This work was supported in part by the NIDCD Grants No. 1K08DC020780 and 5T32DC000027-33, and the Rubenstein Hearing Research Fund.

All animal procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (GP18M226). Hartley albino guinea pigs (both male and female, weighing 500-700 g) were used in the present study.
1. Procedure setup and preparation
<ol>
	<li>Sterilize all instruments with ethylene oxide before beginning the experiment.</li>
	<li>Euthanize the animals following the institutionally approved protocol. 
	NOTE: In the current study, a non-precharged chamber was employed to release 100% carbon dioxide (CO2) from a commercial cylinder. An inline restrictor was used to regulate the gas flow, maintaining it within the range of 30% to 70% of the chamber&#39;s volume per minute in accordance with the 2020 AVMA Guidelines11.</li>
	<li>Place the animal in the chamber and dispense carbon dioxide for 5 min. CO2 flow is maintained for 1 min following respiratory arrest.</li>
	<li>Perform decapitation following respiratory arrest to ensure euthanasia.</li>
</ol>
2. Surgical approach and explantation
<ol>
	<li>Extract the temporal bone from the guinea pig skull in the usual fashion12. Remove the excess soft tissue with a rongeur. Identify the external acoustic meatus, the temporal bulla, and the facial canal13 (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Drill away the ventral aspects of the temporal bulla with a 6 mm diamond bit (see Table of Materials), exposing the middle ear space and the external auditory canal circumferentially.</li>
	<li>Using rongeurs, gently remove the external auditory canal and the tympanic ring, simultaneously separating the incudomalleolar joint. Identify the incus, incudostapedial joint, cochlea, horizontal semicircular canal, and facial canal13 (Figure 2A).</li>
	<li>Separate the incudostapedial joint and remove the incus using forceps. Identify the bony niche of the round window.</li>
	<li>Use a 6 mm diamond bit to drill away the bony lamina connecting the cochlea with the medial wall of the tympanic cavity toward the tensor tympani canal. Carefully decompress the bony channel of the tensor tympani and remove the tensor tympani muscle using a 28 G needle. 
	NOTE: The medial wall of the tensor tympani fossa connects directly with cochlear bone around the RWM, and care is taken not to cause fractures that can extend to the round window.</li>
	<li>Drill away the bony lamina connecting the cochlea to the inferior wall of the tympanic cavity until there is 1 mm of bony ledge abutting the cochlea remaining (Figure 2B).</li>
	<li>Using a 2 mm diamond bit (see Table of Materials), make a cochleostomy at the basal turn of the cochlea, leaving approximately 2 mm of bone to the round window. Continue the cochleostomy inferiorly in a plane parallel to the round window membrane to separate the base from the apex of the cochlea.</li>
	<li>Extend the cochleostomy cut through the skull base, which is much denser, resulting in a cross-sectional view of the basal turn of the cochlea. 
	NOTE: Aiming the drill toward the meatus of the internal auditory canal results in a trajectory that maximizes bone removal while avoiding traversing too close to the round window.</li>
	<li>Examine the specimen from the skull base side and, if not already done, identify the internal auditory canal and drill to the cochlear aperture. Remove the cochlear nerve with a 28 G needle.</li>
	<li>Examine the specimen from the intracochlear side. Identify and remove the osseous spiral lamina in the basal turn and the remaining modiolus with forceps or a 28 G needle.</li>
	<li>Irrigate the unified scala tympani-scala vestibuli cavity copiously to remove debris. The round window should be clearly visible from the cochectomy without any overlying debris (Figure 2C).</li>
	<li>Next, examine the specimen from the middle ear side. Drill the lateral semicircular canal and facial canal to the level of the oval window. Gently remove the stapes using forceps, exposing the oval window niche. Of note, there is a bony bridge between the crura of the stapes known as the crista stapedis.</li>
	<li>Using a 1 mm diamond drill (see Table of Materials), open the vestibule further by extending the oval window along the face of the round window, taking care to maintain 1-2 mm of cochlear bone abutting the round window niche (Figure 2D).</li>
	<li>Complete the temporal bone cuts by connecting the oval window cuts with the cochlectomy cuts on each side of the round window. 
	NOTE: Due to the fragility of the cochlear bone, preserving the tensor tympani fossa in the specimen and avoiding cuts through it will help prevent cochlear bone fractures that extend to the RWM and compromise its integrity.</li>
	<li>Make the final attachments to the dense bone of the skull base adjacent to the internal auditory canal and gently shave down to result in an excised RWM specimen (Figure 3A).</li>
</ol>

