J. J. M. is funded by the Veterans Health Administration Merit grant BX0033692-01. J. J. M. is also supported by the John P. Hanson Foundation for Cancer Research at the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University. We thank the Center for Translational Imaging for providing the MRI acquisition and processing. Funding sources had no role in writing of the manuscript or the decision to submit for publication.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Northwestern University.
1. Induction of tumors with BBN
<ol>
	<li>Obtain male C57/BL6 mice, each at least 6 weeks old. 
	NOTE: Male mice develop bladder cancer more quickly and consistently than female mice14,15.</li>
	<li>Add N-nitrosobutyl(4-hydroxybutyl) amine (BBN) at a dose of 0.05% to the drinking water. Store it in an opaque container and provide it ad libitum as drinking water to mice16. 
	NOTE: Storing the BBN solution in a clear container will degrade the carcinogen17.</li>
	<li>Change the 0.05% BBN water twice per week.</li>
	<li>Monitor the animals by inspecting for signs of distress associated with bladder tumors including hematuria, firm bladder, and masses. Inspect the mice twice per week or in accordance with local IACUC guidelines.</li>
	<li>Expect the tumors to develop between 16 and 24 weeks of exposure18.</li>
</ol>
2. MRI setup
<ol>
	<li>Perform a subcutaneous injection of sterile saline (0.1&#8211;0.2 mL using a 25&#8211;27 G needle and 1 mL syringe) 10 min prior to MRI to facilitate bladder filling.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize each mouse with a gas mixture of 100% O2 and isoflurane (2%&#8211;4% as necessary). Verify an adequate plane of anesthesia by testing the withdrawal reflex (toe pinch) before proceeding. Apply sterile eye ointment to the animal.&#160;</li>
	<li>Transfer the mouse to the imaging holder outfitted with a nosecone for delivery of inhaled isoflurane (0.5%&#8211;3%).</li>
	<li>Monitor body temperature and respiration using a rectal temperature probe connected to the physiological recording computer. 
	NOTE: Normal body temperature (36&#8211;37 &#176;C) is maintained using the recirculating hot water circuit built into the animal MR holder. Temperature is measured through a rectal sensor and recorded on the physiological monitoring computer using dedicated physiological monitoring software. The same system is used to record the respiration and electrocardiogram signals measured through a pneumatic pillow placed under the rib cage and via 3-lead electrocardiogram electrodes. The respiration signal is also used for triggering MRI acquisition and reducing artifacts associated with respiration motion.</li>
</ol>
3. MRI image acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Utilize a quadrature body coil for excitation.</li>
	<li>Place a 4-channel receiver coil on the lower abdomen of the mouse being scanned to enable optimized detection of signals from the region of interest.</li>
	<li>Initiate automatic adjustments through the integrated imaging software to acquire a tri-axial set of images of the whole mouse body. From this reference set of images, identify the region of interest (in this case, the bladder region).</li>
	<li>Acquire three sets of orthogonal-sliced images along the axial, coronal, and sagittal planes using radiological frames of reference.</li>
	<li>Utilize the true FISP imaging sequence (included as one of the features in the integrated imaging software) with the following MR parameters: TR = 900 msec, TE = 2 ms, FA = 70, 14 averages. 
	NOTE: This set of parameters allows for rapid imaging with high diagnostic quality, including T1/T2 weighting in &#60;10 min per mouse.</li>
	<li>Spatial resolution and slice thickness are determined by geometric parameters selected by the user through the graphical interface of the integrated imaging platform. This results in a series of slices across the whole bladder of 0.5 mm thickness with an in-plane resolution of 0.148 mm.</li>
</ol>
4. MR image analysis
<ol>
	<li>Identify the set of slices of 0.5 mm thickness and in-plane resolution of 0.148 mm covering the whole bladder.</li>
	<li>Export to the medical image analysis software by selecting the folder with corresponding images in ANALYZE format.</li>
	<li>Select &#8220;representative axial view&#8221; at the center of the bladder for quantitative analysis by scrolling through the generated images and identifying a slice at the midpoint of the bladder, which allows for visualization of the bladder wall and lumen. 
	NOTE: The center slice should be the chosen one with the largest diameter.</li>
	<li>Carefully delineate the region of interest (ROI) by manually tracing the boundaries around the outer edge of the bladder (BLAout) and around the inner lumen (BLAin) of the bladder (see schematic and representative figures in Figure 2) in the selected representative axial view.</li>
	<li>Subtract the inner lumen from the outer edge to calculate the surface area of the bladder wall. 
	BLAwall = BLAout - BLAin 
	NOTE: The surface area of a control bladder with no tumor is expected to be less than that with a bladder tumor.</li>
</ol>
5. Euthanasia and dissection of bladder
<ol>
	<li>After 20 weeks of BBN exposure, euthanize the mice using standard operating procedures in accordance with local IACUC guidelines.</li>
	<li>Clean the area of incision with 70% ethanol, then grasp and lift the abdominal wall skin with forceps.</li>
	<li>Make a midline incision from the pubic symphysis to the xiphoid process.</li>
	<li>Sharply incise the peritoneal cavity by grasping with forceps and incising with scissors.</li>
	<li>Identify the bladder, which is located in the midline lower abdomen.</li>
	<li>Identify and cut the median umbilical ligament connecting the dome of the bladder to the umbilicus and abdominal wall.</li>
	<li>Grasp the dome of the bladder with forceps to provide countertraction and dissect the bladder away from surrounding structures, including the seminal vesicles, rectum, and fat.</li>
	<li>Identify the ureters entering the bladder and cut with scissors close to the bladder.</li>
	<li>Lifting the bladder cephalad, cut the urethra with scissors and remove the bladder.</li>
	<li>Immediately weigh the bladder after rinsing it with PBS.</li>
</ol>
6. Histologic examination of bladder tissue
<ol>
