This work was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). Video production was carried out in collaboration with the Center for Innovation in Teaching and Learning (CITL) at Memorial University of Newfoundland.

1. Chemicals and Purified Enzymes
<ol>
	<li>Procure the following materials: PDHC and KGDHC of porcine heart origin (or another purified mitochondrial flavoenzyme); H2O2 (30% solution), pyruvate, &#945;-ketoglutarate, NAD+, NADH, CoASH, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), mannitol, HEPES, sucrose, EGTA, 3-methyl-2-oxo valeric acid (KMV), superoxide dismutase (SOD), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), 10-Acetyl-3,7-dihydroxyphenoxazine reagent (AUR), and CPI-613.</li>
</ol>
2. Planning the Assay and Reagent Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Set up the assay according to Table 1 in a 96-well plate. 
	NOTE: The total volume for each reaction is 200 &#181;L. Stock concentrations are adjusted such that 20 &#181;L of reagent is added to each well. This ensures rapid addition of cofactors and substrates to each reaction well prior to starting the assay.</li>
	<li>Prepare reaction buffer containing 220 mM mannitol, 70 mM sucrose, 1 mM EGTA, and 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.4 with HCl). 
	NOTE: This could change depending on the physical properties of different purified enzymes.</li>
	<li>Examine the purified KGDHC or PDHC for contamination using enzyme activity assays14,16,17 or by immunoblot or Coomassie stain5.</li>
	<li>Prepare all reagents in the reaction buffer as per the working solution concentrations in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Store all reagents as 1 mL aliquots at -20 &#176;C. Store pyruvate and &#945;-ketoglutarate at -80 &#176;C in 100-&#181;L aliquots to prevent spontaneous degradation due to auto-oxidation and repeated freeze-thaw.</li>
	<li>Prepare the AUR reagent master stock in 1 mL of DMSO and then dilute to 100 &#181;M in reaction buffer. Store protected from light. 
	NOTE: Here, the 100 &#181;M working solution is made fresh every 2 to 3 weeks and protected from light.</li>
</ol>
3. Setting Up the Assay Template
<ol>
	<li>Set up the assay procedure on a monochromatic microplate reader with dual measurement capabilities.</li>
	<li>Define the reading procedure by selecting &#34;PROTOCOL&#34;. Then click &#34;PROCEDURE&#34;.</li>
	<li>Set &#34;TEMPERATURE&#34; to 25 &#176;C (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Click &#34;START KINETIC&#34; to set read conditions (Figure 1A). Set the time and number of read intervals/experiments.</li>
	<li>Click &#34;READ&#34; (Figure 1B). 
	NOTE: Samples are read from TOP position with a gain of 50. Time: 5 min, read at 30-s intervals. Channel 1: Resorufin fluorescence - excitation/emission = 565 nm:600 nm, wavelength width of 13.5 nm. Channel 2: NADH autofluorescence - excitation/emission = 376 nm:450 nm, wavelength width of 20 nm.</li>
	<li>Under &#34;READ&#34;, select wells to monitor (e.g., A1-A4 and B1-B4).</li>
	<li>Select &#34;END KINETIC&#34;.</li>
</ol>
4. Standard Curves
<ol>
	<li>Thaw the reagents and store on ice until needed.</li>
	<li>NADH standard curve (Figure 2A)
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the working solutions for NADH in the concentration range of 0.5-10 mM in reaction buffer.</li>
		<li>Add 20 &#181;L aliquots from each NADH working solution concentration to wells containing 180 &#181;L reaction buffer. The final concentration of NADH in each well is 0.05-1 mM.</li>
		<li>Click &#34;READ&#34; and set excitation/emission = 376 nm:450 nm, wavelength width of 20 nm. 