Guinea Pig Round Window Membrane Explantation

<ol>
	<li>Duan, M. I., Zhi-qiang, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Permeability+of+round+window+membrane+and+its+role+for+drug+delivery:+our+own+findings+and+literature+review.">Permeability of round window membrane and its role for drug delivery: our own findings and literature review.</a> J Otol. 4 (1), 34-43 (2009).</li><li>Kelso, C. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microperforations+significantly+enhance+diffusion+across+round+window+membrane.">Microperforations significantly enhance diffusion across round window membrane.</a> Otol Neurotol. 36 (4), 694-700 (2015).</li><li>Salt, A. N., Plontke, S. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacokinetic+principles+in+the+inner+ear:+Influence+of+drug+properties+on+intratympanic+applications.">Pharmacokinetic principles in the inner ear: Influence of drug properties on intratympanic applications.</a> Hear Res. 368, 28-40 (2018).</li><li>Szeto, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inner+ear+delivery:+Challenges+and+opportunities.">Inner ear delivery: Challenges and opportunities.</a> Laryngoscope Investig Otolaryngol. 5 (1), 122-131 (2020).</li><li>Carpenter, A. M., Muchow, D., Goycoolea, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrastructural+studies+of+the+human+round+window+membrane.">Ultrastructural studies of the human round window membrane.</a> Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 115 (5), 585-590 (1989).</li><li>Forouzandeh, F., Borkholder, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microtechnologies+for+inner+ear+drug+delivery.">Microtechnologies for inner ear drug delivery.</a> Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 28 (5), 323-328 (2020).</li><li>Leong, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microneedles+facilitate+small-volume+intracochlear+delivery+without+physiologic+injury+in+guinea+pigs.">Microneedles facilitate small-volume intracochlear delivery without physiologic injury in guinea pigs.</a> Otol Neurotol. 44 (5), 513-519 (2023).</li><li>Singh, R., Birru, B., Veit, J. G. S., Arrigali, E. M., Serban, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+and+characterization+of+an+in+vitro+round+window+membrane+model+for+drug+permeability+evaluations.">Development and characterization of an in vitro round window membrane model for drug permeability evaluations.</a> Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 15 (9), 1105 (2022).</li><li>Du, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+targeted+delivery+of+dexamethasone+acetate+across+the+round+window+membrane+in+guinea+pigs.">Magnetic targeted delivery of dexamethasone acetate across the round window membrane in guinea pigs.</a> Otol Neurotol. 34 (1), 41-47 (2013).</li><li>Kopke, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+nanoparticles:+inner+ear+targeted+molecule+delivery+and+middle+ear+implant.">Magnetic nanoparticles: inner ear targeted molecule delivery and middle ear implant.</a> Audiol Neurootol. 11 (2), 123-133 (2006).</li><li>AVMA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AVMA+Guidelines+for+the+Euthanasia+of+Animals:+2020+Edition.">AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2020 Edition.</a> AVMA. , (2020).</li><li>Goksu, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomy+of+the+guinea+pig+temporal+bone.">Anatomy of the guinea pig temporal bone.</a> Ann Otolaryngol. 101 (8), 699-704 (1992).</li><li>Wysocki, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Topographical+anatomy+of+the+guinea+pig+temporal+bone.">Topographical anatomy of the guinea pig temporal bone.</a> Hear Res. 199 (1), 103-110 (2005).</li><li>Veit, J. G. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+the+drug+permeability+properties+of+human+cadaveric+in+situ+tympanic+and+round+window+membranes.">An evaluation of the drug permeability properties of human cadaveric in situ tympanic and round window membranes.</a> Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 15 (9), 1037 (2022).</li><li>Kansara, V., Mitra, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+an+ex+vivo+model+implication+for+carrier-mediated+retinal+drug+delivery).">Evaluation of an ex vivo model implication for carrier-mediated retinal drug delivery).</a> Curr Eye Res. 31 (5), 415-426 (2006).</li><li>Lundman, L., Bagger-Sj&#246;b&#228;ck, D., Holmquist, L., Juhn, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Round+window+membrane+permeability.+An+in+vitro+model.">Round window membrane permeability. An in vitro model.</a> Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 457, 73-77 (1989).</li><li>Moatti, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+drug+permeability+through+an+ex+vivo+porcine+round+window+membrane+model.">Assessment of drug permeability through an ex vivo porcine round window membrane model.</a> iScience. 26 (6), 106789 (2023).</li><li>Lin, Y. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+microbubble-facilitated+inner+ear+delivery+of+gold+nanoparticles+involves+transient+disruption+of+the+tight+junction+barrier+in+the+round+window+membrane.">Ultrasound microbubble-facilitated inner ear delivery of gold nanoparticles involves transient disruption of the tight junction barrier in the round window membrane.</a> Front Pharmacol. 12, 689032 (2021).</li><li>Jeong, S. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Junctional+modulation+of+round+window+membrane+enhances+dexamethasone+uptake+into+the+inner+ear+and+recovery+after+NIHL.">Junctional modulation of round window membrane enhances dexamethasone uptake into the inner ear and recovery after NIHL.</a> Int J Mol Sci. 22 (18), 10061 (2021).</li></ol>

The authors have no disclosures to make.