	<li>Fix the bladder tissue in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 36&#8211;48 h at room temperature (RT).</li>
	<li>Embed the tissue in paraffin blocks, cut the slides for subsequent examination, and stain the slides with hematoxylin and eosin for microscopic examination as described previously19,20.</li>
	<li>Perform a microscopic examination of the mouse bladder at low (2.5x and 10x) and high (20x and 40x) magnifications, examining for macroscopic lesions, hyperplasia, carcinoma in situ, papillomas, papillary tumors, and invasive neoplasms19,21.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Accurate imaging of tumor models is necessary for appropriate pre-euthanasia staging and animal randomization prior to initiation of experimental treatment. Using the procedure presented here, we demonstrate methodology to (1) generate bladder tumors using the BBN carcinogen and (2) stratify bladder tumor burden through the use of MR. An MR-derived area measurement (BLAwall) correlates significantly with ex vivo bladder weight and is associated with pathologic tumor stage.
By adopting a rapid imaging approach with short acquisition times at high spatial resolution (true FISP) and high diagnostic quality, we can conduct high throughput assays of mice at intermediate stages of tumor development, prior to treatment randomization. Our report is consistent with prior reports of MR imaging of cell line-based tumor implants9,12 and confirms its potential as a tool to optimize large subject number drug studies.
In this MRI protocol, it is critical to image the mouse with a full bladder to obtain high quality images and delineate the differences between the tumor and bladder lumen. We find that injecting each mouse with saline 10 minutes before imaging allows for adequate imaging of the bladder. Further critical steps include reliable triggering of MRI acquisition using the respiration signal detected with a pneumatic pillow placed under the mouse rib cage and acquisition of an adequate number of MR slices that enables coverage of the whole bladder.
Other options for imaging development and progression of murine bladder tumors include ultrasound8 and bioluminescence10,11. Micro-ultrasound imaging of implanted MBT-2 cells detected tumors in 15 mice, 13 of which were histologically confirmed to have tumors8. Ultrasound volume correlated significantly with stereoscopic volume of tumor, but tumor weight and stage were not investigated8. Bioluminescence has been used to accurately monitor cell line-based tumor implants, but it cannot be used to monitor carcinogen-induced cancers without transplanting carcinogen-derived tumors from one mouse to another. The ability to accurately monitor carcinogen-induced cancers is critical, as these models have several advantages over cell line models. Cell line-based models are genetically homogenous and derived from tumors that have already evaded immunosurveillance, and implanted tumors grow rapidly without a chronic inflammatory microenvironment22. The BBN model has been used successfully for over 30 years, and it remains a critical model for the understanding of bladder cancer development and treatment23,24,25. Furthermore, the BBN model demonstrates mutational and gene expression profiles similar to human bladder cancer, while still retaining the intact immune system to allow for the study of potential immunotherapeutic agents26,27.
Availability of dedicated small animal MRIs as shared resources at multiple institutions makes this techniques advantageous and practical for basic research and screening of novel therapies. However, there are some limitations. Mice were imaged only at one timepoint, not continuously during the development of tumors. However, based on our statistical results, we suggest that the single timepoint value is able to accurately stratify mice into groups by tumor size and stage, and it represents an ideal, non-invasive parameter to classify and assign subjects to different groups. Multiple tumor stages were generated using BBN, ranging from Ta to T4. However, these may be stratified (as suggested in Figure 5C-D) as muscle-invasive (T2 or greater) and non-muscle invasive (T1 or less), as this is standard management in human bladder cancer28.
Another potential limitation is that the BLAwall parameter was derived using a single slice through each bladder and not all available slices covering it. These criteria were chosen to reduce analysis pipeline requirements (i.e., requirement of drawing multiple ROIs across multiple slices) and were deemed sufficient for a fast, quantitative assay. More complex volumetric analysis can be conducted on the subjects (i.e., shown for illustrative purposes in Figure 3) but would inevitably require more effort and costs. Automated image processing algorithms can be used for automatic delineation of bladder region; however, these methods suffer from intrinsic variability of bladder shape and size among individual mice and require significant testing and validation prior to reliable adoption in a preclinical study29.
Qualitative assessment of volumetric data suggest that this single slice method is sufficient for this type of assay. However, it is possible that more advanced assays may require this additional data/image processing step. From the acquisition point of view, there are several additional scans that could be acquired, which may further increase the ability to predict progression of tumors while also revealing more subtle tumor microenvironment changes. These additional techniques include dynamic contrast enhanced MRI, diffusion weighted MRI, and other sequences30 that enable a comprehensive, multi-parametric characterization of the bladder wall. However, consideration of cost and efficiency led us to confine our assay to the one described in this protocol.
In conclusion, we describe the methodology for T1/T2-weighted rapid imaging MR sequences (true FISP) to acquire multi-slice images covering the entire mouse bladder. We demonstrate that these images can be used to determine the extent of tumor in a carcinogen-based model of murine bladder cancer. MRI data correlates with bladder tissue weights and is associated with tumor stage. These results support the use of this fast and reliable MRI assay to stratify mice prior to experimental treatment randomization.

