proportion of chGSDME-NT/PI double-positive cells in IBDV-infected cells (around 33%) was significantly greater than in mock-infected controls (P &#60; 0.001). These findings indicate that examination of membrane-bound chGSDME-NT by flow cytometry is an effective approach for determining pyroptotic cells among cells undergoing cell death.

chGSDME-NT on the membrane of DF-1 cells with IBDV infection could be readily detected by flow cytometry 
One of the most important features of pyroptotic cells is the formation of membrane pores by GSDM-NT fragments generated from Gasdermin cleavage. Therefore, pyroptotic cells could theoretically be detected by flow cytometry via examining GSDM-NT on cell membranes using specific antibodies. Thus, DF-1 cells were infected with IBDV, and the pyroptotic cell...

Author Spotlight: Flow Cytometric Determination of Pyroptosis in Avian Cells

This article describes the identification of pyroptotic cells using flow cytometry after dual staining with antibodies against the N-terminal fragment of chicken GSDME (chGSDME-NT) and propidium iodide (PI).

Examination of Pyroptosis by Flow Cytometry

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory type of programmed cell death predominantly driven by the formation of plasma membrane pores by the N-terminus generated ...

examination-of-pyroptosis-by-flow-cytometry

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

804 Views.  National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security. This article describes the identification of pyroptotic cells using flow cytometry after dual staining with antibodies against the N-terminal fragment of chicken GSDME (chGSDME-NT) and propidium iodide (PI).

Video: Author Spotlight: Flow Cytometric Determination of Pyroptosis in Avian Cells

Measuring Calpain Activity in Fixed and Living Cells by Flow Cytometry

Calpains are ubiquitous intracellular, calcium-sensitive, neutral cysteine proteases 1. Calpains play crucial roles in many physiological processes, including signaling, cytoskeletal remodeling, regulation of gene expression, apoptosis and cell cycle progression 1. Calpains have been implicated in many pathologies including muscular dystrophies, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis 1. Calpain regulation is complex and incompletely understood. mRNA and protein levels correlate poorly with activity, limiting the use of gene or protein expression techniques to measure calpain activity. This video protocol details a flow cytometric assay developed in our laboratory for measuring calpain activity in fixed and living cells. This method uses the fluorescent substrate BOC-LM-CMAC, which is cleaved specifically by calpain, to measure calpain activity. 2 In this video, calpain activity in fixed and living murine 32Dkit leukemia cells, alone or as part of a splenocyte population is measured using an LSRII (BD Bioscience). 32Dkit cells are shown to have elevated activity compared to normal splenocytes.

This article will detail the protocol for measuring calpain activity in fixed and living cells using flow cytometry.

Calpains are ubiquitous intracellular, calcium-sensitive, neutral cysteine proteases 1. Calpains play crucial roles in many physiological processes, ...

Human In Vitro Suppression as Screening Tool for the Recognition of an Early State of Immune Imbalance

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical mediators of immune tolerance to self-antigens. In addition, they are crucial regulators of the immune response following an infection. Despite efforts to identify unique surface marker on Tregs, the only unique feature is their ability to suppress the proliferation and function of effector T cells. While it is clear that only in vitro assays can be used in assessing human Treg function, this becomes problematic when assessing the results from cross-sectional studies where healthy cells and cells isolated from subjects with autoimmune diseases (like Type 1 Diabetes-T1D) need to be compared. There is a great variability among laboratories in the number and type of responder T cells, nature and strength of stimulation, Treg:responder ratios and the number and type of antigen-presenting cells (APC) used in human in vitro suppression assays. This variability makes comparison between studies measuring Treg function difficult. The Treg field needs a standardized suppression assay that will work well with both healthy subjects and those with autoimmune diseases. We have developed an in vitro suppression assay that shows very little intra-assay variability in the stimulation of T cells isolated from healthy volunteers compared to subjects with underlying autoimmune destruction of pancreatic &beta;-cells. The main goal of this piece is to describe an in vitro human suppression assay that allows comparison between different subject groups. Additionally, this assay has the potential to delineate a small loss in nTreg function and anticipate further loss in the future, thus identifying subjects who could benefit from preventive immunomodulatory therapy1. Below, we provide thorough description of the steps involved in this procedure. We hope to contribute to the standardization of the in vitro suppression assay used to measure Treg function. In addition, we offer this assay as a tool to recognize an early state of immune imbalance and a potential functional biomarker for T1D.

