Thanks to Javier Brumos for initial training and guidance in grafting Arabidopsis seedlings.

1. Device preparation
<ol>
	<li>Make the silicone grafting device by casting silicone elastomer solution in a square Petri dish (100 mm x 100 mm). Prepare 15 mL of the elastomer solution, following the manufacturer&#39;s guidelines. 
	NOTE: Silicone elastomer kits typically include a silicone-based liquid and a curing agent, that when mixed together allow the silicone to solidify.</li>
	<li>Prepare the square Petri dish by laying four straight pieces of 29 G wire in the square Petri dish, equidistant from one another (Figure 1A). Ensure that the wire lies flush with the bottom of the mold. To fully straighten the wire, roll it on a hard uniform surface with a heavy and flat object (e.g., a metal tube rack). 
	NOTE:&#160;Twist ties often contain 29 G wire and can be used after removing the outer paper coating with acetone.</li>
	<li>Pour the mixed silicone elastomer solution on top of the wires and cover with the top of the Petri dish. Allow the silicone to cure for 24-48 h at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the silicone sheet from the Petri dish using clean forceps and move to a clean flat surface.</li>
	<li>Remove the wires from the silicone sheet. Remove the thin layer of silicone remaining on the outside of the channel with fine point forceps, to allow the channel to be open on one side (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Cut the silicone sheet perpendicularly to the channels into 3 mm strips using clean scissors. Move each strip to an aluminum foil envelope and seal with autoclave tape.</li>
	<li>Autoclave the strips at 121 &#176;C for at least 30 min and store until ready for use.</li>
</ol>
2. Seedling preparation
<ol>
	<li>Sterilize and vernalize seeds.
	<ol>
		<li>Suspend up to 100 Arabidopsis seeds in 1 mL of 50% bleach solution containing 0.1% Tween 20 in a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, and incubate for 5-10 min. Remove the bleach solution through pipetting or aspiration under sterile conditions. Rinse the seeds with 1 mL of sterilized dH2O. Be sure to invert the tubes to adequately rinse the seeds and remove any bleach solution left at the top of the tube. Repeat the rinsing 4x.</li>
		<li>Leave approximately 0.25 mL of water in the tubes with the seeds and store at 4 &#176;C for 3 days in the dark.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Plate the seeds in preparation for grafting.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a 1% agar MS plate as follows: for 1 L of MS (0.5% sucrose) solid medium, mix 4.4 g of MS salt, 5 g of sucrose, and 10 g of agar in 800 mL of water, adjust the pH to 5.7 with KOH, and then bring the total volume to 1 L with additional water. Autoclave for at least 20, min before pouring ~25 mL into the square Petri dishes.</li>
		<li>Under sterile conditions, move the appropriate number of prepared seeds to the plate, using a 20 &#181;L pipette tip to aspirate and transfer the seeds.</li>
		<li>Place a sterile strip on the plate surface to guide seed positioning, so the seeds are aligned with the channels on the strip. Remove the strip once the seeds are plated. 
		NOTE: One 100 mm x 100 mm square plate can accommodate two rows of seedlings (Figure 1B).</li>
		<li>Once the plates are standing up, allow the liquid to evaporate out of the solid medium and pool at the bottom of the plate. After the seeds are placed onto the plate, put on the plate cover and seal one side of the plate that is parallel to the two rows of seeds (indicated by the blue highlighted region in Figure 1B) with parafilm. Wrap breathable tape on top of the parafilm and around all the other edges of the plate.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Carefully stand up two plates with the parafilm-sealed side facing down. Separate the two plates at the bottom by placing a horizontal 15 mL centrifuge tube between them and secure with a rubber band. Ensure that the plate surfaces form a 100&#176;-110&#176; angle with the benchtop surface (Figure 1C).</li>
	<li>Store the plates in this orientation for 72 h in total darkness at 21 &#176;C, to allow the seedling hypocotyls to grow ~5 mm in length. After 72 h, remove the plates from the dark and grow under 16 h light (intensity of 100 &#181;E m-2 sec-1) and 8 h dark cycles for 2-4 more days at the same temperature before grafting.</li>