		NOTE: This is an endpoint read only - kinetic parameters are not required.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>AUR standard curve (Figure 2B)
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the working stocks of hydrogen peroxide in reaction buffer; stock concentrations range from 200-4,000 nM.</li>
		<li>Add 120 &#181;L of the reaction buffer to each well.</li>
		<li>Add 20 &#181;L of HRP (working stock concentration = 30 U/mL, final concentration in the well = 3 U/mL), 20 &#181;L of SOD (working stock concentration = 250 U/mL, final concentration in the well = 25 U/mL), and 20 &#181;L of AUR (working stock concentration = 100 &#181;M, final concentration in the well = 10 &#181;M) to each well containing reaction buffer.</li>
		<li>Add 20 &#181;L of each H2O2 working stock solution to each well containing buffer and assay reagents. The final reaction volume is 200 &#181;L and the final concentration of H2O2 in each well is 20-400 nM.</li>
		<li>Incubate the plates for 1 min in the plate reader at 25 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Click &#34;READ&#34; and set excitation/emission = 565 nm/600 nm, wavelength width of 13.5 nm. Note that this is an endpoint read only - kinetic parameters are not required.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Measuring O2 &#9679;- /H2 O2 Release and NADH Production by KGDHC and PDHC
<ol>
	<li>See Table 1 for the order of addition of the different reagents, the concentration of each working solution, and the volume added to each well.</li>
	<li>Add 40 &#181;L of reaction buffer to each well. For assays using KMV or CPI-613, add 20 &#181;L of buffer to each well.</li>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of PDHC or KGDHC (working stock of 1 U/mL, final concentration per well = 0.1 U/mL) to each well.</li>
	<li>Incubate PDHC and KGDHC at 25 &#176;C for 2 min.</li>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of KMV (working stock = 100 mM, final concentration = 10 mM) or 20 &#181;L of CPI-613 (working stock concentration = 1.5 mM, final concentration = 150 &#181;M) (Table 2). 
	NOTE: This step can be excluded if inhibitors are not being used for the assays.</li>
	<li>Incubate for 1 min at 25 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: This step can be excluded if inhibitors are not being used for the assays.</li>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of HRP (working stock concentration = 30 units/mL, final concentration in the well = 3 units/mL) and 20 &#181;L of SOD (working stock concentration = 250 units/mL, final concentration in the well = 25 units/mL) to each well.</li>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of coenzyme A (working stock concentration = 1 mM, final concentration = 0.1 mM), 20 &#181;L of TPP (working stock concentration = 3 mM, final concentration = 0.3 mM), and 20 &#181;L of NAD+ (working stock concentration = 10 mM, final concentration = 1 mM) to each well.</li>
	<li>Remove the AUR reagent from protective tinfoil covering and add 20 &#181;L to each well.</li>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of pyruvate (working stock concentration ranging from 1-100 mM, final concentration for assays = 0.1-10 mM) to wells containing PDHC and &#945;-ketoglutarate (working stock concentration ranging from 1-100 mM, final concentration for assays = 0.1-10 mM) to wells containing KGDHC.</li>
	<li>Click &#34;READ&#34; to start kinetic measurement.</li>
</ol>
6. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Hold down the &#39;CTRL&#39; button on the keyboard and click wells to generate one graph containing all kinetic measurements corresponding to channel 1 (Figure 3A).</li>
	<li>Click &#34;data&#34; in the view icon in the upper right corner for raw values for relative fluorescence units (RFU) measured at the different time points (Figure 3B).</li>
	<li>Export the values for analysis (Table 3).</li>
	<li>Click the &#34;Graph&#34; drop down menu on top right (Figure 3B) to access RFU values associated with the fluorescence channel 2.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 6.1 to 6.3 for channel 2.</li>
</ol>

