This work was supported by the Department of Energy under Grant DE-SC0012446.

The authors declare no competing interests.

While the above results and protocol delineate general guidelines for minimizing scatter from MOFs in spectroscopic characterization, there is a wide variability in MOF particle size and structure that impacts spectroscopic results, and therefore blurs the methods of interpretation. To help clarify interpretation and ease the strain that comes with analyzing MOF spectroscopic data, finding a procedure to make the MOFs as small as possible is key. This is a limiting factor for most spectroscopy-related analyses of MOFs. Before any further preparations are done, the MOF particle size is a critical factor that needs to be considered. A fantastic starting point is looking for synthetic procedures of MOFs used in photodynamic therapy4,43,44,45.
When preparing the MOF suspensions, there are a few caveats that need to be addressed. We commonly employ PNH2 as a suspension stabilizer because it is soluble in a range of typical solvents and absorbs minimally in the UV-visible range; however, depending on certain solvents, other polymers may be more suitable (PEG, PVA, etc.). It is at the user&#39;s discretion to find a suitable polymer for their solvent system. Moreover, the molecular number/weight of the polymer is kept low to prevent difficulties in the filtration process. When using a tip sonicator, the less time spent sonicating the better. Tip sonication is a much more aggressive method than bath sonication, and longer sonication times/higher amplitudes (&#62;20 min, &#62;30%) can potentially degrade materials46,47. A good test for determining degradation is passing the suspension through a 20 nm filter, so that only molecules will pass through, and checking the absorption spectrum of the remaining solvent. Determining optimal sonication times/intervals/amplitudes is usually a process of trial and error; however, the aforementioned protocol is a good starting point. We recommend using bath sonication first to see if adequate suspensions can be made.
When passing the suspension through a syringe filter, 200 and 400 nm pore size syringe filters are typically used. If the MOF particle sizes are closer to 1 &#181;m in size, then a 400 nm syringe filter is generally used to pass more MOF through the filter. This choice gives rise to a bit more scatter in the TA spectrum but does not impact the data appreciably. Additionally, MOFs can tend to aggregate on the syringe filter, preventing more MOF from passing through it. To combat this, a small portion of MOF is passed through the filter, the syringe is drawn back a bit (pulling aggregated MOF on the filter back into the syringe in the process), and then the syringe plunger is pushed back toward the filter, pushing more MOF out in the process. This method is repeated until there is no suspension left in the syringe.
While MOFs can be considered more robust than their constituent ligands in solution, there are limitations on the power/energy levels that are used in transient absorption experiments. We stress the importance of performing linearity checks in ufTA measurements and spot size measurements for both ufTA and nsTA measurements. These measurements ensure that no non-linear effects are present during measurements and minimize the amount of sample degradation. Additionally, we stress the need to perform the aforementioned control experiments. Narrow-angle nsTA measurements are really a &#34;last resort&#34; and only necessary if the MOF TA signal is weak (&#60;10 mOD) and if the sample signal is scattered too much in a 1 cm path length cell. Employing a smaller path length cuvette and smaller beam size helps minimize the scatter accrued along the light path.
There are a couple of notes for fluorescence measurements. For solution-state measurements, typically, an OD of 0.1 is used at the excitation wavelength to minimize reabsorption effects. Reabsorption is present in the fluorescence spectra when the signal is weak and hypsochromically-shifted compared to dilute solutions. For MOFs, the OD at the excitation wavelength is variable due to baseline scatter. Sometimes, an OD of 0.1-0.2 provides a sufficient signal. We recommend adjusting the concentration until reabsorption effects are present in the MOF fluorescence spectrum and then diluting until an adequate signal is obtained without such effects.
With the guidelines established in this work, we aim to alleviate some of the present burdens that come with performing spectroscopy measurements on MOFs. Given the ease of the protocol for preparing MOF suspensions, it can be broadly modified to cater to a given researcher&#39;s desired specifications. With the growing plethora of photoactive MOFs in the literature, the ability to ascertain a deep understanding of the light-driven processes that govern MOF photochemistry is more viable. We predict that the preparative techniques established in this work will not only help drive progress in the field of MOF photochemistry, but will also carry over into other fields that work with inherently scatter-prone solid-state materials.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are composed of metal oxide nodes linked by organic molecules, that form hierarchical porous structures when their constituent parts react together under solvothermal conditions1. Permanently porous MOFs were first reported in the early 2000s, and since then, the burgeoning field has expanded to encompass a wide range of applications, given the unique tunability of their structural components2,3,4,5,6,7. During the growth of the field of MOFs, there have been a handful of researchers that have incorporated photoactive materials into the nodes, ligands, and pores of MOFs to harness their potential in light-driven processes, like photocatalysis8,9,10,11, upconversion12,13,14,15,16, and photoelectrochemistry17,18. A handful of the light-driven processes of MOFs revolve around energy and electron transfer between donors and acceptors17,19,20,21,22,23,24,25. The two most common techniques used to study energy and electron transfer in molecular systems are emission and transient absorption spectroscopy26,27.
A great deal of research on MOFs has focused on emission characterization, given the relative ease in preparing samples, performing measurements, and (relatively) straightforward analysis19,22,23,24,28. Energy transfer typically manifests itself as a loss in the donor emission intensity and lifetime and an increase in the emission intensity of the acceptor loaded into the MOF backbone19,23,28. Evidence of charge transfer in a MOF manifests as a decrease in emission quantum yield and lifetime of the chromophore in the MOF29,30. While emission spectroscopy is a powerful tool in the analysis of MOFs, it only addresses part of the necessary information to present a complete mechanistic understanding of MOF photochemistry. Transient absorption spectroscopy can not only provide support for the existence of energy and charge transfer, but the method can also detect spectral signatures associated with the non-emissive singlet and triplet excited state behaviors, making it one of the most versatile tools for characterization31,32,33.