	<li>Graft the seedlings between 5 and 7 days after being plated. Place a grafting strip over the seedlings, fitting their hypocotyls into the channels. Gently position the seedling so the root-hypocotyl junction is positioned at the bottom of the silicone strip to prepare the seedling for cutting (Figure 1D).</li>
</ol>
3. Grafting procedure
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a sterile working environment by sanitizing a dissection scope with 70% ethanol and autoclaving two pairs of fine tipped forceps and a scalpel handle. Perform all grafting procedures in a sterile hood and with the aid of a dissection scope as needed. Perform most of the grafting using a magnification of 10.5x.</li>
	<li>Prepare the scions. Use a fresh scalpel blade to cut the hypocotyl perpendicularly to create a straight clean cut. Push the blade forward rather than pressing down into the plant to prevent the seedling from getting pushed into the agar (Video 1).</li>
	<li>Remove the shoot. Take care to keep the cut portion of the shoot hydrated by ensuring contact with the media surface. Alternatively, move the shoot to a designated holding area, such as the top of a Petri dish filled with sterile dH2O, until ready for use.</li>
	<li>Prepare the rootstocks. Gently pull the root by catching the root in the space left between the closed forceps and turning them, leaving the cut section of the rootstocks in the middle of the strip (Video 2). 
	NOTE: The fragile root will be damaged if crushed between the closed forceps directly, necessitating wedging the root in the sharp angle of the tweezer ends to manipulate the tissue.</li>
	<li>Gently pick up the desired shoot using the fine tipped forceps and insert into the top of the channel. 
	NOTE: It is critical to visually confirm contact between the scions and rootstocks to obtain a successful graft (Video 3).</li>
	<li>After all the grafts have been made, wrap the plates with parafilm and breathable tape and set up the plates in the same way as before, without disturbing the seedlings or silicone strips. Carefully move the plates to a growth chamber set at 26 &#176;C with 16 h light/8 h dark cycles.</li>
	<li>Evaluate the grafted seedlings under sterile conditions after 7-10 days. Carefully remove the silicone strip using forceps by peeling up one side, allowing the channels to free the seedlings. Remove any adventitious roots growing from the scion by cutting them from the scion with a fresh scalpel blade or crushing them using fine tipped forceps. Visually evaluate whether the rootstock has become firmly attached to the scion to form a successful graft (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Move successful grafts to seedling propagation soil to grow for as long as required. Cover the soil with transparent plastic for a few days as the seedlings get established. After transferring the plants to the soil, grow under the previously mentioned light and dark cycles at 21 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Mudge, K., Janick, J., Scofield, S., Goldschmidt, E. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+history+of+grafting.">A history of grafting.</a> Horticultural Reviews. 35, 437-493 (2009).</li><li>Holbrook, N. M., Shashidhar, V. R., James, R. A., Munns, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stomatal+control+in+tomato+with+ABA-deficient+roots:+Response+of+grafted+plants+to+soil+drying.">Stomatal control in tomato with ABA-deficient roots: Response of grafted plants to soil drying.</a> Journal of Experimental Botany. 53 (373), 1503-1514 (2002).</li><li>Notaguchi, M., Okamoto, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+long-distance+signaling+via+plant+vascular+tissues.">Dynamics of long-distance signaling via plant vascular tissues.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 6, 161 (2015).</li><li>Ko, D., Helariutta, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shoot-root+communication+in+flowering+plants.">Shoot-root communication in flowering plants.</a> Current Biology. 27 (17), 973-978 (2017).</li><li>Thomas, H. R., Frank, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Connecting+the+pieces:+uncovering+the+molecular+basis+for+long-distance+communication+through+plant+grafting.">Connecting the pieces: uncovering the molecular basis for long-distance communication through plant grafting.</a> New Phytologist. 223 (2), 582-589 (2019).</li><li>Takahashi, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+small+peptide+modulates+stomatal+control+via+abscisic+acid+in+long-distance+signalling.">A small peptide modulates stomatal control via abscisic acid in long-distance signalling.</a> Nature. 556 (7700), 235-238 (2018).