Bladder cancer is the fifth most common cancer overall, responsible for approximately 80,000 new cases and 16,000 deaths in the United States in 20171. After about 30 years without significant advances in the systemic treatment of bladder cancer2, recent anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 checkpoint inhibitor trials have demonstrated exciting and occasionally durable responses in patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma3,4,5. However, only approximately 20% of patients show an objective response to these treatments, and further studies are needed to expand the effective use of immunotherapy in patients with bladder cancer.
Murine bladder cancer models are critical tools in preclinical evaluation of novel treatments6,7. In order to control for tumor size when randomizing mice to different treatments, tumor burden must be assessed and controlled between treatment groups. Previous studies have used ultrasound or bioluminescence to evaluate orthotopic cell line-based bladder cancer models8,9,10,11. However, both techniques present several disadvantages. Ultrasound measurements can be influenced by skills of the operator and lack three-dimensional features and high spatial resolution. Bioluminescence methods can only provide semi-quantitative evaluation of the tumor cells and do not allow for visualization of bladder anatomy and morphology. Furthermore, bioluminescence can only be used with cell line-based models, which express bioluminescent genes in hairless mice or mice with white coats.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), on the other hand, offers unique flexibility in the acquisition of high-resolution anatomical images, exhibiting a broad range of tissue contrast that enables accurate visualization and quantitative assessment of tumor burden without the need to express bioluminescent properties. MR images are more easily reproducible with the appropriate analysis pipelines and guaranteed 3-D visualization of the bladder. The biggest limitations of MRI are the length of time necessary for an examination and associated high costs that limit high throughput assays. However, several studies have shown that MR sequences can provide high-quality diagnostic images that can be used to effectively detect and monitor cell line-based bladder tumors; thus, they may be used for high throughput analysis9,12.
Here, we describe a non-invasive MR-based method to reliably and efficiently characterize carcinogen-induced bladder tumors in mice. To accomplish this, we use a fast imaging with steady state precession MR technique (true FISP), which guarantees short scanning sessions while still providing high quality and high spatial resolution (~100 microns) for the detection and measurement of bladder tumors13. Furthermore, to confirm the accuracy of this non-invasive MRI assay, we describe the correlation between MRI-derived parameters and ex vivo bladder weight as well as pathologically-confirmed tumor stage.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>664</td>
			<td>Mice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine carcinogen (BBN)</td>
			<td>TCI American</td>
			<td>B0938</td>
			<td>Carcinogen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.9% normal saline</td>
			<td>Hospira, Inc</td>
			<td>NDC 0409-488-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Piramal HealthCare</td>
			<td>60307-120-25</td>
			<td>Anesthetic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>7Tesla ClinScan MRI</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Dedicated Small Animal Imaging MRI</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syngo</td>
			<td>Siemens</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>MR Integrated Imaging Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Model 1030 Monitoring &#38; Gating System</td>
			<td>Small Animal Instruments, Inc. (SAII)</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Small animal physiologic monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formalin, Neutral Buffered, 10%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>HT501128</td>
			<td>Fixative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin Y</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC1093844</td>
			<td>Histologic staining agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23-245651</td>
			<td>Histologic staining agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jim7</td>
			<td>Xinapse Systems</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Medical image analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism v7.04</td>
			<td>Graphpad</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Graphing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R v3.4.2</td>
			<td>The R Project for Statistical Computing</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Statistical software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R package pROC v1.10.0.</td>
			<td>The R Project for Statistical Computing</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>ROC analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