The primary reason why more robust characterization techniques like transient absorption spectroscopy are seldom applied toward MOFs is due to the difficulty in preparing samples with minimal scatter, especially with suspensions34. In the few studies successfully performing transient absorption on MOFs, the MOFs are &#60;500 nm in size, with some exceptions, stressing the importance of reducing particle size to minimize scatter15,21,25,35,36,37. Other studies make use of MOF thin films17 or SURMOFs38,39,40 to circumvent the scatter issue; however, from an applicability stand-point, their use is quite limited. Additionally, some research groups have taken to making polymer films of MOFs with Nafion or polystyrene34, the former raising some concerns for stability given the highly acidic sulfonate groups on Nafion. Gaining inspiration from the preparation of colloidal semiconductor suspensions41,42, we have found great success using polymers to help suspend and stabilize MOF particles for spectroscopic measurements11. In this work, we establish widely applicable guidelines to follow when it comes to preparing MOF suspensions and characterizing them with emission, nanosecond (ns), and ultrafast (uf) transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy techniques.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 cm cuvette sample mount (SM1)</td>
			<td>Edinburgh Instruments</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mL disposable syringes</td>
			<td>EXELINT</td>
			<td>26044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL disposable syringes</td>
			<td>EXELINT</td>
			<td>26252</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-dram vials</td>
			<td>FisherSci</td>
			<td>CG490001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 nm syringe filters</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>28138-005</td>
			<td>The filters are made by Whatman/Cytiva, and their catalog number is 6809-1002</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>200 nm syringe filters</td>
			<td>Cytiva, Whatman</td>
			<td>6784-1302</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Absorption spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Agilent&#160;</td>
			<td>Cary 5000 Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetronitrile (ACN)</td>
			<td>FisherSci</td>
			<td>AA36423</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ar gas tank</td>
			<td>Linde/PraxAir</td>
			<td>P-4563</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bis amino-terminated polyethylene glycol (PNH2)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>452572</td>
			<td>MOF suspending agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clamping sample mount for nsTA (SM2)</td>
			<td>Ultrafast Systems</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Concave lens for telescope(CCL1)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>LD1613-A-ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Convex lens for telescope (CVL1)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>LA1708-A-ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom 1 cm optical cell with 24/40 outer joint</td>
			<td>QuarkGlass</td>
			<td>QSE-1Q10-2440 (Spectrosil Cat #1-Q-10</td>
			<td>We requested the 1 cm cell to have a joint</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom 2mm optical cell with 14/20 outer joint</td>
			<td>QuarkGlass</td>
			<td>QSE-1Q2-1420 (Spectrosil Cat # 1-Q-2)</td>
			<td>We requested the 2 mm cell to have a joint</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylformamide (DMF)</td>
			<td>FisherSci</td>
			<td>D119</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dye laser (Nd:YAG pumped) for 415 nm output</td>
			<td>Sirah</td>
			<td>CobraStretch</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dye laser dye, Exalite 417</td>
			<td>Luxottica</td>
			<td>4170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Femtosecond laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>Astrella</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorimeter&#160;</td>
			<td>Photon Technology Inc. (Horiba)</td>
			<td>QuantaMaster QM-200-4E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorimeter arc lamp, 75 W</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>6251NS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorimeter PMT</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>1527</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorimeter Software</td>
			<td>PTI/Horiba</td>
			<td>FelixGX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorimeter TCSPC Module</td>
			<td>Becker &#38; Hickl GmbH</td>
			<td>PMH-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lens mounts for telescope</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>LMR1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Long purging needles</td>
			<td>STERiJECT</td>
			<td>PRE-22100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic stirrer</td>
			<td>Ultrafast Systems</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mirror 1 (MM1) 350-700 nm</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>10Q20BB.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM1 mount</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>KM100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM1 post</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>TR2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM1 post holder</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PH1.5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM2 mount</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MFM05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM2,3 mirrors</td>
			<td>thorlabs</td>
			<td>BB03-E02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM2,3 post</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MS3R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM2,3 post bases</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MBA1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM2,3 post holders</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MPH50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MM3 mount</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MK05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mounting posts for telescope optics</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>TR4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanosecond TA Nd:YAG lasers</td>