</li><li>Brumos, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Local+auxin+biosynthesis+is+a+key+regulator+of+plant+development.">Local auxin biosynthesis is a key regulator of plant development.</a> Developmental Cell. 47 (3), 306-318 (2018).</li><li>Corbesier, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=FT+protein+movement+contributes+to+long-distance+signaling+in+floral+induction+of+Arabidopsis.">FT protein movement contributes to long-distance signaling in floral induction of Arabidopsis.</a> Science. 316 (5827), 1030-1033 (2007).</li><li>Yin, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Graft-union+development:+A+delicate+process+that+involves+cell-cell+communication+between+scion+and+stock+for+local+auxin+accumulation.">Graft-union development: A delicate process that involves cell-cell communication between scion and stock for local auxin accumulation.</a> Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (11), 4219-4232 (2012).</li><li>Turnbull, C. G. N., Booker, J. P., Leyser, H. M. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micrografting+techniques+for+testing+long-distance+signalling.">Micrografting techniques for testing long-distance signalling.</a> The Plant Journal. 32 (2), 255-262 (2002).</li><li>Marsch-Mart&#237;nez, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+efficient+flat-surface+collar-free+grafting+method+for+Arabidopsis+thaliana+seedlings.">An efficient flat-surface collar-free grafting method for Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings.</a> Plant Methods. 9 (1), 14 (2013).</li><li>Tsutsui, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micrografting+device+for+testing+systemic+signaling+in+Arabidopsis.">Micrografting device for testing systemic signaling in Arabidopsis.</a> The Plant Journal. 103 (2), 918-929 (2020).</li><li>Xia, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elucidation+of+the+mechanisms+of+long-distance+mRNA+movement+in+a+Nicotiana+benthamiana/tomato+heterograft+system.">Elucidation of the mechanisms of long-distance mRNA movement in a Nicotiana benthamiana/tomato heterograft system.</a> Plant Physiology. 177 (2), 745-758 (2018).</li><li>Li, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unidirectional+movement+of+small+RNAs+from+shoots+to+roots+in+interspecific+heterografts.">Unidirectional movement of small RNAs from shoots to roots in interspecific heterografts.</a> Nature Plants. 7 (1), 50-59 (2021).</li><li>Ragni, L., Hardtke, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small+but+thick+enough-the+Arabidopsis+hypocotyl+as+a+model+to+study+secondary+growth.">Small but thick enough-the Arabidopsis hypocotyl as a model to study secondary growth.</a> Physiologia Plantarum. 151 (2), 164-171 (2014).</li><li>Chen, I. -. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+chemical+genetics+approach+reveals+a+role+of+brassinolide+and+cellulose+synthase+in+hypocotyl+elongation+of+etiolated+Arabidopsis+seedlings.">A chemical genetics approach reveals a role of brassinolide and cellulose synthase in hypocotyl elongation of etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings.</a> Plant Science. 209, 46-57 (2013).</li><li>An, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coordinated+regulation+of+apical+hook+development+by+gibberellins+and+ethylene+in+etiolated+Arabidopsis+seedlings.">Coordinated regulation of apical hook development by gibberellins and ethylene in etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings.</a> Cell Research. 22 (5), 915-927 (2012).</li><li>Vandenbussche, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ethylene-induced+Arabidopsis+hypocotyl+elongation+is+dependent+on+but+not+mediated+by+gibberellins.">Ethylene-induced Arabidopsis hypocotyl elongation is dependent on but not mediated by gibberellins.</a> Journal of Experimental Botany. 58 (15-16), 4269-4281 (2007).</li><li>Vandenbussche, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Arabidopsis+mutant+alh1+illustrates+a+cross+talk+between+ethylene+and+auxin.">The Arabidopsis mutant alh1 illustrates a cross talk between ethylene and auxin.</a> Plant Physiology. 131 (3), 1228-1238 (2003).</li><li>Deslauriers, S. D., Larsen, P. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=FERONIA+is+a+key+modulator+of+brassinosteroid+and+ethylene+responsiveness+in+arabidopsis+hypocotyls.">FERONIA is a key modulator of brassinosteroid and ethylene responsiveness in arabidopsis hypocotyls.</a> Molecular Plant. 3 (3), 626-640 (2010).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