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J., Gardiner, D., O'Brien, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=2-Oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase+is+a+more+significant+source+of+O2(.-)/H2O2+than+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+in+cardiac+and+liver+tissue.">2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase is a more significant source of O2(.-)/H2O2 than pyruvate dehydrogenase in cardiac and liver tissue.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 97, 501-512 (2016).</li><li>Sies, H., Berndt, C., Jones, D. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+Stress.">Oxidative Stress.</a> Annu Rev Biochem. 86, 715-748 (2017).</li><li>Kuksal, N., Chalker, J., Mailloux, R. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+S-glutathionylation+alters+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+emission+from+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+complex.">Protein S-glutathionylation alters superoxide/hydrogen peroxide emission from pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 106, 302-314 (2017).</li><li>Quinlan, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+2-oxoacid+dehydrogenase+complexes+in+mitochondria+can+produce+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+at+much+higher+rates+than+complex+I.">The 2-oxoacid dehydrogenase complexes in mitochondria can produce superoxide/hydrogen peroxide at much higher rates than complex I.</a> J Biol Chem. 289 (12), 8312-8325 (2014).</li><li>Mailloux, R. J., Craig Ayre, D., Christian, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+mitochondrial+reactive+oxygen+species+production+by+GSH+mediated+S-glutathionylation+of+2-oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase.">Induction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production by GSH mediated S-glutathionylation of 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase.</a> Redox Biol. 8, 285-297 (2016).</li><li>Mailloux, R. J., Gardiner, D., O'Brien, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=2-Oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase+is+a+more+significant+source+of+O2(.-)/H2O2+than+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+in+cardiac+and+liver+tissue.">2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase is a more significant source of O2(.-)/H2O2 than pyruvate dehydrogenase in cardiac and liver tissue.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 97, 501-512 (2016).</li><li>Ambrus, A., Adam-Vizi, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+dihydrolipoamide+dehydrogenase+(E3)+deficiency:+Novel+insights+into+the+structural+basis+and+molecular+pathomechanism.">Human dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3) deficiency: Novel insights into the structural basis and molecular pathomechanism.</a> Neurochem Int. , (2017).</li><li>Young, A., Gardiner, D., Brosnan, M. E., Brosnan, J. T., Mailloux, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+levels+of+formate+activate+mitochondrial+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+release+from+mouse+liver+mitochondria.">Physiological levels of formate activate mitochondrial superoxide/hydrogen peroxide release from mouse liver mitochondria.</a> FEBS Lett. 591 (16), 2426-2438 (2017).</li><li>Fisher-Wellman, K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+glutathione+depletion+reveals+a+novel+role+for+the+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+complex+as+a+key+H2O2-emitting+source+under+conditions+of+nutrient+overload.">Mitochondrial glutathione depletion reveals a novel role for the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex as a key H2O2-emitting source under conditions of nutrient overload.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 65, 1201-1208 (2013).</li><li>Kussmaul, L., Hirst, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+of+superoxide+production+by+NADH:ubiquinone+oxidoreductase+(complex+I)+from+bovine+heart+mitochondria.">The mechanism of superoxide production by NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from bovine heart mitochondria.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103 (20), 7607-7612 (2006).</li><li>Huang, L. 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There is nothing to disclose.

This protocol is advantageous since, 1) it eliminates any competing reactions that may otherwise interfere with H2O2 detection (e.g., antioxidant systems or other sources of ROS), 2) provides a direct assessment of the native rate of ROS release by a flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenase, 3) allows the comparison of the native ROS release rates of two or more purified flavin-based dehydrogenases, 4) can allow for a direct comparison of the rate of ROS release and enzyme activity, and 5) allows screening of selective competitive inhibitors for ROS release. Our group and others have used this method in previous publications to examine the regulation of ROS by allosteric and redox signaling mechanisms prior to conducting experiments with mitochondria or permeabilized muscle14,16,17,19,20.