			<td>Spectra-Physics</td>
			<td>QuantaRay INDI Nd:YAG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanosecond TA spectrometer</td>
			<td>Edinburgh Instruments</td>
			<td>LP980</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nsTA ICCD camera</td>
			<td>Oxford Instruments</td>
			<td>Andor iStar ICCD camera</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nsTA PMT&#160;</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>R928</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical parametric amplifier</td>
			<td>Ultrafast Systems</td>
			<td>Apollo</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>FisherSci</td>
			<td>S37440</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pinhole wheel</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PHW16</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pinhole wheel post base</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>CF125C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pinhole wheel post holder</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PH1.5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pinhole wheel post/mount assembly</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>NDC-PM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>post bases for telescope optics</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>CF125C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>post holders for telescope optics</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PH4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power detector for ns TA</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>S310C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism assembly (P2,3)</td>
			<td>Edinburgh Instruments</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism mount (P1)</td>
			<td>OWIS</td>
			<td>K50-FGS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism post (P1)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>TR4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism post base (P1)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>CF125C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism post holder (P1)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PH4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz prisms (P1-P3)</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>10SR20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rubber outer joint septa (14/20)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89097-540</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rubber outer joint septa (24/40)</td>
			<td>ChemGlass</td>
			<td>CG-3022-24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonication tip</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>product discontinued</td>
			<td>Closest alternative is 1/8&#34; diam. tip from iUltrasonic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Square ND filters</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>NEK01S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stir bars</td>
			<td>StarnaCells/FisherSci</td>
			<td>NC9126395</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thorlabs power detector for ufTA</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>S401C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thorlabs power meter</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PM100D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tip sonicator</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>Digital Sonifer 450, product discontinued</td>
			<td>Closest alternative is SFX550 from iUltrasonic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tygon tubing</td>
			<td>Grainger</td>
			<td>8Y589</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ufTA ND filter wheel</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>NDC-25C-2-A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ufTA ND filter wheel mount</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>NDC-PM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ufTA ND filter wheel post</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PH2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ufTA ND filter wheel post base</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>CF125C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ufTA pump alignment mirror</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>PF10-03-F01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrafast TA telescope assembly</td>
			<td>Ultrafast Systems</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Contact company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrafast transient absorption spectrometer</td>
			<td>Ultrafast Systems</td>
			<td>HeliosFire</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xe arc probe lamp</td>
			<td>OSRAM</td>
			<td>4050300508788</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a technical guide for performing spectroscopic measurements on metal-organic frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) offer a unique platform to understand light-driven processes in solid-state materials, given their high structural tunability. However, the progression of MOF-based photochemistry has been hindered by the difficulty in spectrally characterizing these materials. Given that MOFs are typically larger than 100 nm in size, they are prone to excessive light scatter, thereby rendering data from valuable analytical tools like transient absorption and emission spectroscopy nearly uninterpretable. To gain meaningful insights of MOF-based photo-chemical and physical processes, special consideration must be taken toward properly preparing MOFs for spectroscopic measurements, as well as the experimental setups that garner higher quality data. With these considerations in mind, the present guide provides a general approach and set of guidelines for the spectroscopic investigation of MOFs. The guide addresses the following key topics: (1) sample preparation methods, (2) spectroscopic techniques/measurements with MOFs, (3) experimental setups, (3) control experiments, and (4) post-run stability characterization. With appropriate sample preparation and experimental approaches, pioneering advancements toward the fundamental understanding of light-MOF interactions are significantly more attainable.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Technical Guide for Performing Spectroscopic Measurements on Metal-Organic Frameworks at JoVE.com