Summary and significance 
Formation of a graft union is crucial for successful grafting, which requires direct and undisturbed contact between the rootstock and scion. The miniature size and fragility of seedlings of small plants such as Arabidopsis makes it technically challenging to meet this requirement. One technique developed in early Arabidopsis seedling grafting methods was to insert both the scion and the rootstock into a short silicone tubing collar to support the graft ju...

Grafting is an ancient horticultural technique that became an established agricultural practice by 500 BCE1. Grafting different varieties of crop plants to improve yields was the first use of this technique, and continues to be used for this purpose today. In the past decade, grafting has attracted an increasing amount of attention as a tool for molecular biologists to study long-distance signaling in plants2,3,4,5. While grafting adult plants is relatively easy, grafting plants soon after germination is challenging. Despite this, it is sometimes required to assess the effects of long-distance signaling in processes such as plant development, environmental responses, and flowering6,7,8.
Arabidopsis thaliana has been established as the model organism in plant biology for many reasons, including its relatively small size, rendering it easy to grow inside a lab. However, the small size and fragility of Arabidopsis seedlings makes grafting young seedlings very challenging. In many cases, extensive hands-on training is required to successfully obtain seedling grafts. There have been many methodological improvements over the years that have identified ideal growing conditions and new techniques to increase the success rate of seedling grafting9,10,11. The most recent tool introduced was an Arabidopsis seedling grafting chip, that allows even inexperienced users to achieve acceptable levels of grafting success12. While this advance has significantly lowered the technical barrier of seedling grafting, the chip device is expensive, and the number of grafts that can be conducted in parallel quickly becomes cost-prohibitive.
Additionally, this device can only be used for Arabidopsis seedlings that have hypocotyl dimensions that are similar to wild-type seedlings. While Arabidopsis is the keystone species in the world of plant molecular genetics, recent work has been done in other species using seedling grafting. Examples include the grafting of soybean and the common bean, tobacco to tomato, and canola to Arabidopsis, and subsequently sampling both tissues for small RNAs13,14. Therefore, a grafting method that is accessible to most laboratories and can be easily adapted to a wide range of plant species without any major technique changes is highly desirable.
This protocol details a method that employs in-house production of a simple grafting device that allows for the full customization of grafting channel diameter and length to accommodate any seedling morphology across most plant species. The production of these devices is very affordable and highly scalable, as the only components needed are silicone elastomer, wiring or tubing of the correct size, a high precision blade, and a container to serve as a mold. Following the grafting protocol detailed here, users can achieve successful grafting rates of 45% (n = 105), comparable with previously reported grafting results10,12.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL conical tubes</td>
			<td>VWR International Inc</td>
			<td>10026-076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACETONE (HPLC &#38; ACS Certified Solvent) 4 L</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BJAH010-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BactoAgar</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A1296-500g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dow SYLGARD 184 Silicone Encapsulant Clear 0.5 kg Kit</td>
			<td>Dow</td>
			<td>2646340</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Sucrose (Molecular Biology), 1 kg</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP220-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf Snap-Cap Microcentrifuge Flex-Tube Tubes (1.5 mL), pack of 500</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>20901-551 / 05-402</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand High Precision #4 Style Scalpel Handle</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-000-164</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand Lead-Free Autoclave Tape</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15-901-111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand square petri dishes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875711A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica Zoom 2000 Stereo Microscope</td>
			<td>Microscope Central</td>
			<td>L-Z2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropore Tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td>B0082A9FEM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige and Skoog Basal Medium</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M5519-10L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>16-101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>potassium hydroxide</td>
			<td>VWR International Inc</td>
			<td>AA13451-36</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Redi-earth Plug and Seedling Mix</td>
			<td>Sun Gro Horticulture</td>
			<td>SUN239274728CFLP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scotts Osmocote Plus</td>
			<td>Hummert International</td>
			<td>7630600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical Design No. 22 Carbon Scalpel Blade</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-079-697</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20, 500 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP337500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TWEEZER DUMONT STYL55 DUMOXEL POLS 110 MM</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>102091-580</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

scalable, flexible, and cost-effective seedling grafting

Early-stage seedling grafting has become a popular tool in molecular genetics to study root-shoot relationships within plants. Grafting early-stage seedlings of the small model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, is technically challenging and time consuming due to the size and fragility of its seedlings. A growing collection of published methods describe this technique with varying success rates, difficulty, and associated costs. This paper describes a simple procedure to make an in-house reusable grafting device using silicone elastomer mix, and how to use this device for seedling grafting. At the time of this publication, each reusable grafting device costs only $0.47 in consumable materials to produce. Using this method, beginners can have their first successfully grafted seedlings in less than 3 weeks from start to finish. This highly accessible procedure will allow plant molecular genetics labs to establish seedling grafting as a normal part of their experimental process. Due to the full control users have in the creation and design of these grafting devices, this technique could be easily adjusted for use in larger plants, such as tomato or tobacco, if desired.

Various aspects of the grafting strip&#39;s design were tested to identify the optimal grafting conditions that required the least amount of technical skill (Table 1). All grafting trials were completed on 0.5% sucrose MS medium, which has been previously reported to be an ideal grafting medium11,12.
Optimal seedling growth cannot be achieved with on-strip germination 
In the first iteration of th...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Scalable, Flexible, and Cost-Effective Seedling Grafting at JoVE.com

Scalable, Flexible, and Cost-Effective Seedling Grafting

This protocol describes a robust seedling grafting method that requires no prior experience or training and can be executed at a very low cost using materials easily accessible in most molecular biology labs.