magnetic resonance imaging assessment of carcinogen-induced murine bladder tumors

Murine bladder tumor models are critical for the evaluation of new therapeutic options. Bladder tumors induced with the N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine (BBN) carcinogen are advantageous over cell line-based models because they closely replicate the genomic profiles of human tumors, and, unlike cell models and xenografts, they provide a good opportunity for the study of immunotherapies. However, bladder tumor generation is heterogeneous; therefore, an accurate assessment of tumor burden is needed before randomization to experimental treatment. Described here is a BBN mouse model and protocol to evaluate bladder cancer tumor burden in vivo using a fast and reliable magnetic resonance (MR) sequence (true FISP). This method is simple and reliable because, unlike ultrasound, MR is operator-independent and allows for the straightforward post-acquisition image processing and review. Using axial images of the bladder, analysis of regions of interest along the bladder wall and tumor allow for the calculation of bladder wall and tumor area. This measurement correlates with ex vivo bladder weight (rs= 0.37, p = 0.009) and tumor stage (p = 0.0003). In conclusion, BBN generates heterogeneous tumors that are ideal for evaluation of immunotherapies, and MRI can quickly and reliably assess tumor burden prior to randomization to experimental treatment arms.

Using the protocol described (Figure 1), bladder tumors were induced in C57/B6 male mice. MRI was performed at 16 weeks, and mice were euthanized at 20 weeks. Ex vivo bladder weights (BW) for each mouse were recorded. Slides were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and all histology slides were reviewed for tumor stage.
To analyze the tumor burden using MR, the bladder wall inner lumen (BLAin) was subtracted from the bladder wall outer lumen (BLAout) to calculate the thickness of the bladder wall (BLAwall) (Figure 2). Representative true FISP MR images, bladder wall 3-D reconstructions, and pathologic images of a control mouse (i.e., no tumor) are shown in Figure 3A-F, and a mouse with a large tumor is shown in Figure 3G-L.
The MRI-derived parameter BLAwall correlates weakly with ex vivo BW (rs = 0.37, p = 0.009; Figure 4). Examination of the MRI-derived BLAwall parameter and BW data demonstrates an association with tumor stage (Kruskal-Wallis test MRI p = 0.0003, Figure 5A; BW p = 0.0006; Figure 5B), as well as an association when stratifying pathology by non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer and muscle-invasive bladder cancer (Mann-Whitney U test MRI p = 0.0002, Figure 5C; BW p &#60; 0.0001, Figure 5D). The performance of BLAwall and BW to determine muscle-invasive bladder cancer is shown in Figure 5E. The area under the curve (AUC) for BLAwall (AUC = 0.81, 95% CI 0.68-093) is statistically similar to AUC for BW (AUC = 0.89, 95% CI 0.80-0.98; p = 0.30).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Schema for bladder tumor induction with BBN and timing of MRI and euthanasia. BBN is administered ad libitum at a concentration of 0.05% in drinking water. Mice undergo MRI at 16 weeks. Mice are euthanized at 20 weeks and bladders of each are examined with immunohistochemistry. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Schematic graphical depiction of method to obtain BLAwall and representative MR image with corresponding outlines. Using intensity of MRI images, the outer wall of a bladder was identified and an outline was drawn in red (BLAout). The hyperintense bladder lumen was outlined in green (BLAin), and the corresponding bladder lumen area was obtained. Subtraction of these two quantities yielded the BLAwall parameter, which corresponds to the light gray disk in the graphical image. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative true FISP MR images, bladder wall 3-D reconstructions, and pathologic images of a control mouse (i.e., no tumor) (A-F)and a mouse with a large tumor (G-L). (A) Representative MR image of a mouse with no tumor. (B) Segmentation of bladder wall area (BLAwall), outlined in red, defined as the area between the bladder lumen (BLAin) and outer bladder wall (BLAout). (C) 3-D rendering of the bladder wall from a control mouse, generated by defining BLAwall at every slice through the bladder. Green arrows illustrate the bladder on a 2-D image translated to 3-D rendering. (D) 3-D rendering of a cut-out of BLAwall from a control mouse. (E) Low power (2.5x) and (F) high power (10x) images of the same mouse bladder. (G) Representative MR image of a mouse with a large tumor. (H) Segmentation of bladder wall area (BLAwall), outlined in red, defined as the area between the bladder lumen (BLAin) and outer bladder wall (BLAout). (I) 3-D rendering of the bladder wall of a mouse with a large tumor. (J) 3-D rendering of a cut-out of the bladder of a mouse with a large tumor, generated by defining BLAwall at every slice through the bladder. Green arrows illustrate the bladder on a 2-D image translated to 3-D rendering. (K) Low power (2.5x) and (L) high power (10x) images of the same mouse bladder. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Spearman correlation between the MRI-derived BLAwall and final bladder weight. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Comparisons of pathologic stage and MRI-derived parameter BLAwall in 47 mice. (A) Comparison of all pathologic stages and MRI BLAwall (Kruskal-Wallis test).(B) Comparison of all pathologic stages and bladder weight (Kruskal-Wallis test). (C) Comparison of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (stage &#8804;T1) and muscle-invasive bladder cancer (stage &#8805;T2) with MRI BLAwall (Mann-Whitney U test). (D) Comparison of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (stage &#8804;T1) and muscle-invasive bladder cancer (stage &#8805;T2) with bladder weight (Mann-Whitney U test). (E) ROC curve of the MRI-derived bladder area and final bladder weight in determining muscle-invasive bladder cancer (stage &#8805;T2). The listed p-value is the difference between the two AUCs. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59101/59101fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessment of Carcinogen-induced Murine Bladder Tumors at JoVE.com