A Technical Guide for Performing Spectroscopic Measurements on Metal-Organic Frameworks

Here, we use a polymer stabilizer to prepare metal-organic framework (MOF) suspensions that exhibit markedly decreased scatter in their ground-state and transient absorption spectra. With these MOF suspensions, the protocol provides various guidelines to characterize the MOFs spectroscopically to yield interpretable data.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) offer a unique platform to understand light-driven processes in solid-state materials, given their high structural ...

a-technical-guide-for-performing-spectroscopic-measurements-on-metal

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

2.2K Views.  Virginia Polytechnic and State Institute. Here, we use a polymer stabilizer to prepare metal-organic framework (MOF) suspensions that exhibit markedly decreased scatter in their ground-state and transient absorption spectra. With these MOF suspensions, the protocol provides various guidelines to characterize the MOFs spectroscopically to yield interpretable data.

Video: A Technical Guide for Performing Spectroscopic Measurements on Metal-Organic Frameworks

Preparation of Hydrophobic Metal-Organic Frameworks via Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition of Perfluoroalkanes for the Removal of Ammonia

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of perfluoroalkanes has long been studied for tuning the wetting properties of surfaces. For high surface area microporous materials, such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), unique challenges present themselves for PECVD treatments. Herein the protocol for development of a MOF that was previously unstable to humid conditions is presented. The protocol describes the synthesis of Cu-BTC (also known as HKUST-1), the treatment of Cu-BTC with PECVD of perfluoroalkanes, the aging of materials under humid conditions, and the subsequent ammonia microbreakthrough experiments on milligram quantities of microporous materials. Cu-BTC has an extremely high surface area (~1,800 m2/g) when compared to most materials or surfaces that have been previously treated by PECVD methods. Parameters such as chamber pressure and treatment time are extremely important to ensure the perfluoroalkane plasma penetrates to and reacts with the inner MOF surfaces. Furthermore, the protocol for ammonia microbreakthrough experiments set forth here can be utilized for a variety of test gases and microporous materials.

Herein the procedures for plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition of perfluoroalkanes on microporous materials such as metal-organic frameworks to enhance their stability and hydrophobicity are described. Furthermore, breakthrough testing of milligram quantities of samples is described in detail.

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of perfluoroalkanes has long been studied for tuning the wetting properties of surfaces. For high ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and technological applications. Their signature property is their ultrahigh porosity, which however imparts a series of challenges when it comes to both constructing them and working with them. Securing desired MOF chemical and physical functionality by linker/node assembly into a highly porous framework of choice can pose difficulties, as less porous and more thermodynamically stable congeners (e.g., other crystalline polymorphs, catenated analogues) are often preferentially obtained by conventional synthesis methods. Once the desired product is obtained, its characterization often requires specialized techniques that address complications potentially arising from, for example, guest-molecule loss or preferential orientation of microcrystallites. Finally, accessing the large voids inside the MOFs for use in applications that involve gases can be problematic, as frameworks may be subject to collapse during removal of solvent molecules (remnants of solvothermal synthesis). In this paper, we describe synthesis and characterization methods routinely utilized in our lab either to solve or circumvent these issues. The methods include solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries, and materials activation (cavity evacuation) by supercritical CO2 drying. Finally, we provide a protocol for determining a suitable pressure region for applying the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis to nitrogen isotherms, so as to estimate surface area of MOFs with good accuracy.