In local drug delivery to the ear, the RWM is the primary route of passage for therapeutics to reach the inner ear. An accurate and reliable benchtop model is needed to better understand transport mechanisms and permeability across novel delivery vehicles and for drug development. In this study, we demonstrate that guinea pig RWM explantation is a feasible and dependable procedure to allow for systematic investigations of drug-membrane interactions. Lundman et al. and Kelso et al. previously described utilizing a similar RWM permeability model2,16; however, the specific steps of the surgical extraction have not been detailed until now, and the fragility of the cochlear bone and complex anatomy have posed a challenge for the consistent, en bloc harvest of intact RWMs.
The guinea pig RWM is located at the end of the scala tympani of the cochlea and is surrounded by a thin layer of cochlear bone. Fracture of this osseous structure during the explantation process can result in an unusable specimen, as the RWM tends to tear away if the surrounding cochlear bone does not remain intact. Our group noted that fractures most often occurred when drilling near the junction between the highly-dense skull base bone and the brittle cochlea, as the transition in bone density increased the likelihood of fracture propagation through the round window. For this reason, it is suggested that maintaining the denser bone of the tensor tympani fossa, which is attached to the cochlea in close proximity to the RW, will increase the yield of specimen harvest, particularly in older animals. Disruption of the bone can also occur during the removal of the cochlear contents; care must be taken to gently remove the osseous spiral lamina with minimal manipulation of the surrounding cochlear bone.
An important detail to consider with this model is the viability of the RWM after explantation. Prior groups have suggested that mammalian RWM remains viable for 24-48 h after extraction17. The present study has reflected these findings; consistent transport studies and histological analyses demonstrating intact cell structures (Figure 2A) have both supported the viability of the guinea pig RWM at the time of experiments. To maintain the overall health of the extracted specimen, the RWM is extracted and embedded within 3 h of euthanasia.
In the study of drug pharmacokinetics across the RWM in vivo, there remains considerable technical difficulty in making measurements of perilymphatic distribution and concentration1. Changes in intra-tympanic delivery methods and applied amount have resulted in varied therapeutic results. These difficulties are compounded by the complex fluid dynamics within the labyrinth, as well as irregular egress of injected material through the eustachian tube. The described method of explantation allows for the isolated study of the RWM and factors that affect its permeability as an ex vivo model. Furthermore, the explant also allows for the direct interrogation and visualization of various methods currently employed to increase RWM permeability, such as ultrasound microbubbles18 and chemically induced junctional modulation19. Future studies on specific endocytosis mechanisms implicated in drug delivery would also benefit from this benchtop model.

Novel classes of therapeutics have emerged for the treatment of sensorineural hearing loss. The translation of these therapeutics to clinical populations is limited by safe and efficacious routes of transport into the inner ear. Current methods of in vivo delivery in animal studies rely on either fenestration into the inner ear or diffusion through the round window membrane (RWM), a non-osseous barrier that separates the middle ear space from the cochlea1.
Surgical fenestration and microinjection into the inner ear are both invasive and can pose risks to residual inner ear function2. Therefore, the RWM is an important route for local drug delivery, and guinea pigs are the primary preclinical animal model used to study local drug pharmacokinetics across the RWM and in the inner ear for pharmaceutical development3,4. Although thinner than the human RWM, the guinea pig RWM shares an identical three-layered structure. It is approximately 1 mm in diameter, 15-25 &#181;m thick, and comprised of two epithelial cell layers sandwiching a connective tissue layer5. The epithelial layer facing the middle ear is densely packed and connected via tight junctions, while the layer facing the inner ear and scala tympani has looser architecture and does not have significant intercellular adhesions.
Current pre-clinical studies investigating drug permeability in the guinea pig RWM rely on in vivo middle ear injections followed by the sampling of the perilymph fluid within the inner ear, which does not allow for the specific study of RWM transport6,7. Fragments of RWM explants have been used in preclinical studies, but due to their fragility and small size, they are not suitable for systematic, microfluidic investigations of drug and vehicle transport requiring a watertight seal across the RWM2. Other groups have employed in vitro models with cultured human epithelial cells to approximate the RWM8,9,10. However, the majority of these constructs focus solely on the outer epithelial layer and do not capture the complexity of native tissue architecture. For a more detailed understanding of transport mechanisms across the RWM, targeted, ex vivo studies are required.
In this study, we demonstrate the explantation of a guinea pig RWM with surrounding bony support to preserve membrane integrity and illustrate their use in an experimental paradigm designed for the specific study of the RWM transport of drug delivery vehicles.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mm Diamond Ball Drill Bit</td>
			<td>Anspach</td>
			<td>1SD-G1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mm Diamond Ball Drill Bit</td>
			<td>Anspach</td>
			<td>2SD-G1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 mm Diamond Ball Drill Bit</td>
			<td>Anspach</td>
			<td>6D-G1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ANSPACH EMAX 2 Plus System</td>
			<td>Anspach</td>
			<td>EMAX2PLUS</td>
			<td>Any bone cutting drilling system will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD Eclipse Needle 27 G x 1/2 in. with detachable 1 mL BD Luer-Lok Syringe</td>
			<td>Becton, Dickinson, and Co.&#160;</td>
			<td>382903057894</td>
			<td>Any 27-28 G needle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gorilla Epoxy</td>
			<td>Gorilla</td>
			<td>4200101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kwik-CAST</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>KWIK-CAST</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