Human In Vitro Suppression as Screening Tool for the Recognition of an Early State of Immune Imbalance

Tregs are potent suppressors of the immune system. There is a lack of unique surface markers to define them, hence, definitions of Tregs are primarily functional. Here we describe an optimized in vitro assay capable of identifying immune imbalance in subjects at risk to develop T1D.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical mediators of immune tolerance to self-antigens. In addition, they are crucial regulators of the immune response ...

Examination of Thymic Positive and Negative Selection by Flow Cytometry

A healthy immune system requires that T cells respond to foreign antigens while remaining tolerant to self-antigens. Random rearrangement of the T cell receptor (TCR) &alpha; and &beta; loci generates a T cell repertoire with vast diversity in antigen specificity, both to self and foreign. Selection of the repertoire during development in the thymus is critical for generating safe and useful T cells. Defects in thymic selection contribute to the development of autoimmune and immunodeficiency disorders1-4. 
T cell progenitors enter the thymus as double negative (DN) thymocytes that do not express CD4 or CD8 co-receptors. Expression of the &alpha;&beta;TCR and both co-receptors occurs at the double positive (DP) stage. Interaction of the &alpha;&beta;TCR with self-peptide-MHC (pMHC) presented by thymic cells determines the fate of the DP thymocyte. High affinity interactions lead to negative selection and elimination of self-reactive thymocytes. Low affinity interactions result in positive selection and development of CD4 or CD8 single positive (SP) T cells capable of recognizing foreign antigens presented by self-MHC5.
Positive selection can be studied in mice with a polyclonal (wildtype) TCR repertoire by observing the generation of mature T cells. However, they are not ideal for the study of negative selection, which involves deletion of small antigen-specific populations. Many model systems have been used to study negative selection but vary in their ability to recapitulate physiological events6. For example, in vitro stimulation of thymocytes lacks the thymic environment that is intimately involved in selection, while administration of exogenous antigen can lead to non-specific deletion of thymocytes7-9. Currently, the best tools for studying in vivo negative selection are mice that express a transgenic TCR specific for endogenous self-antigen. However, many classical TCR transgenic models are characterized by premature expression of the transgenic TCR&alpha; chain at the DN stage, resulting in premature negative selection. Our lab has developed the HYcd4 model, in which the transgenic HY TCR&alpha; is conditionally expressed at the DP stage, allowing negative selection to occur during the DP to SP transition as occurs in wildtype mice10.
Here, we describe a flow cytometry-based protocol to examine thymic positive and negative selection in the HYcd4 mouse model. While negative selection in HYcd4 mice is highly physiological, these methods can also be applied to other TCR transgenic models. We will also present general strategies for analyzing positive selection in a polyclonal repertoire applicable to any genetically manipulated mice.

We present a flow cytometry-based method to examine T cell development in vivo using genetically manipulated mice on a wildtype or T cell receptor transgenic background.

A healthy immune system requires that T cells respond to foreign  antigens while remaining tolerant to self-antigens. Random rearrangement of the  T cell ...

Studying Interactions of Staphylococcus aureus with Neutrophils by Flow Cytometry and Time Lapse Microscopy

We present methods to study the effect of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) and other toxins produced and secreted by Staphylococcus aureus on neutrophils. To study the effects of the PSMs on neutrophils we isolate fresh neutrophils using density gradient centrifugation. These neutrophils are loaded with a dye that fluoresces upon calcium mobilization. The activation of neutrophils by PSMs initiates a rapid and transient increase in the free intracellular calcium concentration. In a flow cytometry experiment this rapid mobilization can be measured by monitoring the fluorescence of a pre-loaded dye that reacts to the increased concentration of free Ca2+. Using this method we can determine the PSM concentration necessary to activate the neutrophil, and measure the effects of specific and general inhibitors of the neutrophil activation.	
	To investigate the expression of the PSMs in the intracellular space, we have constructed reporter fusions of the promoter of the PSM&alpha; operon to GFP. When these reporter strains of S. aureus are phagocytosed by neutrophils, the induction of expression can be observed using fluorescence microscopy.

Studying Interactions of Staphylococcus aureus with Neutrophils by Flow Cytometry and Time Lapse Microscopy

We present methods to study the effect of PSMs and other toxins secreted by Staphylococcus aureus on neutrophils using flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy.

We present methods to study the effect of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs)  and other toxins produced and secreted by Staphylococcus  aureus on neutrophils. ...