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessment of Carcinogen-induced Murine Bladder Tumors

Murine bladder tumors are induced with the N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine carcinogen (BBN). Bladder tumor generation is heterogeneous; therefore, an accurate assessment of tumor burden is needed before randomization to experimental treatment. Here we present a fast, reliable MRI protocol to assess tumor size and stage.

Murine bladder tumor models are critical for the evaluation of new therapeutic options. Bladder tumors induced with the N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) ...

magnetic-resonance-imaging-assessment-carcinogen-induced-murine

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

10.3K Views.  NorthShore University HealthSystem. Murine bladder tumors are induced with the N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine carcinogen (BBN). Bladder tumor generation is heterogeneous; therefore, an accurate assessment of tumor burden is needed before randomization to experimental treatment. Here we present a fast, reliable MRI protocol to assess tumor size and stage.

Video: Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessment of Carcinogen-induced Murine Bladder Tumors

Hyperpolarized 13C Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Imaging

In the past decades, new methods for tumor staging, restaging, treatment response monitoring, and recurrence detection of a variety of cancers have emerged in conjunction with the state-of-the-art positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]-FDG PET). 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (13CMRSI) is a minimally invasive imaging method that enables the monitoring of metabolism in vivo and in real time. As with any other method based on 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), it faces the challenge of low thermal polarization and a subsequent low signal-to-noise ratio due to the relatively low gyromagnetic ratio of 13C and its low natural abundance in biological samples. By overcoming these limitations, dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) with subsequent sample dissolution has recently enabled commonly used NMR and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems to measure, study, and image key metabolic pathways in various biological systems. A particularly interesting and promising molecule used in 13CMRSI is [1-13C]pyruvate, which, in the last ten years, has been widely used for in vitro, preclinical, and, more recently, clinical studies to investigate the cellular energy metabolism in cancer and other diseases. In this article, we outline the technique of dissolution DNP using a 3.35 T preclinical DNP hyperpolarizer and demonstrate its usage in in vitro studies. A similar protocol for hyperpolarization may be applied for the most part in in vivo studies as well. To do so, we used lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and catalyzed the metabolic reaction of [1-13C]pyruvate to [1-13C]lactate in a prostate carcinoma cell line, PC3, in vitro using 13CMRSI.

Hyperpolarized 13C Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Imaging

Dynamic nuclear polarization with subsequent sample dissolution has enabled real-time studies of metabolism in biological systems. Hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate was used to study lactate dehydrogenase activity in a prostate carcinoma cell line in vitro.

In the past decades, new methods for tumor staging, restaging, treatment response monitoring, and recurrence detection of a variety of cancers have ...