Synthesis, activation, and characterization of intentionally designed metal-organic framework materials is challenging, especially when building blocks are incompatible or unwanted polymorphs are thermodynamically favored over desired forms. We describe how applications of solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries and activation via supercritical CO2 drying, can address some of these challenges.

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and ...

Dynamic Electrochemical Measurement of Chloride Ions

This protocol describes the dynamic measurement of chloride ions using the transition time of a silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode. Silver silver chloride electrode is used extensively for potentiometric measurement of chloride ions concentration in electrolyte. In this measurement, long-term and continuous monitoring is limited due to the inherent drift and the requirement of a stable reference electrode. We utilized the chronopotentiometric approach to minimize drift and avoid the use of a conventional reference electrode. A galvanostatic pulse is applied to an Ag/AgCl electrode which initiates a faradic reaction depleting the Cl&#713; ions near the electrode surface. The transition time, which is the time to completely deplete the ions near the electrode surface, is a function of the ion concentration, given by the Nernst equation. The square root of the transition time is in linear relation to the chloride ion concentration. Drift of the response over two weeks is negligible (59 &#181;M/day) when measuring 1 mM [Cl&#713;]using a current pulse of 10 Am-2. This is a dynamic measurement where the moment of transition time determines the response and thus is independent of the absolute potential. Any metal wire can be used as a pseudo-reference electrode, making this approach feasible for long-term measurement inside concrete structures.

Dynamic measurement of chloride ions is presented. Transition time of an Ag/AgCl electrode, during a chronopotentiometric technique, can give the concentration of chloride ions in electrolyte. This method does not require a stable conventional reference electrode.

This protocol describes the dynamic measurement of chloride ions using the transition time of a silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode. Silver silver ...

Synthesis of a Water-soluble Metal&#8211;Organic Complex Array

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of a water-soluble multimetallic peptidic array containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers such as Ru(II), Pt(II), and Rh(III). The compound, named as a water-soluble metal-organic complex array (WSMOCA), is obtained through 1) the conventional solution-chemistry-based preparation of the corresponding metal complex monomers having a 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc)-protected amino acid moiety and 2) their sequential coupling together with other water-soluble organic building units on the surface-functionalized polymeric resin by following the procedures originally developed for the solid-phase synthesis of polypeptides, with proper modifications. Traces of reactions determined by mass spectrometric analysis at the representative coupling steps in stage 2 confirm the selective construction of a predetermined sequence of metal centers along with the peptide backbone. The WSMOCA cleaved from the resin at the end of stage 2 has a certain level of solubility in aqueous media dependent on the pH value and/or salt content, which is useful for the purification of the compound.

A potential general method for the synthesis of water-soluble multimetallic peptidic arrays containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers is presented.

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of a water-soluble multimetallic peptidic array containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers such as ...

A Practical Guide on Coupling a Scanning Mobility Sizer and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (SMPS-ICPMS)

A large variety of analytical methods are available to characterize particles in aerosols and suspensions. The choice of the appropriate technique depends on the properties to be determined. In many fields information about particle size and chemical composition are of great importance. While in aerosol techniques particle size distributions of gas-borne particles are determined online, their elemental composition is commonly analyzed offline after an appropriate sampling and preparation procedure. To obtain both types of information online and simultaneously, a hyphenated setup was recently developed, including a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) and an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICPMS). This allows first to classify the particles with respect to their mobility diameter, and then to determine their number concentration and elemental composition in parallel. A Rotating Disk Diluter (RDD) is used as the introduction system, giving more flexibility regarding the use of different aerosol sources. In this work, a practical guide is provided describing the different steps for establishing this instrumentation, and how to use this analysis tool. The versatility of this hyphenated technique is demonstrated in example measurements on three different aerosols generated out of a) a salt solution, b) a suspension, and c) emitted by a thermal process.