Early-stage seedling grafting has become a popular tool in molecular genetics to study root-shoot relationships within plants. Grafting early-stage ...

scalable-flexible-and-cost-effective-seedling-grafting

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1.7K Views.  North Carolina State University. This protocol describes a robust seedling grafting method that requires no prior experience or training and can be executed at a very low cost using materials easily accessible in most molecular biology labs.

Video: Scalable, Flexible, and Cost-Effective Seedling Grafting

BioMEMS and Cellular Biology: Perspectives and Applications

The ability to culture cells has revolutionized hypothesis testing in basic cell and molecular biology research. It has become a standard methodology in drug screening, toxicology, and clinical assays, and is increasingly used in regenerative medicine. However, the traditional cell culture methodology   essentially consisting of the immersion of a large population of cells in a homogeneous fluid medium and on a homogeneous flat substrate   has become increasingly limiting both from a fundamental and practical perspective. Microfabrication technologies have enabled researchers to design, with micrometer control, the biochemical composition and topology of the substrate, and the medium composition, as well as the neighboring cell type in the surrounding cellular microenvironment. Additionally, microtechnology is conceptually well-suited for the development of fast, low-cost in vitro systems that allow for high-throughput culturing and analysis of cells under large numbers of conditions. In this interview, Albert Folch explains these limitations, how they can be overcome with soft lithography and microfluidics, and describes some relevant examples of research in his lab and future directions.

The ability to culture cells has revolutionized hypothesis testing in basic cell and molecular biology research. It has become a standard methodology in ...

Collection and Cryopreservation of Hamster Oocytes and Mouse Embryos

Embryos and oocytes were first successfully cryopreserved more than 30 years ago, when Whittingham et al. 1 and Wilmut 2 separately described that mouse embryos could be frozen and stored at -196 &deg;C and, a few years later, Parkening et al. 3 reported the birth of live offspring resulting from in vitro fertilization (IVF) of cryopreserved oocytes. Since then, the use of cryopreservation techniques has rapidly spread to become an essential component in the practice of human and animal assisted reproduction and in the conservation of animal genetic resources. Currently, there are two main methods used to cryopreserve oocytes and embryos: slow freezing and vitrification. A wide variety of approaches have been used to try to improve both techniques and millions of animals and thousands of children have been born from cryopreserved embryos. However, important shortcomings associated to cryopreservation still have to be overcome, since ice-crystal formation, solution effects and osmotic shock seem to cause several cryoinjuries in post-thawed oocytes and embryos. Slow freezing with programmable freezers has the advantage of using low concentrations of cryoprotectants, which are usually associated with chemical toxicity and osmotic shock, but their ability to avoid ice-crystal formation at low concentrations is limited. Slow freezing also induces supercooling effects that must be avoided using manual or automatic seeding 4. In the vitrification process, high concentrations of cryoprotectants inhibit the formation of ice-crystals and lead to the formation of a glasslike vitrified state in which water is solidified, but not expanded. However, due to the toxicity of cyroprotectants at the concentrations used, oocytes/embryos can only be exposed to the cryoprotectant solution for a very short period of time and in a minimum volume solution, before submerging the samples directly in liquid nitrogen 5. In the last decade, vitrification has become more popular because it is a very quick method in which no expensive equipment (programmable freezer) is required. However, slow freezing continues to be the most widely used method for oocyte/embryo cryopreservation. In this video-article we show, step-by-step, how to collect and slowly freeze hamster oocytes with high post-thaw survival rates. The same procedure can also be applied to successfully freeze and thaw mouse embryos at different stages of preimplantation development.

In this video-article we present a step-by-step demonstration on how to collect and cryopreserve hamster oocytes with high post-thaw survival rates. The same procedure can also be applied to successfully freeze and thaw mouse embryos at different stages of preimplantation development.

Embryos and oocytes were first successfully cryopreserved more than 30 years ago, when Whittingham et al. 1 and Wilmut 2 separately described that mouse ...