A Murine Orthotopic Bladder Tumor Model and Tumor Detection System

This protocol describes the generation of bladder tumors in female C57BL/6J mice using the murine bladder cancer cell line MB49, which has been modified to secrete human Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA), and the procedure for the confirmation of tumor implantation. In brief, mice are anesthetized using injectable drugs and are made to lay in the dorsal position. Urine is vacated from the bladder and 50 &#181;L of poly-L-lysine (PLL) is slowly instilled at a rate of 10 &#181;L/20 s using a 24 G IV catheter. It is left in the bladder for 20 min by stoppering the catheter. The catheter is removed and PLL is vacated by gentle pressure on the bladder. This is followed by instillation of the murine bladder cancer cell line (1 x 105 cells/50 &#181;L) at a rate of 10 &#181;L/20 s. The catheter is stoppered to prevent premature evacuation. After 1 h, the mice are revived with a reversal drug, and the bladder is vacated. The slow instillation rate is important, as it reduces vesico-ureteral reflux, which can cause tumors to occur in the upper urinary tract and in the kidneys. The cell line should be well re-suspended to reduce clumping of cells, as this can lead to uneven tumor sizes after implantation.
This technique induces tumors with high efficiency. Tumor growth is monitored by urinary PSA secretion. PSA marker monitoring is more reliable than ultrasound or fluorescence imaging for the detection of the presence of tumors in the bladder. Tumors in mice generally reach a maximum size that negatively impacts health by about 3 - 4 weeks if left untreated. By monitoring tumor growth, it is possible to differentiate mice that were cured from those that were not successfully implanted with tumors. With only end-point analysis, the latter may be mistakenly assumed to have been cured by therapy.

This protocol describes the generation of murine orthotopic bladder tumors in female C57BL/6J mice and the monitoring of tumor growth.

This protocol describes the generation of bladder tumors in female C57BL/6J mice using the murine bladder cancer cell line MB49, which has been modified ...

A Mouse Model of Fatigue Induced by Peripheral Irradiation

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is a distressing and costly condition that often affects patients receiving cancer treatments, including radiation therapy. Here we describe a method using targeted peripheral irradiation to induce fatigue-like behavior in mice. With appropriate shielding, the irradiation targets the lower abdominal/pelvic region of the mouse, sparing the brain, in an effort to model radiation treatment received by individuals with pelvic cancers. We deliver an irradiation dose that is sufficient to induce fatigue-like behavior in mice, measured by voluntary wheel-running activity (VWRA), without causing obvious morbidity. Since wheel running is a normal, voluntary behavior in mice, its use should have little confounding effect on other behavioral tests or biological measures. Hence, wheel running can be used as a feasible outcome measure in understanding the behavioral and biological correlates of fatigue. CRF is a complex condition with frequent comorbidities, and likely has causes related both to cancer and its various treatments. The methods described in this paper are useful for investigating radiation-induced changes that contribute to the development of CRF and, more generally, to explore the biological networks that can explain the development and persistence of a peripherally-triggered but centrally-driven behavior like fatigue.

We describe a method using targeted peripheral irradiation to induce fatigue-like behavior in mice. The selected non-lethal irradiation dose leads to a week-long reduction in voluntary wheel-running activity.

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is a distressing and costly condition that often affects patients receiving cancer treatments, including radiation therapy. ...

Development of a Human Preclinical Model of Osteoclastogenesis from Peripheral Blood Monocytes Co-cultured with Breast Cancer Cell Lines

The crosstalk between tumor cells and bone cells in the bone microenvironment is crucial to understanding the mechanism of bone metastasis formation. We developed an in vitro fully human preclinical model of a co-culture of breast cancer cells and monocytes undergoing differentiation towards osteoclasts. We optimized a model of osteoclastogenesis starting from a sample of peripheral blood collected from healthy donors. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were first separated by density gradient centrifugation, seeded at a high density and induced to differentiate by adding two growth factors (GFs): receptor activator of nuclear factor-&#954;B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF). The cells were left in culture for 14 days and then fixed and analyzed by downstream analysis. In osteolytic bone metastases, one of the effects of cancer cell arrival in bone is the induction of osteoclastogenesis. We thus challenged our model with co-cultures of breast cancer cells to study the differentiation power of cancer cells with respect to GFs. A straightforward way of studying cancer cell-osteoclast interaction is to perform indirect co-cultures based on the use of conditioned medium collected from breast cancer cell cultures and mixed with fresh medium. This mixture is then used to induce osteoclast differentiation. We also optimized a method of direct co-culture in which cancer cells and monocytes undergoing differentiation share the medium and exchange secreted factors. This is a significant improvement over the original indirect co-culture method as researchers can observe the reciprocal interactions of the two cell types and perform downstream analyses for both cancer cells and osteoclasts. This method enables us to study the effect of drugs on the metastatic bone microenvironment and to seed cell lines other than those derived from breast cancer. The model can also be used to study other diseases such as osteoporosis or other bone conditions.