A Practical Guide on Coupling a Scanning Mobility Sizer and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer SMPS-ICPMS

In this work a practical guide is provided, describing the different steps to establish the coupling of SMPS and ICPMS systems, and how to use them. Three descriptive examples are presented.

A large variety of analytical methods are available to characterize particles in aerosols and suspensions. The choice of the appropriate technique depends ...

Microfluidic-based Synthesis of Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs): A Tool for Continuous Production of COF Fibers and Direct Printing on a Surface

Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) are a class of porous covalent materials which are frequently synthesized as unprocessable crystalline powders. The first COF was reported in 2005 with much effort centered on the establishment of new synthetic routes for its preparation. To date, most available synthetic methods for COF synthesis are based on bulk mixing under solvothermal conditions. Therefore, there is increasing interest in developing systematic protocols for COF synthesis that provide for fine control over reaction conditions and improve COF processability on surfaces, which is essential for their use in practical applications. Herein, we present a novel microfluidic-based method for COF synthesis where the reaction between two constituent building blocks, 1,3,5-benzenetricarbaldehyde (BTCA) and 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)benzene (TAPB), takes place under controlled diffusion conditions and at room temperature. Using such an approach yields sponge-like, crystalline fibers of a COF material, hereafter called MF-COF. The mechanical properties of MF-COF and the dynamic nature of the approach allow the continuous production of MF-COF fibers and their direct printing onto surfaces. The general method opens new potential applications requiring advanced printing of 2D or 3D COF structures on flexible or rigid surfaces.

Microfluidic-based Synthesis of Covalent Organic Frameworks COFs: A Tool for Continuous Production of COF Fibers and Direct Printing on a Surface

We present a novel microfluidic-based method for synthesis of covalent organic frameworks (COFs). We demonstrate how this approach can be used to produce continuous COF fibers, and also 2D or 3D COF structures on surfaces.

Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) are a class of porous covalent materials which are frequently synthesized as unprocessable crystalline powders. The ...

Measurements of Long-range Electronic Correlations During Femtosecond Diffraction Experiments Performed on Nanocrystals of Buckminsterfullerene

The precise details of the interaction of intense X-ray pulses with matter are a topic of intense interest to researchers attempting to interpret the results of femtosecond X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) experiments. An increasing number of experimental observations have shown that although nuclear motion can be negligible, given a short enough incident pulse duration, electronic motion cannot be ignored. The current and widely accepted models assume that although electrons undergo dynamics driven by interaction with the pulse, their motion could largely be considered &#39;random&#39;. This would then allow the supposedly incoherent contribution from the electronic motion to be treated as a continuous background signal and thus ignored. The original aim of our experiment was to precisely measure the change in intensity of individual Bragg peaks, due to X-ray induced electronic damage in a model system, crystalline C60. Contrary to this expectation, we observed that at the highest X-ray intensities, the electron dynamics in C60 were in fact highly correlated, and over sufficiently long distances that the positions of the Bragg reflections are significantly altered. This paper describes in detail the methods and protocols used for these experiments, which were conducted both at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) and the Australian Synchrotron (AS) as well as the crystallographic approaches used to analyse the data.

We describe an experiment designed to probe the electronic damage induced in nanocrystals of Buckminsterfullerene (C60) by intense, femtosecond pulses of X-rays. The experiment found that, surprisingly, rather than being stochastic, the X-ray induced electron dynamics in C60 are highly correlated, extending over hundreds of unit cells within the crystals1.

The precise details of the interaction of intense X-ray pulses with matter are a topic of intense interest to researchers attempting to interpret the ...

Surface Functionalization of Metal-Organic Frameworks for Improved Moisture Resistance