guinea pig round window membrane explantation for ex vivo studies

Efficient and minimally invasive drug delivery to the inner ear is a significant challenge. The round window membrane (RWM), being one of the few entry points to the inner ear, has become a vital focus of investigation. However, due to the complexities of isolating the RWM, our understanding of its pharmacokinetics remains limited. The RWM comprises three distinct layers: the outer epithelium, the middle connective tissue layer, and the inner epithelial layer, each potentially possessing unique delivery properties.
Current models for investigating transport across the RWM utilize in vivo animal models or ex vivo RWM models which rely on cell cultures or membrane fragments. Guinea pigs serve as a validated preclinical model for the investigation of drug pharmacokinetics within the inner ear and are an important animal model for the translational development of delivery vehicles to the cochlea. In this study, we describe an approach for explantation of a guinea pig RWM with surrounding cochlear bone for benchtop drug delivery experiments. This method allows for preservation of native RWM architecture and may provide a more realistic representation of barriers to transport than current benchtop models.

As demonstrated in Figure 3A, this method allows for the explantation of the intact guinea pig round window membrane with a surrounding ring of rigid bone. The RWM should be fully connected to the bony annulus circumferentially. No fractures of the cochlear bone should be appreciated. In comparison with human round window specimens, guinea pig RWM does not have an overlying pseudomembrane. Additionally, unlike humans, there is a bony bridge between the crura of the guinea pig stapes, which requires fracturing and removal prior to the extraction of the stapes superstructure. Histological analysis (Figure 3B) of the representative RWM shows a clear three-layered epithelial structure with an adjacent, intact round window niche.
From a technique perspective, there are two critical steps. Firstly, when making the cochectomy in step 2.7, it is important to use the equator of the drill bit, rather than the tip, to make the cut, as jitters at the burr tip can lead to traumatic fractures in the cochlear bone that may extend to the round window membrane. Secondly, it is important to fully drill out the internal auditory canal, as this allows for the complete removal of the cochlear nerve and easier dissection of the osseous spiral lamina, resulting in a unified cavity on the intracochlear side for experimental sampling (Figure 2C).
After the RWM has been successfully extracted, our group utilized a modified Ussing chamber to evaluate pharmacokinetic properties of the membrane. The modified Ussing chamber has been validated by other groups in tympanic and round window membranes as well as retinal tissue to evaluate transport properties of epithelial membranes14,15. This 3D printed device was constructed using Poly-Jet Vero and consists of two triangular base pieces, each with a 400 &#181;L fluid chamber (Figure 3). The bony rim of the RWM is affixed to the base using 2-part epoxy (Gorilla, see Table of Materials), followed by silicon sealant (see Table of Materials) to ensure a water-tight seal (Figure 4). Meticulous care is taken to avoid any epoxy or sealant contacting the membrane. With the RWM sandwiched in place, the two bases are then glued together with epoxy. During transport experiments, the loading (middle-ear facing) is filled with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing the delivery vehicle (or any molecule of interest), and the sampling chamber (scala tympani facing) is filled with PBS only. At regular time intervals, fluid from the sampling chamber is completely aspirated and replaced with fresh PBS.
Quality control measures are taken during each experiment to ensure that there is both a water-tight seal around the specimen within the apparatus, as well as a fully intact membrane without microperforations. Representative results with a brown, iron-core nanoparticle solution are shown below. Quantitative verification of a water-tight seal is accomplished by aspirating the full volume of the sampling chamber during each sampling interval; fluid leaking out of the sampling chamber would result in less than the full aspiration volume. At the conclusion of each experiment, the fluid volume in the loading chamber should also remain the same. Additionally, as our target fluid is brown in color, it is also readily visible in the event of a leak.
To ensure no leak within the membrane, several approaches were taken. First, RWM specimens used in this study are all immediately extracted, and light, confocal, and electron microscopy images confirm intact cellular and membrane structures without microperforations (Figure 3A,B). Second, microperforations were deliberately created in a subset of RWM specimens to compare the effect on nanoparticle delivery. Visual inspection of the sampling and loading chamber aspirate serves as further confirmation of specimen integrity and watertight attachment. In RWM with perforations, there is rapid equilibration of the loading and sampling chamber, which can be observed via a distinct color change (Supplementary Figure 1). Additionally, it was found that transport in microperforated RWMs was higher than the maximal variance observed in intact membranes (Supplementary Figure 2). Together, these serve as quality control mechanisms for the integrity of the water-tight seal surrounding the specimen, as well as the RWM.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Preoperative image of the guinea pig temporal bone. The tympanic bulla, external auditory canal, and facial canal (*) are shown in this preoperative image of the guinea pig temporal bone. Scale bar = 1 cm. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Intraoperative images. Intraoperative images demonstrating the relationship between the round window membrane and the incus (*), cochlea (**), stapes (&#8224;), and decompressed internal auditory canal (&#8225;). Shaded areas indicate portions of the specimen that will be removed. (A) Guinea pig middle ear cavity after removal of tympanic membrane and facial nerve (step 2.3). (B) Middle ear cavity after decompression of the tensor tympanic canal (step 2.6). (C) Basal view of RWM after cochleostomy and removal of inner ear contents (step 2.11). (D) View of RWM after removal of stapes and identification of the vestibule (step 2.13). Scale bar = A,B (1 cm); C,D (5 mm). <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Final RWM specimen and histology. (A) Guinea pig RWM gross specimen with a bony annulus. Scale bar = 1 cm. (B) Histology of the explanted guinea pig round window membrane demonstrates an intact three-layered structure. Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Microfluidic device for transmembrane transport experiments. (A) Diagram of the microfluidic device used for transmembrane transport experiments. (B,C) Printed microfluidic device for the experiments. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/65816fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Supplementary Figure 1: Loading and sampling chamber contents over a 5 h iron-core nanoparticle delivery experiment. (A) Loading chamber of intact RWM shows a gradual decrease in color intensity as the concentration of nanoparticles decreases. (B) Sampling chamber of intact RWM shows stable coloration over time, consistent with low levels of nanoparticle delivery. (C) Loading chamber of perforated RWM demonstrates a rapid decrease in color intensity as the contents equilibrate with the sampling chamber. (D) Sampling chamber of perforated RWM shows a gradual increase in color over time, consistent with high levels of nanoparticle delivery. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/Supplemental Figure 1.zip" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplementary Figure 2: Representative transport results for delivery of nanoparticles. Representative transport results for the delivery of nanoparticles (Fe3O4 core with polyethylene glycol coating, mean radius of 77 nm) across guinea pig RWM, both intact and with perforations (mean &#177; SD, n &#8805; 3 RWM experiments). <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/65816/Supplemental Figure 2.zip" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>