Combining Peripheral Nerve Grafting and Matrix Modulation to Repair the Injured Rat Spinal Cord

Traumatic injury to the spinal cord (SCI) causes death of neurons, disruption of motor and sensory nerve fiber (axon) pathways and disruption of communication with the brain. One of the goals of our research is to promote axon regeneration to restore connectivity across the lesion site. To accomplish this we developed a peripheral nerve (PN) grafting technique where segments of sciatic nerve are either placed directly between the damaged ends of the spinal cord or are used to form a bridge across the lesion. There are several advantages to this approach compared to transplantation of other neural tissues; regenerating axons can be directed towards a specific target area, the number and source of regenerating axons is easily determined by tracing techniques, the graft can be used for electrophysiological experiments to measure functional recovery associated with axons in the graft, and it is possible to use an autologous nerve to reduce the possibility of graft rejection. In our lab we have performed both autologous (donor and recipient are the same animal) and heterologous (donor and recipient are different animals) grafts with comparable results. This approach has been used successfully in both acute and chronic injury situations. Regenerated axons that reach the distal end of the PN graft often fail to extend back into the spinal cord, so we use microinjections of chondroitinase to degrade inhibitory molecules associated with the scar tissue surrounding the area of SCI. At the same time we have found that providing exogenous growth and trophic molecules encourages longer distance axonal regrowth into the spinal cord. Several months after transplantation we perform a variety of anatomical, behavioral and electrophysiological tests to evaluate the recovery of function in our spinal cord injured animals. This experimental approach has been used successfully in several spinal cord injury models, at different levels of injury and in different species (mouse, rat and cat). Importantly, the peripheral nerve grafting approach is effective in promoting regeneration by acute and chronically injured neurons.

Traumatic injury to the spinal cord disrupts communication with the brain. To restore lost connectivity we utilize a peripheral nerve graft to provide a substratum for regenerating fibers in combination with neurotrophic factors and matrix-modulating enzymes to remove inhibitory molecules to promote long distance growth.

Traumatic injury to the spinal cord (SCI) causes death of neurons, disruption of motor and sensory nerve fiber (axon) pathways and disruption of ...

Avidity-based Extracellular Interaction Screening (AVEXIS) for the Scalable Detection of Low-affinity Extracellular Receptor-Ligand Interactions

Extracellular protein:protein interactions between secreted or membrane-tethered proteins are critical for both initiating intercellular communication and ensuring cohesion within multicellular organisms. Proteins predicted to form extracellular interactions are encoded by approximately a quarter of human genes1, but despite their importance and abundance, the majority of these proteins have no documented binding partner. Primarily, this is due to their biochemical intractability: membrane-embedded proteins are difficult to solubilise in their native conformation and contain structurally-important posttranslational modifications. Also, the interaction affinities between receptor proteins are often characterised by extremely low interaction strengths (half-lives &lt; 1 second) precluding their detection with many commonly-used high throughput methods2. 
Here, we describe an assay, AVEXIS (AVidity-based EXtracellular Interaction Screen) that overcomes these technical challenges enabling the detection of very weak protein interactions (t1/2 &le; 0.1 sec) with a low false positive rate3. The assay is usually implemented in a high throughput format to enable the systematic screening of many thousands of interactions in a convenient microtitre plate format (Fig. 1). It relies on the production of soluble recombinant protein libraries that contain the ectodomain fragments of cell surface receptors or secreted proteins within which to screen for interactions; therefore, this approach is suitable for type I, type II, GPI-linked cell surface receptors and secreted proteins but not for multipass membrane proteins such as ion channels or transporters.
The recombinant protein libraries are produced using a convenient and high-level mammalian expression system4, to ensure that important posttranslational modifications such as glycosylation and disulphide bonds are added. Expressed recombinant proteins are secreted into the medium and produced in two forms: a biotinylated bait which can be captured on a streptavidin-coated solid phase suitable for screening, and a pentamerised enzyme-tagged (&beta;-lactamase) prey. The bait and prey proteins are presented to each other in a binary fashion to detect direct interactions between them, similar to a conventional ELISA (Fig. 1). The pentamerisation of the proteins in the prey is achieved through a peptide sequence from the cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) and increases the local concentration of the ectodomains thereby providing significant avidity gains to enable even very transient interactions to be detected. By normalising the activities of both the bait and prey to predetermined levels prior to screening, we have shown that interactions having monomeric half-lives of 0.1 sec can be detected with low false positive rates3.

Avidity-based Extracellular Interaction Screening AVEXIS for the Scalable Detection of Low-affinity Extracellular Receptor-Ligand Interactions

AVEXIS is a high throughput protein interaction assay developed to systematically screen for novel extracellular receptor-ligand pairs involved in cellular recognition processes. It is specifically designed to detect transient protein interactions that are difficult to identify using other high throughput approaches.

Extracellular protein:protein interactions between secreted or membrane-tethered proteins are critical for both initiating intercellular communication and ...