This protocol describes development of an in vitro human preclinical model of osteoclastogenesis from peripheral blood monocytes cultured with breast cancer cell lines to mimic the cancer cell-osteoclast interaction. The model could be used to further our understanding of bone metastasis formation and improve therapeutic options.

The crosstalk between tumor cells and bone cells in the bone microenvironment is crucial to understanding the mechanism of bone metastasis formation. We ...

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic probes to provide quantitative information on the chemical tumor microenvironment (TME), including pO2, pH, redox status, concentrations of interstitial inorganic phosphate (Pi), and intracellular glutathione (GSH). In particular, an application of a recently developed soluble multifunctional trityl probe provides unsurpassed opportunity for in vivo concurrent measurements of pH, pO2 and Pi in Extracellular space (HOPE probe). The measurements of three parameters using a single probe allow for their correlation analyses independent of probe distribution and time of the measurements.

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

Low-field (L-band, 1.2 GHz) electron paramagnetic resonance using soluble nitroxyl and trityl probes is demonstrated for assessment of physiologically important parameters in the tumor microenvironment in mouse models of breast cancer.

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic ...

Enrichment and Characterization of the Tumor Immune and Non-immune Microenvironments in Established Subcutaneous Murine Tumors

The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has recently been recognized as a critical mediator of treatment response in solid tumors, especially for immunotherapies. Recent clinical advances in immunotherapy highlight the need for reproducible methods to accurately and thoroughly characterize the tumor and its associated immune infiltrate. Tumor enzymatic digestion and flow cytometric analysis allow broad characterization of numerous immune cell subsets and phenotypes; however, depth of analysis is often limited by fluorophore restrictions on panel design and the need to acquire large tumor samples to observe rare immune populations of interest. Thus, we have developed an effective and high throughput method for separating and enriching the tumor immune infiltrate from the non-immune tumor components. The described tumor digestion and centrifugal density-based separation technique allows separate characterization of tumor and tumor immune infiltrate fractions and preserves cellular viability, and thus, provides a broad characterization of the tumor immunologic state. This method was used to characterize the extensive spatial immune heterogeneity in solid tumors, which further demonstrates the need for consistent whole tumor immunologic profiling techniques. Overall, this method provides an effective and adaptable technique for the immunologic characterization of subcutaneous solid murine tumors; as such, this tool can be used to better characterize the tumoral immunologic features and in the preclinical evaluation of novel immunotherapeutic strategies.

Here we describe a method to separate and enrich components of the tumor immune and non-immune microenvironment in established subcutaneous tumors. This technique allows for the separate analysis of tumor immune infiltrate and non-immune tumor fractions which can permit comprehensive characterization of the tumor immune microenvironment.

The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has recently been recognized as a critical mediator of treatment response in solid tumors, especially for ...

Murine Model of Metastatic Liver Tumors in the Setting of Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

Liver ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury, a common clinical challenge, remains an inevitable pathophysiological process that has been shown to induce multiple tissue and organ damage. Despite recent advances and therapeutic approaches, the overall morbidity has remained unsatisfactory especially in patients with underlying parenchymal abnormalities. In the context of aggressive cancer growth and metastasis, surgical I/R is suspected to be the promoter regulating tumor recurrence. This article aims to describe a clinically relevant murine model of liver I/R and colorectal liver metastasis. In doing so, we aim to assist other investigators in establishing and perfecting this model for their routine research practice to better understand the effects of liver I/R on promoting liver metastases.

We describe in detail a clinically relevant colorectal cancer liver metastases (CRLM) tumor model and the influence of liver ischemia reperfusion (I/R) in tumor growth and metastasis. This model can help to better understand the mechanisms underlying surgery-induced promotion of liver metastatic growth.

Liver ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury, a common clinical challenge, remains an inevitable pathophysiological process that has been shown to induce ...