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Author Spotlight: Extraction of Guinea Pig Round Window Membrane to Facilitate Inner Ear Drug Delivery Research

This protocol outlines a method for the explantation of the round window membrane from guinea pig temporal bones, providing a valuable resource for ex vivo studies.

Guinea Pig Round Window Membrane Explantation for Ex Vivo Studies

Efficient and minimally invasive drug delivery to the inner ear is a significant challenge. The round window membrane (RWM), being one of the few entry ...

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596 Views.  Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. This protocol outlines a method for the explantation of the round window membrane from guinea pig temporal bones, providing a valuable resource for ex vivo studies.

Video: Author Spotlight: Extraction of Guinea Pig Round Window Membrane to Facilitate Inner Ear Drug Delivery Research

Ex vivo Mechanical Loading of Tendon

Injuries to the tendon (e.g., wrist tendonitis, epicondyltis) due to overuse are common in sports activities and the workplace. Most are associated with repetitive, high force hand activities. The mechanisms of cellular and structural damage due to cyclical loading are not well known. The purpose of this video is to present a new system that can simultaneously load four tendons in tissue culture. The video describes the methods of sterile tissue harvest and how the tendons are loaded onto a clamping system that is subsequently immersed into media and maintained at 37&deg;C. One clamp is fixed while the other one is moved with a linear actuator. Tendon tensile force is monitored with a load cell in series with the mobile clamp. The actuators are controlled with a LabView program. The four tendons can be repetitively loaded with different patterns of loading, repetition rate, rate of loading, and duration. Loading can continue for a few minutes to 48 hours. At the end of loading, the tendons are removed and the mid-substance extracted for biochemical analyses. This system allows for the investigation of the effects of loading patterns on gene expression and structural changes in tendon. Ultimately, mechanisms of injury due to overuse can be studies with the findings applied to treatment and prevention.

A new in vitro system for simultaneously loading four tendons in culture is described.

Injuries to the tendon (e.g., wrist tendonitis, epicondyltis) due to overuse are common in sports activities and the workplace.  Most are associated with ...

Method for Culture of Early Chick Embryos ex vivo (New Culture)

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  the formation and patterning of brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia. Applications of chick embryo culture include electroporation of DNA or RNA constructs in order to analyze gene function, grafts of growth factor coated beads such as FGFs and BMPs , as well as whole mount in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. This video demonstrates the different steps in chick embryo culture; First, the embryo is explanted in saline. Then, the embryo is centered on a glass ring. The membranes surrounding the embryo are lifted along the walls of the ring. The ring is then placed in a culture dish containing a pool of albumine. The culture dish is sealed and placed in a humid chamber, where the embryo is cultured for up to 24 hrs. Finally, the embryo is removed from the ring, fixed and processed for further applications. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

Method for Culture of Early Chick Embryos ex vivo New Culture

This video demonstrates New culture, a method by which chick embryos are cultured outside the egg for up to 24 hr. This method enables one to study early development (primitive streak to 14 som.), a period corresponding to E7-9 in mouse. Applications of this technique include electroporation, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry.

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ...