Detection of Fluorescent Nanoparticle Interactions with Primary Immune Cell Subpopulations by Flow Cytometry

Engineered nanoparticles are endowed with very promising properties for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. This work describes a fast and reliable method of analysis by flow cytometry to study nanoparticle interaction with immune cells. Primary immune cells can be easily purified from human or mouse tissues by antibody-mediated magnetic isolation. In the first instance, the different cell populations running in a flow cytometer can be distinguished by the forward-scattered light (FSC), which is proportional to cell size, and the side-scattered light (SSC), related to cell internal complexity. Furthermore, fluorescently labeled antibodies against specific cell surface receptors permit the identification of several subpopulations within the same sample. Often, all these features vary when cells are boosted by external stimuli that change their physiological and morphological state. Here, 50 nm FITC-SiO2 nanoparticles are used as a model to identify the internalization of nanostructured materials in human blood immune cells. The cell fluorescence and side-scattered light increase after incubation with nanoparticles allowed us to define time and concentration dependence of nanoparticle-cell interaction. Moreover, such protocol can be extended to investigate Rhodamine-SiO2 nanoparticle interaction with primary microglia, the central nervous system resident immune cells, isolated from mutant mice that specifically express the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in the monocyte/macrophage lineage. Finally, flow cytometry data related to nanoparticle internalization into the cells have been confirmed by confocal microscopy.

Analysis of nanoparticle interaction with defined subpopulations of immune cells by flow cytometry.

Engineered nanoparticles are endowed with very promising properties for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. This work describes a fast and reliable ...

In Vivo Assessment of Rodent Plasmodium Parasitemia and Merozoite Invasion by Flow Cytometry

During blood stage infection, malaria parasites invade, mature, and replicate within red blood cells (RBCs). This results in a regular growth cycle and an exponential increase in the proportion of malaria infected RBCs, known as parasitemia. We describe a flow cytometry based protocol which utilizes a combination of the DNA dye Hoechst, and the mitochondrial membrane potential dye, JC-1, to identify RBCs which contain parasites and therefore the parasitemia, of in vivo blood samples from Plasmodium chabaudi adami DS infected mice. Using this approach, in combination with fluorescently conjugated antibodies, parasitized RBCs can be distinguished from leukocytes, RBC progenitors, and RBCs containing Howell-Jolly bodies (HJ-RBCs), with a limit of detection of 0.007% parasitemia. Additionally, we outline a method for the comparative assessment of merozoite invasion into two different RBC populations. In this assay RBCs, labeled with two distinct compounds identifiable by flow cytometry, are transfused into infected mice. The relative rate of invasion into the two populations can then be assessed by flow cytometry based on the proportion of parasitized RBCs in each population over time. This combined approach allows the accurate measurement of both parasitemia and merozoite invasion in an in vivo model of malaria infection.

In Vivo Assessment of Rodent Plasmodium Parasitemia and Merozoite Invasion by Flow Cytometry

The malaria parasite invades and replicates within red blood cells. The accurate assessment of merozoite invasion and parasitemia is therefore crucial in assessing the course of malaria infection. Here we describe a flow cytometry based protocol for the measurement of these parameters in a mouse model of malaria.

During blood stage infection, malaria parasites invade, mature, and replicate within red blood cells (RBCs). This results in a regular growth cycle and an ...

Phenotypic Characterization of Macrophages from Rat Kidney by Flow Cytometry

There is increasing evidence suggesting the important role of inflammation and, subsequently, macrophages in the development and progression of renal disease. Macrophages are heterogeneous cells that have been implicated in kidney injury. Macrophages may be classified into two different phenotypes: classically activated macrophages (M1 macrophages), that release pro-inflammatory cytokines and promote fibrosis; and alternatively activated macrophages (M2 macrophages) that are associated with immunoregulatory and tissue-remodeling functions. These macrophage phenotypes need to be discriminated and analyzed to determine their contribution to renal injury. However, there are scarce studies reporting consistent phenotypic and functional information about macrophage subtypes in inflammatory renal disease models, especially in rats. This fact may be related to the limited macrophage markers used in rats, contrary to mice. Therefore, novel strategies are necessary to quantify and characterize the renal content of these infiltrating cells in a reliable way. This manuscript details a protocol for kidney digestion and further phenotypic and quantitative analysis of macrophages from rat kidneys by flow cytometry. Briefly, kidneys were incubated with collagenase and total macrophages were identified according to the dual presence of CD45 (leukocytes common antigen) and CD68 (PAN macrophage marker) in live cells.This was followed by surface staining of CD86 (M1 marker) and CD163 (M2 marker). Rat peritoneal macrophages were used as positive control for macrophage marker detection by flow cytometry. Our protocol resulted in low cellular mortality and allowed characterization of different intracellular and surface protein markers, thus limiting the loss of cellular integrity observed in other protocols. Moreover, this procedure allows the use of macrophages for further techniques, including cell sorting and mRNA or protein expression studies, among others.