Modifications and Troubleshooting:
This procedure uses basic equipment available at almost every institution. The approach is also low cost and uses common chemicals available through various suppliers. The buffer composition may vary according to enzyme properties - although, we have found that a basic reaction buffer consisting of sucrose, HEPES, mannitol, and EGTA works well in most applications. Raw values for resorufin fluorescence are typically around 50-500 RFU for a ROS releasing enzyme diluted to 0.1 U/mL. Higher RFU values may indicate the AUR reagent has been auto-oxidized due to exposure to light or repeated freeze-thaw. Therefore, AUR working solutions should be routinely replaced every 2 to 3 weeks (depending on the frequency of use). Impurities in the enzyme preparation or denaturation can lead to lower than normal ROS and NADH readings. Enzyme purity should be routinely monitored by gel electrophoresis. Kinetic properties (Km and Vmax for substrate and NAD+) should also be assessed immediately after purchase or purification of an enzyme and then routinely monitored thereafter. Most of the reagents used in the assay are stable and can be subjected to multiple freeze-thaw cycles. Pyruvate and &#945;-ketoglutarate should be stored in aliquots of 100 &#181;L at -80 &#176;C to avoid auto-oxidation. Avoid using reducing agents like DTT since it forms O2&#9679;-/H2O2 directly through radical formation in PDHC and KGDHC (and potentially other flavoenzymes)17. Assays can be conducted at 37 &#176;C; however, our group has found that conducting these experiments at 25 &#176;C is ideal for providing more consistent data.
Limitations of the Technique:
One major hurdle associated with this technique is access to purified flavin-containing mitochondrial enzymes. Here, we used commercially available KGDHC and PDHC to demonstrate that this technique can be used to directly compare the ROS release capacity and enzyme activity of flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenases. However, most ROS producing flavin-containing enzymes are not commercially available and must be purified in the laboratory. This can be challenging considering some of these enzymes are membrane bound or absorb to the mitochondrial inner membrane. New protocols for the successful purification of membrane-bound flavin-containing enzymes that produce ROS are now available. This includes purification methods for complex I, complex II, and sn-glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase21,22,23. Therefore, even though most of the listed ROS generators may not be commercially available, protocols exist for their isolation and purification. The physiological relevance of the results collected using purified flavin-based enzymes is also a limitation. Therefore, findings collected with purified enzymes should be followed up with assays using isolated mitochondria or permeabilized tissue. Five separate studies used this approach to investigate mechanisms for regulation of ROS release by KGDHC and PDHC14,16,17,19,20. Preliminary results for the role of redox switches in controlling ROS release were initially tested using purified KGDHC and PDHC, and then mechanisms for regulation were further analyzed in liver and cardiac mitochondria and muscle fiber14,16,17,20.
Significance with Respect to Existing Methods:
Measuring ROS release from individual sites of production in mitochondria can be challenging due to the presence of competing side reactions that also produce O2&#9679;-/H2O2 and antioxidant systems that may otherwise lead to the underestimation of native rates. The membrane potential can also alter ROS release rates from various sites and the use of inhibitors can alter electron flow, confounding O2&#9679;-/H2O2 formation measurements. The method presented here allows the direct evaluation of the ROS release capacity from individual enzymes while simultaneously assessing the relationship between native rates of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 and enzyme activity. This inexpensive method can serve as a tool for comparing the native ROS release rates for individual flavin-containing mitochondrial enzymes prior to conducting more sophisticated experiments with mitochondria, cells, or tissue. In addition, the method presented herein can be utilized to pre-screen the effectiveness and selectivity of inhibitors for ROS release prior to conducting assays with isolated mitochondria.
Future Applications:
The method presented herein has been used in five separate studies aimed at investigating control over ROS release from PDHC and KGDHC14,16,17,19,20. In these studies, inhibitors were screened and ROS release and NADH producing rates were evaluated using purified enzymes. Results collected with the purified enzymes were then verified using isolated mitochondria and permeabilized muscle fibers14,16,17,20. Therefore, this method can be applied to a number of future studies aimed at studying native ROS release rates from mitochondria, cells, and muscle fibers.
Critical Steps in the Protocol:
Enzyme purity and its kinetic properties should be routinely monitored. The AUR working stock reagent should also be replaced frequently. This will ensure results collected are consistent. The order of addition of reagents is vital for running a successful experiment (Table 1). Inhibitors should be titrated to determine the concentration required to elicit maximum inhibition of ROS release. In this study, we chose 10 mM KMV and 150 &#181;M CPI-613 since we had previously determined that these concentrations induce maximal inhibition of ROS release by KGDHC and PDHC13.