Optical Recording of Electrical Activity in Guinea-pig Enteric Networks using Voltage-sensitive Dyes

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a self-contained network with identified functions, capable of performing complex behaviors in isolation. Its neurons (10 to 25 &mu;m in diameter) are arranged in plexuses that are confined to distinct planes of the gut wall 1; the myenteric plexus can be found between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers, and the submucous plexus between the circular muscle layer and the mucosa. Since the effector systems for these plexuses (transporting epithelium, endocrine cells, immune elements, blood vessels and smooth muscle) are also contained within the gut wall, semi-intact preparations can be dissected that preserve individual components of different reflex pathways. The behavior of the effector systems is controlled by the submucous and myenteric plexuses acting in concert. Therefore, detailed knowledge of synaptic interactions within and between ganglia, and of communication between the plexuses, is essential for understanding normal gastrointestinal function. The ENS, as an intact nervous system, is a unique experimental model in which one can correlate molecular and cellular events with the electrical behavior of the neuronal network and its physiological outputs. Because of the quasi-two-dimensional organization of its plexuses, the ENS is particularly well suited for the study of neural networks using multiple site optical recording techniques that employ voltage-sensitive dyes 2,7,8,9. We will illustrate here the use of a relatively new naphthylstyryl-pyridinium dye (di-4-ANEPPDHQ) 3 that offers multiple advantages over its predecessors, including very low phototoxicity, slow rate of internalization, and remarkable chemical stability. When used in conjunction with a camera that permits sub-millisecond time resolution, this dye allows us to monitor the electrical activity of all the neurons in the field of view with a maximal spatial resolution of ~ 2.5 &mu;m at 100X magnification. At lower magnification (10X or 20X), the sacrifice of single-cell resolution is compensated by a gain in perspective, revealing the intricacies of the inter-ganglionic circuitry.

This protocol illustrates how voltage-sensitive dyes enable optical recording of electrical activity from intact neural networks such as the plexuses of the guinea-pig enteric nervous system, with an adjustable resolution that ranges from single-cells to multi-ganglionic circuitry.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a self-contained network with identified functions, capable of performing complex behaviors in isolation. Its neurons ...

Crystallizing Membrane Proteins for Structure Determination using Lipidic Mesophases

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the lipidic cubic phase or in meso method. The method has been shown to be quite versatile in that it has been used to solve X-ray crystallographic structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins, proteins that are monomeric, homo- and hetero-multimeric, chromophore-containing and chromophore-free, and alpha-helical and beta-barrel proteins. Recent successes using in meso crystallization are the human engineered beta2-adrenergic and adenosine A2a G protein-coupled receptors. Protocols are presented for reconstituting the membrane protein into the monoolein-based mesophase, and for setting up crystallizations in the manual mode. Additional steps in the overall process, such as crystal harvesting, are to be addressed in future video articles. The time required to prepare the protein-loaded mesophase and to set up a crystallization plate manually is about one hour.

Herein is described the procedure implemented in the Caffrey Membrane Structural and Functional Biology Group to set up manually crystallization trials of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases.

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the ...

A System for ex vivo Culturing of Embryonic Pancreas

The pancreas controls vital functions of our body, including the production of digestive enzymes and regulation of blood sugar levels1. Although in the past decade many studies have contributed to a solid foundation for understanding pancreatic organogenesis, important gaps persist in our knowledge of early pancreas formation2. A complete understanding of these early events will provide insight into the development of this organ, but also into incurable diseases that target the pancreas, such as diabetes or pancreatic cancer. Finally, this information will generate a blueprint for developing cell-replacement therapies in the context of diabetes.
 During embryogenesis, the pancreas originates from distinct embryonic outgrowths of the dorsal and ventral foregut endoderm at embryonic day (E) 9.5 in the mouse embryo3,4. Both outgrowths evaginate into the surrounding mesenchyme as solid epithelial buds, which undergo proliferation, branching and differentiation to generate a fully mature organ2,5,6. Recent evidences have suggested that growth and differentiation of pancreatic cell lineages, including the insulin-producing &beta;-cells, depends on proper tissue-architecture, epithelial remodeling and cell positioning within the branching pancreatic epithelium7,8. However, how branching morphogenesis occurs and is coordinated with proliferation and differentiation in the pancreas is largely unknown. This is in part due to the fact that current knowledge about these developmental processes has relied almost exclusively on analysis of fixed specimens, while morphogenetic events are highly dynamic.
 Here, we report a method for dissecting and culturing mouse embryonic pancreatic buds ex vivo on glass bottom dishes, which allow direct visualization of the developing pancreas (Figure 1). This culture system is ideally devised for confocal laser scanning microscopy and, in particular, live-cell imaging. Pancreatic explants can be prepared not only from wild-type mouse embryos, but also from genetically engineered mouse strains (e.g. transgenic or knockout), allowing real-time studies of mutant phenotypes. Moreover, this ex vivo culture system is valuable to study the effects of chemical compounds on pancreatic development, enabling to obtain quantitative data about proliferation and growth, elongation, branching, tubulogenesis and differentiation. In conclusion, the development of an ex vivo pancreatic explant culture method combined with high-resolution imaging provides a strong platform for observing morphogenetic and differentiation events as they occur within the developing mouse embryo.