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous inorganic materials with promising properties in gas storage and separation, catalysis and sensing. However, the main issue limiting their applicability is their poor stability in humid conditions. The common methods to overcome this problem involve the formation of strong metal-linker bonds by using highly charged metals, which is limited to a number of structures, the introduction of alkylic groups to the framework by post-synthetic modification (PSM) or chemical vapour deposition (CVD) to enhance overall hydrophobicity of the framework. These last two usually provoke a drastic reduction of the porosity of the material. These strategies do not permit to exploit the properties of the MOF already available and it is imperative to find new methods to enhance the stability of MOFs in water while keeping their properties intact. Herein, we report a novel method to enhance the water stability of MOF crystals featuring Cu2(O2C)4&#160;paddle-wheel units, such as HKUST (where HKUST stands for Hong Kong University of Science &#38; Technology), with the catechols functionalized with alkyl and fluoro-alkyl chains. By taking advantage of the unsaturated metal sites and the catalytic catecholase-like activity of CuII ions, we are able to create robust hydrophobic coatings through the oxidation and subsequent polymerization of the catechol units on the surface of the crystals under anaerobic and water-free conditions without disrupting the underlying structure of the framework. This approach not only affords the material with improved water stability but also provides control over the function of the protective coating, which enables the development of functional coatings for the adsorption and separations of volatile organic compounds. We are confident that this approach could also be extended to other unstable MOFs featuring open metal sites.

Robust functional catechol coatings were produced in one step by direct reaction of the material known as HKUST with synthetic catechols under anaerobic conditions. The formation of homogeneous coatings surrounding the entire crystal is ascribed to the biomimetic catalytic activity of Cu(II) dimers on the external surface of the crystals.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous inorganic materials with promising properties in gas storage and separation, catalysis and sensing. ...

Electrophoretic Crystallization of Ultrathin High-performance Metal-organic Framework Membranes

We report the synthesis of thin, highly intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and non-porous supports (polymer, ceramic, metal, carbon, and graphene). We developed a novel crystallization technique, which is termed the ENACT approach: the electrophoretic nuclei assembly for the crystallization of highly intergrown thin films (ENACT). This approach allows for a high density of heterogeneous nucleation of MOFs on a chosen substrate via the electrophoretic deposition (EPD) directly from the precursor sol. The growth of well-packed MOF nuclei leads to a highly intergrown polycrystalline MOF film. We show that this simple approach can be used for the synthesis of thin, intergrown zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF)-7 and ZIF-8 films. The resulting 500 nm-thick ZIF-8 membranes show a considerably high H2 permeance (8.3 x 10-6 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) and ideal gas selectivities (7.3 for H2/CO2, 15.5 for H2/N2, 16.2 for H2/CH4, and 2655 for H2/C3H8). An attractive performance for C3H6/C3H8 separation is also achieved (a C3H6 permeance of 9.9 x 10-8 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1 and a C3H6/C3H8 ideal selectivity of 31.6 at 25 &#176;C). Overall, the ENACT process, owing to its simplicity, can be extended to synthesize intergrown thin films of a wide range of nanoporous crystalline materials.

A simple, reproducible, and versatile approach for the synthesis of intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and non-porous supports is presented.

We report the synthesis of thin, highly intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and ...

Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)

Substrate size discrimination by the pore size and homogeneity of the chiral environment at the reaction sites are important issues in the validation of the reaction site in metal-organic framework (MOF)&#8211;based catalysts in an enantioselective catalytic reaction system. Therefore, a method of validating the reaction site of MOF-based catalysts is necessary to investigate this issue. Substrate size discrimination by pore size was accomplished by comparing the substrate size versus the reaction rate in two different types of carbonyl-ene reactions with two kinds of MOFs. The MOF catalysts were used to compare the performance of the two reaction types (Zn-mediated stoichiometric and Ti-catalyzed carbonyl-ene reactions) in two different media. Using the proposed method, it was observed that the entire MOF crystal participated in the reaction, and the interior of the crystal pore played an important role in exerting chiral control when the reaction was stoichiometric. Homogeneity of the chiral environment of MOF catalysts was established by the size control method for a particle used in the Zn-mediated stoichiometric reaction system. The protocol proposed for the catalytic reaction revealed that the reaction mainly occurred on the catalyst surface regardless of the substrate size, which reveals the actual reaction sites in MOF-based heterogeneous catalysts. This method for reaction site validation of MOF catalysts suggests various considerations for developing heterogeneous enantioselective MOF catalysts.

Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks MOFs

Here, we present a protocol for active site validation of metal-organic framework catalysts by comparing stoichiometric and catalytic carbonyl-ene reactions to find out whether a reaction takes place on the inner or outer surface of metal-organic frameworks.

Substrate size discrimination by the pore size and homogeneity of the chiral environment at the reaction sites are important issues in the validation of ...