Agroinfiltration and PVX Agroinfection in Potato and Nicotiana benthamiana

Agroinfiltration and PVX agroinfection are two efficient transient expression assays for functional analysis of candidate genes in plants. The most commonly used agent for agroinfiltration is Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a pathogen of many dicot plant species. This implies that agroinfiltration can be applied to many plant species. Here, we present our protocols and expected results when applying these methods to the potato (Solanum tuberosum), its related wild tuber-bearing Solanum species (Solanum section Petota) and the model plant Nicotiana benthamiana. In addition to functional analysis of single genes, such as resistance (R) or avirulence (Avr) genes, the agroinfiltration assay is very suitable for recapitulating the R-AVR interactions associated with specific host pathogen interactions by simply delivering R and Avr transgenes into the same cell. However, some plant genotypes can raise nonspecific defense responses to Agrobacterium, as we observed for example for several potato genotypes. Compared to agroinfiltration, detection of AVR activity with PVX agroinfection is more sensitive, more high-throughput in functional screens and less sensitive to nonspecific defense responses to Agrobacterium. However, nonspecific defense to PVX can occur and there is a risk to miss responses due to virus-induced extreme resistance. Despite such limitations, in our experience, agroinfiltration and PVX agroinfection are both suitable and complementary assays that can be used simultaneously to confirm each other&#39;s results.

Agroinfiltration and PVX Agroinfection in Potato and Nicotiana benthamiana

Agroinfiltration and PVX agroinfection are routine functional assays for transient ectopic expression of genes in plants. These methods are efficient assays in effectoromics strategies (rapid resistance and avirulence gene discovery) and crucial to modern research in molecular plant pathology. They meet the demand for robust high-throughput functional analysis in plants.

Agroinfiltration and PVX agroinfection are two efficient transient expression assays for functional analysis of candidate genes in plants. The most ...

A Rapid, Scalable Method for the Isolation, Functional Study, and Analysis of Cell-derived Extracellular Matrix

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is recognized as a diverse, dynamic, and complex environment that is involved in multiple cell-physiological and pathological processes. However, the isolation of ECM, from tissues or cell culture, is complicated by the insoluble and cross-linked nature of the assembled ECM and by the potential contamination of ECM extracts with cell surface and intracellular proteins. Here, we describe a method for use with cultured cells that is rapid and reliably removes cells to isolate a cell-derived ECM for downstream experimentation.
Through use of this method, the isolated ECM and its components can be visualized by in situ immunofluorescence microscopy. The dynamics of specific ECM proteins can be tracked by tracing the deposition of a tagged protein using fluorescence microscopy, both before and after the removal of cells. Alternatively, the isolated ECM can be extracted for biochemical analysis, such as sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoblotting. At larger scales, a full proteomics analysis of the isolated ECM by mass spectrometry can be conducted. By conducting ECM isolation under sterile conditions, sterile ECM layers can be obtained for functional or phenotypic studies with any cell of interest. The method can be applied to any adherent cell type, is relatively easy to perform, and can be linked to a wide repertoire of experimental designs.

The extracellular matrix plays a major role in defining the microenvironment of cells and in modulating cell behavior and phenotype. We describe a rapid method for the isolation of cell-derived extracellular matrix, which can be adapted to different scales for microscopic, biochemical, proteomic, or functional studies.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is recognized as a diverse, dynamic, and complex environment that is involved in multiple cell-physiological and ...

An Efficient and Flexible Cell Aggregation Method for 3D Spheroid Production

Monolayer cell culture does not adequately model the in vivo behavior of tissues, which involves complex cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture techniques are a recent innovation developed to address the shortcomings of adherent cell culture. While several techniques for generating tissue analogues in vitro have been developed, these methods are frequently complex, expensive to establish, require specialized equipment, and are generally limited by compatibility with only certain cell types. Here, we describe a rapid and flexible protocol for aggregating cells into multicellular 3D spheroids of consistent size that is compatible with growth of a variety of tumor and normal cell lines. We utilize varying concentrations of serum and methyl cellulose (MC) to promote anchorage-independent spheroid generation and prevent the formation of cell monolayers in a highly reproducible manner. Optimal conditions for individual cell lines can be achieved by adjusting MC or serum concentrations in the spheroid formation medium. The 3D spheroids generated can be collected for use in a wide range of applications, including cell signaling or gene expression studies, candidate drug screening, or in the study of cellular processes such as tumor cell invasion and migration. The protocol is also readily adapted to generate clonal spheroids from single cells, and can be adapted to assess anchorage-independent growth and anoikis-resistance. Overall, our protocol provides an easily modifiable method for generating and utilizing 3D cell spheroids in order to recapitulate the 3D microenvironment of tissues and model the in vivo growth of normal and tumor cells.