A System for ex vivo Culturing of Embryonic Pancreas

Here, we describe a method for isolation, culture and manipulation of mouse embryonic pancreas. This represents an excellent ex vivo system for studying various aspects of pancreatic development, including morphogenesis, differentiation and growth. Pancreatic bud explants can be cultured for several days and used in a range of different applications, including whole-mount immunofluorescence and live imaging.

The pancreas controls vital functions of our body,  including the production of digestive enzymes and regulation of blood sugar  levels1. Although in the ...

The c-FOS Protein Immunohistological Detection: A Useful Tool As a Marker of Central Pathways Involved in Specific Physiological Responses In Vivo and Ex Vivo

Many studies seek to identify and map the brain regions involved in specific physiological regulations. The proto-oncogene c-fos, an immediate early gene, is expressed in neurons in response to various stimuli. The protein product can be readily detected with immunohistochemical techniques leading to the use of c-FOS detection to map groups of neurons that display changes in their activity. In this article, we focused on the identification of brainstem neuronal populations involved in the ventilatory adaptation to hypoxia or hypercapnia. Two approaches were described to identify involved neuronal populations in vivo in animals and ex vivo in deafferented brainstem preparations. In vivo, animals were exposed to hypercapnic or hypoxic gas mixtures. Ex vivo, deafferented preparations were superfused with hypoxic or hypercapnic artificial cerebrospinal fluid. In both cases, either control in vivo animals or ex vivo preparations were maintained under normoxic and normocapnic conditions. The comparison of these two approaches allows the determination of the origin of the neuronal activation i.e., peripheral and/or central. In vivo and ex vivo, brainstems were collected, fixed, and sliced into sections. Once sections were prepared, immunohistochemical detection of the c-FOS protein was made in order to identify the brainstem groups of cells activated by hypoxic or hypercapnic stimulations. Labeled cells were counted in brainstem respiratory structures. In comparison to the control condition, hypoxia or hypercapnia increased the number of c-FOS labeled cells in several specific brainstem sites that are thus constitutive of the neuronal pathways involved in the adaptation of the central respiratory drive.

The c-FOS Protein Immunohistological Detection: A Useful Tool As a Marker of Central Pathways Involved in Specific Physiological Responses In Vivo and Ex Vivo

Here, we present a protocol based on c-FOS protein immunohistological detection, a classical technique used for the identification of neuronal populations involved in specific physiological responses in vivo and ex vivo.

Many studies seek to identify and map the brain regions involved in specific physiological regulations. The proto-oncogene c-fos, an immediate early gene, ...

A Multi-hole Cryovial Eliminates Freezing Artifacts when Muscle Tissues are Directly Immersed in Liquid Nitrogen

Studies on skeletal muscle physiology face the technical challenge of appropriately processing the specimens to obtain sections with clearly visible cytoplasmic compartments. Another hurdle is the tight apposition of myofibers to the surrounding tissues. Because the process of tissue fixation and paraffin embedding leads to the shrinkage of muscle fibers, freezing is an optimal means of hardening muscle tissue for sectioning. However, a commonly encountered issue, the formation of ice crystals, occurs during the preparation of frozen sections because of the high water content of muscle. The protocol presented here first describes a simple and efficient method for properly freezing muscle tissues by immersing them in liquid nitrogen. The problem with using liquid nitrogen alone is that it causes the formation of a nitrogen gas barrier next to the tissue, which acts as an insulator and inhibits the cooling of the tissues. To avoid this "vapor blanket" effect, a new cryovial was designed to increase the speed of liquid flow around the tissue surface. This was achieved by punching a total of 14 inlet holes in the wall of the vial. According to bubble dynamics, a higher rate of liquid flow results in smaller bubbles and fewer chances to form a gas barrier. When liquid nitrogen flows into the cryovial through the inlet holes, the flow velocity around the tissue is fast enough to eliminate the gas barrier. Compared to the method of freezing muscle tissues using pre-chilled isopentane, this protocol is simpler and more efficient and can be used to freeze muscle in a throughput manner. Furthermore, this method is optimal for institutions that do not have access to isopentane, which is extremely flammable at room temperature.

This protocol describes a procedure to freeze muscle tissues by plunging them directly into liquid nitrogen. This protocol also highlights a new cryovial that can avoid the &#34;blanket effect&#34; of nitrogen gas when liquid nitrogen contacts the tissue surface of a specimen.

Studies on skeletal muscle physiology face the technical challenge of appropriately processing the specimens to obtain sections with clearly visible ...