This manuscript describes a detailed protocol for phenotypic and quantitative analysis of resident macrophages from rat kidneys by flow cytometry. The resulting stained cells can be also used for other applications, including cell sorting, gene expression analysis or functional studies, thus increasing the information obtained in the experimental model.

There is increasing evidence suggesting the important role of inflammation and, subsequently, macrophages in the development and progression of renal ...

Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorting for Purification of Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells from the Mouse Bone Marrow

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a technique to purify specific cell populations based on phenotypes detected by flow cytometry. This method enables researchers to better understand the characteristics of a single cell population without the influence of other cells. Compared to other methods of cell enrichment, such as magnetic-activated cell sorting (MCS), FACS is more flexible and accurate for cell separation due to the ability of phenotype detection by flow cytometry. In addition, FACS is usually capable of separating multiple cell populations simultaneously, which improves the efficiency and diversity of experiments. Although FACS has some limitations, it has been broadly used to purify cells for functional studies in both in vitro and in vivo settings. Here we report a protocol using fluorescence-activated cell sorting to isolate a very rare population of immune cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), with high purity from the bone marrow of lupus-prone mice for in vitro functional studies of pDC.

We report a protocol using fluorescence-activated cell sorting to isolate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) with high purity from the bone marrow of lupus-prone mice for functional studies of pDC.

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a technique to purify specific cell populations based on phenotypes detected by flow cytometry. This method ...

Isolation and In Vitro Culture of Murine and Human Alveolar Macrophages

Alveolar macrophages are terminally differentiated, lung-resident macrophages of prenatal origin. Alveolar macrophages are unique in their long life and their important role in lung development and function, as well as their lung-localized responses to infection and inflammation. To date, no unified method for identification, isolation, and handling of alveolar macrophages from humans and mice exists. Such a method is needed for studies on these important innate immune cells in various experimental settings. The method described here, which can be easily adopted by any laboratory, is a simplified approach to harvesting alveolar macrophages from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid or from lung tissue and maintaining them in vitro. Because alveolar macrophages primarily occur as adherent cells in the alveoli, the focus of this method is on dislodging them prior to harvest and identification. The lung is a highly vascularized organ, and various cell types of myeloid and lymphoid origin inhabit, interact, and are influenced by the lung microenvironment. By using the set of surface markers described here, researchers can easily and unambiguously distinguish alveolar macrophages from other leukocytes, and purify them for downstream applications. The culture method developed herein supports both human and mouse alveolar macrophages for in vitro growth, and is compatible with cellular and molecular studies.

Isolation and In Vitro Culture of Murine and Human Alveolar Macrophages

This communication describes methodologies for isolation and culture of alveolar macrophages from humans and murine models for experimental purposes.

Alveolar macrophages are terminally differentiated, lung-resident macrophages of prenatal origin. Alveolar macrophages are unique in their long life and ...

Characterization of Human Monocyte Subsets by Whole Blood Flow Cytometry Analysis

Monocytes are key contributors in various inflammatory disorders and alterations to these cells, including their subset proportions and functions, can have pathological significance. An ideal method for examining alterations to monocytes is whole blood flow cytometry as the minimal handling of samples by this method limits artifactual cell activation. However, many different approaches are taken to gate the monocyte subsets leading to inconsistent identification of the subsets between studies. Here we demonstrate a method using whole blood flow cytometry to identify and characterize human monocyte subsets (classical, intermediate, and non-classical). We outline how to prepare the blood samples for flow cytometry, gate the subsets (ensure contaminating cells have been removed), and determine monocyte subset expression of surface markers &#8212; in this example M1 and M2 markers. This protocol can be extended to other studies that require a standard gating method for assessing monocyte subset proportions and monocyte subset expression of other functional markers.

Here we present a protocol for characterizing monocyte subsets by whole blood flow cytometry. This includes outlining how to gate the subsets and assess their expression of surface markers and giving an example of the assessment of the expression of M1 (inflammatory) and M2 markers (anti-inflammatory).

Monocytes are key contributors in various inflammatory disorders and alterations to these cells, including their subset proportions and functions, can ...