Here, we describe a rapid and flexible protocol for the formation of 3D cell spheroids through cell aggregation. This is easily adapted to multiple cell types and is suitable for use in a variety of applications including cell migration, invasion, or anoikis assays, and for imaging and quantifying cell-matrix interactions.

Monolayer cell culture does not adequately model the in vivo behavior of tissues, which involves complex cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. ...

Flexible Measurement of Bioluminescent Reporters Using an Automated Longitudinal Luciferase Imaging Gas- and Temperature-optimized Recorder (ALLIGATOR)

Luciferase-based reporters of cellular gene expression are in widespread use for both longitudinal and end-point assays of biological activity. In circadian rhythms research, for example, clock gene fusions with firefly luciferase give rise to robust rhythms in cellular bioluminescence that persist over many days. Technical limitations associated with photomultiplier tubes (PMT) or conventional microscopy-based methods for bioluminescence quantification have typically demanded that cells and tissues be maintained under quite non-physiological conditions during recording, with a trade-off between sensitivity and throughput. Here, we report a refinement of prior methods that allows long-term bioluminescence imaging with high sensitivity and throughput which supports a broad range of culture conditions, including variable gas and humidity control, and that accepts many different tissue culture plates and dishes. This automated longitudinal luciferase imaging gas- and temperature-optimized recorder (ALLIGATOR) also allows the observation of spatial variations in luciferase expression across a cell monolayer or tissue, which cannot readily be observed by traditional methods. We highlight how the ALLIGATOR provides vastly increased flexibility for the detection of luciferase activity when compared with existing methods.

Flexible Measurement of Bioluminescent Reporters Using an Automated Longitudinal Luciferase Imaging Gas- and Temperature-optimized Recorder ALLIGATOR

Genetically encoded luciferase is a popular non-invasive reporter of gene expression. Use of an automated longitudinal luciferase imaging gas- and temperature-optimized recorder (ALLIGATOR) enables longitudinal recording from bioluminescent cells under a wide range of conditions. Here we show how ALLIGATOR may be used in the context of circadian rhythms research.

Luciferase-based reporters of cellular gene expression are in widespread use for both longitudinal and end-point assays of biological activity. In ...

Isolation and Characterization of Adult Cardiac Fibroblasts and Myofibroblasts

Cardiac fibrosis in response to injury is a physiological response to wound healing. Efforts have been made to study and target fibroblast subtypes that mitigate fibrosis. However, fibroblast research has been hindered due to the lack of universally acceptable fibroblast markers to identify quiescent as well as activated fibroblasts. Fibroblasts are a heterogenous cell population, making them difficult to isolate and characterize. The presented protocol describes three different methods to enrich fibroblasts and myofibroblasts from uninjured and injured mouse hearts. Using a standard and reliable protocol to isolate fibroblasts will enable the study of their roles in homeostasis as well as fibrosis modulation.

Obtaining a pure population of fibroblasts is crucial to studying their role in wound repair and fibrosis. Described here is a detailed method to isolate fibroblasts and myofibroblasts from uninjured and injured mouse hearts followed by characterization of their purity and functionality by immunofluorescence, RTPCR, fluorescence-assisted cell sorting, and collagen gel contraction.

Cardiac fibrosis in response to injury is a physiological response to wound healing. Efforts have been made to study and target fibroblast subtypes that ...

A Cost Effective and Adaptable Scratch Migration Assay

Cell migration is a key component in both physiological and pathological events. Normal cell migration is required for essential functions such as development and mounting an immune response. When a defect or alteration occurs with the cell migration process, it can have detrimental outcomes (i.e., cancer metastasis, wound healing, and scar formation). Due to the importance of cell migration, it is necessary to have access to a cell migration assay that is affordable, adaptable, and repeatable. Utilizing the common scratch migration assay, we have developed a new approach to analyzing cell migration that uses general laboratory equipment. The method described uses visual markers that allow for recapturing specific areas of interest without the use of time-lapse microscopy. In addition, it provides flexibility in the experimental design, ranging from altering the migration matrix substrate to the addition of pharmacological modifiers. Furthermore, this protocol outlines a way to account for the area of cell migration, which is not considered by several methods when examining cell migration. This new approach offers a scratch migration assay to a larger audience and will provide greater opportunity for researchers to examine the physiological and pathophysiological impact of cell migration.

We present a cost-effective method to the scratch migration assay that provides a new approach for determining cell migration without the use of equipment-intensive methods. While fibroblasts were used in this protocol, it can be adapted and utilized to study additional cell types and influences on cell migration.