Pulling Membrane Nanotubes from Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

The reshaping of the cell membrane is an integral part of many cellular phenomena, such as endocytosis, trafficking, the formation of filopodia, etc. Many different proteins associate with curved membranes because of their ability to sense or induce membrane curvature. Typically, these processes involve a multitude of proteins making them too complex to study quantitatively in the cell. We describe a protocol to reconstitute a curved membrane in vitro, mimicking a curved cellular structure, such as the endocytic neck. A giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) is used as a model of a cell membrane, whose internal pressure and surface tension are controlled with micropipette aspiration. Applying a point pulling force on the GUV using optical tweezers creates a nanotube of high curvature connected to a flat membrane. This method has traditionally been used to measure the fundamental mechanical properties of lipid membranes, such as bending rigidity. In recent years, it has been expanded to study how proteins interact with membrane curvature and the way they affect the shape and the mechanics of membranes. A system combining micromanipulation, microinjection, optical tweezers, and confocal microscopy allows measurement of membrane curvature, membrane tension, and the surface density of proteins, concurrently. From these measurements, many important mechanical and morphological properties of the protein-membrane system can be inferred. In addition, we lay out a protocol of creating GUVs in the presence of physiological salt concentration, and a method of quantifying the surface density of proteins on the membrane from fluorescence intensities of labeled proteins and lipids.

Many proteins in the cell sense and induce membrane curvature. We describe a method to pull membrane nanotubes from lipid vesicles to study the interaction of proteins or any curvature-active molecule with curved membranes in vitro.

The reshaping of the cell membrane is an integral part of many cellular phenomena, such as endocytosis, trafficking, the formation of filopodia, etc. Many ...

Isolation of Retinal Arterioles for Ex Vivo Cell Physiology Studies

The retina is a highly metabolically active tissue that requires a substantial blood supply. The retinal circulation supports the inner retina, while the choroidal vessels supply the photoreceptors. Alterations in retinal perfusion contribute to numerous sight-threatening disorders, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma and retinal branch vein occlusions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the control of blood flow through the retina and how these are altered during ocular disease could lead to the identification of new targets for the treatment of these conditions. Retinal arterioles are the main resistance vessels of the retina, and consequently, play a key role in regulating retinal hemodynamics through changes in luminal diameter. In recent years, we have developed methods for isolating arterioles from the rat retina which are suitable for a wide range of applications including cell physiology studies. This preparation has already begun to yield new insights into how blood flow is controlled in the retina and has allowed us to identify some of the key changes that occur during ocular disease. In this article, we describe methods for the isolation of rat retinal arterioles and include protocols for their use in patch-clamp electrophysiology, calcium imaging and pressure myography studies. These vessels are also amenable for use in PCR-, western blotting- and immunohistochemistry-based studies.

Isolation of Retinal Arterioles for Ex Vivo Cell Physiology Studies

This manuscript describes a straightforward protocol for the isolation of arterioles from the rat retina that can be used in electrophysiological, calcium imaging and pressure myography studies.

The retina is a highly metabolically active tissue that requires a substantial blood supply. The retinal circulation supports the inner retina, while the ...

An Ex Vivo Choroid Sprouting Assay of Ocular Microvascular Angiogenesis

Pathological choroidal angiogenesis, a salient feature of age-related macular degeneration, leads to vision impairment and blindness. Endothelial cell (EC) proliferation assays using human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) or isolated primary retinal ECs are widely used in vitro models to study retinal angiogenesis. However, isolating pure murine retinal endothelial cells is technically challenging and retinal ECs may have different proliferation responses than choroidal endothelial cells and different cell/cell interactions. A highly reproducible ex vivo choroidal sprouting assay as a model of choroidal microvascular proliferation was developed. This model includes the interaction between choroid vasculature (EC, macrophages, pericytes) and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Mouse RPE/choroid/scleral explants are isolated and incubated in growth-factor-reduced basal membrane extract (BME) (day 0). Medium is changed every other day and choroid sprouting is quantified at day 6. The images of individual choroid explant are taken with an inverted phase microscope and the sprouting area is quantified using a semi-automated macro plug-in to the ImageJ software developed in this lab. This reproducible ex vivo choroidal sprouting assay can be used to assess compounds for potential treatment and for microvascular disease research to assess pathways involved in choroidal micro vessel proliferation using wild type and genetically modified mouse tissue.

This protocol presents choroid sprouting assay, an ex vivo model of microvascular proliferation. This assay can be used to assess pathways involved in proliferating choroidal micro vessels and assess drug treatments using wild type and genetically modified mouse tissue.

Pathological choroidal angiogenesis, a salient feature of age-related macular degeneration, leads to vision impairment and blindness. Endothelial cell ...

Guinea Pig Round Window Membrane Explantation for Ex Vivo Studies

Summary

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Chapters in this video

Ex vivo Mechanical Loading of Tendon

Method for Culture of Early Chick Embryos ex vivo (New Culture)

Optical Recording of Electrical Activity in Guinea-pig Enteric Networks using Voltage-sensitive Dyes

Crystallizing Membrane Proteins for Structure Determination using Lipidic Mesophases

A System for ex vivo Culturing of Embryonic Pancreas

The c-FOS Protein Immunohistological Detection: A Useful Tool As a Marker of Central Pathways Involved in Specific Physiological Responses In Vivo and Ex Vivo

A Multi-hole Cryovial Eliminates Freezing Artifacts when Muscle Tissues are Directly Immersed in Liquid Nitrogen

Pulling Membrane Nanotubes from Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

Isolation of Retinal Arterioles for Ex Vivo Cell Physiology Studies

An Ex Vivo Choroid Sprouting Assay of Ocular Microvascular Angiogenesis