In Vivo Immunofluorescence Localization for Assessment of Therapeutic and Diagnostic Antibody Biodistribution in Cancer Research

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are important tools in cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. They are used to unravel the role of proteins in tumorigenesis, can be directed to cancer biomarkers enabling tumor detection and characterization, and can be used for cancer therapy as mAbs or antibody-drug conjugates to activate immune effector cells, to inhibit signaling pathways, or directly kill cells carrying the specific antigen. Despite clinical advancements in the development and production of novel and highly specific mAbs, diagnostic and therapeutic applications can be impaired by the complexity and heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment. Thus, for the development of efficient antibody-based therapies and diagnostics, it is crucial to assess the biodistribution and interaction of the antibody-based conjugate with the living tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe In Vivo Immunofluorescence Localization (IVIL) as a new approach to study interactions of antibody-based therapeutics and diagnostics in the in vivo physiological and pathological conditions. In this technique, a therapeutic or diagnostic antigen-specific antibody is intravenously injected in&#160;vivo and localized ex vivo with a secondary antibody in isolated tumors. IVIL, therefore, reflects the in vivo biodistribution of antibody-based drugs and targeting agents. Two IVIL applications are described assessing the biodistribution and accessibility of antibody-based contrast agents for molecular imaging of breast cancer. This protocol will allow future users to adapt the IVIL method for their own antibody-based research applications.

The in vivo immunofluorescence localization (IVIL) method can be used to examine in vivo biodistribution of antibodies and antibody conjugates for oncological purposes in living organisms using a combination of in vivo tumor targeting and ex vivo immunostaining methods.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are important tools in cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. They are used to unravel the role of proteins in ...

Modeling Brain Metastases Through Intracranial Injection and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Metastatic spread of cancer is an unfortunate consequence of disease progression, aggressive cancer subtypes, and/or late diagnosis. Brain metastases are particularly devastating, difficult to treat, and confer a poor prognosis. While the precise incidence of brain metastases in the United States remains hard to estimate, it is likely to increase as extracranial therapies continue to become more efficacious in treating cancer. Thus, it is necessary to identify and develop novel therapeutic approaches to treat metastasis at this site. To this end, intracranial injection of cancer cells has become a well-established method in which to model brain metastasis. Previously, the inability to directly measure tumor growth has been a technical hindrance to this model; however, increasing availability and quality of small animal imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are vastly improving the ability to monitor tumor growth over time and infer changes within the brain during the experimental period. Herein, intracranial injection of murine mammary tumor cells into immunocompetent mice followed by MRI is demonstrated. The presented injection approach utilizes isoflurane anesthesia and a stereotactic setup with a digitally controlled, automated drill and needle injection to enhance precision, and reduce technical error. MRI is measured over time using a 9.4 Tesla instrument in The Ohio State University James Comprehensive Cancer Center Small Animal Imaging Shared Resource. Tumor volume measurements are demonstrated at each time point through use of ImageJ. Overall, this intracranial injection approach allows for precise injection, day-to-day monitoring, and accurate tumor volume measurements, which combined greatly enhance the utility of this model system to test novel hypotheses on the drivers of brain metastases.

Intracranial brain metastasis modeling is complicated by an inability to monitor tumor size and response to treatment with precise and timely methods. The presented methodology couples intracranial tumor injection with magnetic resonance imaging analysis, which when combined, cultivates precise and consistent injections, enhanced animal monitoring, and accurate tumor volume measurements.

Metastatic spread of cancer is an unfortunate consequence of disease progression, aggressive cancer subtypes, and/or late diagnosis. Brain metastases are ...

Culture of Bladder Cancer Organoids as Precision Medicine Tools

Current in vitro therapeutic testing platforms lack relevance to tumor pathophysiology, typically employing cancer cell lines established as two-dimensional (2D) cultures on tissue culture plastic. There is a critical need for more representative models of tumor complexity that can accurately predict therapeutic response and sensitivity. The development of three-dimensional (3D) ex vivo culture of patient-derived organoids (PDOs), derived from fresh tumor tissues, aims to address these shortcomings. Organoid cultures can be used as tumor surrogates in parallel to routine clinical management to inform therapeutic decisions by identifying potential effective interventions and indicating therapies that may be futile. Here, this procedure aims to describe strategies and a detailed step-by-step protocol to establish bladder cancer PDOs from fresh, viable clinical tissue. Our well-established, optimized protocols are practical to set up 3D cultures for experiments using limited and diverse starting material directly from patients or patient-derived xenograft (PDX) tumor material. This procedure can also be employed by most laboratories equipped with standard tissue culture equipment. The organoids generated using this protocol can be used as ex vivo surrogates to understand both the molecular mechanisms underpinning urological cancer pathology and to evaluate treatments to inform clinical management.

Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) are a powerful tool in translational cancer research, reflecting both the genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity of the disease and response to personalized anti-cancer therapies. Here, a consolidated protocol to generate human primary bladder cancer PDOs in preparation for the evaluation of phenotypic analyses and drug responses is detailed.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessment of Carcinogen-induced Murine Bladder Tumors

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Hyperpolarized ¹³C Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Imaging