The ultimate goal of nutrient metabolism is to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In mammalian cells, this occurs in mitochondria, double-membraned organelles that convert the energy stored in carbon into ATP. The production of ATP begins when carbon is combusted by mitochondria forming two electron carriers, NADH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2)1. NADH and FADH2 are then oxidized by multi-subunit respiratory complexes I and II, respectively, and the liberated electrons are ferried to the terminal electron acceptor molecular oxygen (O2) at complex IV1. The thermodynamically favorable &#34;downhill&#34; transfer of electrons to O2 at the end of the chain is coupled to the export of protons into the intermembrane space by complexes I, III, and IV. This creates a transmembrane electrochemical gradient of protons (proton-motive force), a temporary form of Gibbs free energy that is tapped by complex V to make ATP2. Electron transfer reactions in mitochondria are not perfectly coupled to ATP production. At various points in the Krebs cycle and the respiratory chain, electrons can prematurely interact with O2 to form ROS3. The most biologically relevant ROS generated by mitochondria are O2&#9679;- and H2O2. Although O2&#9679;- is often considered the proximal ROS formed by mitochondria, it is now evident that sites of production form a mixture of O2&#9679;- and H2O2, which is associated with the free radical chemistry of flavin prosthetic groups4,5. At high levels, ROS can be dangerous, damaging biological constituents required for cell function resulting in oxidative distress6. However, at low amounts, mitochondrial ROS fulfill vital signaling functions. For instance, H2O2 release from mitochondria has been implicated in controlling T-cell activation, stress signaling (e.g., induction of Nrf2 signaling pathways), the induction of cell proliferation and differentiation, insulin signaling and release, and feeding behavior7. Considerable progress has been made in understanding the signaling function of ROS. However, important questions still remain in regard to which enzymes in mitochondria serve as the most important sources and how production is controlled.
ROS release by a site of production depends on several factors: 1) the concentration of the electron donating site, 2) the redox state of the electron donating site, 3) access to oxygen, and 4) the concentration and type of oxidation substrate3,8,9. In mitochondria, other factors like the concentration of NADH and membrane potential strength also influence ROS production8,10. For example, the rate of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production by purified PDHC or KGDHC increases with increasing NADH availability5,11. In this scenario, electrons are flowing backwards from NADH to the FAD center in the E3 subunit of PDHC or KGDHC, the site for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production12. Similarly, the provision of NAD+ has the opposite effect, decreasing ROS release from KGDHC12. Thus, controlling entry or exit of electrons from sites of ROS production can alter how much O2&#9679;-/H2O2 is formed. For instance, blocking the E2 subunit of PDHC or KGDHC with CPI-613, a lipoic acid analog, results in an almost 90% decrease in O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production13. Similar results can be obtained with the chemical S-glutathionylation catalysts, diamide and disulfiram, which almost abolish O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production by PDHC or KGDHC via the conjugation of glutathione to the E2 subunit14. The trade-off for blocking electron flow through the E2 subunit of PDHC and KGDHC is a decrease in NADH production which diminishes ROS formation by the electron transport chain (e.g., complex III). This can also decrease ATP output by the electron transport chain. Overall, blocking electron entry to sites of ROS production can be a highly effective means of controlling O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production.
Mitochondria can contain up to 12 potential O2&#9679;-/H2O2 sources6. Most of these sites are flavin-containing enzymes which generate a mixture of O2&#9679;- and H2O2. Use of different substrate and inhibitor combinations have allowed for the identification of which respiratory complexes and mitochondrial dehydrogenases serve as high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming sites in different tissues3. PDHC and KGDHC have been shown to serve as high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 emitting sites in muscle and liver mitochondria13,15. However, some difficulties remain in regard to the examination of the O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming potential of individual sites in mitochondria and the impact that different substrate and inhibitor combinations have on the activities of the enzymes. This is due to the presence of unwanted side reactions (e.g., formation of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 by sites other than the enzyme of interest), contaminating endogenous nutrients (e.g.,fatty acids) or organelles (e.g., peroxisomes which also form O2&#9679;-/H2O2), and use of inhibitors that lack selectivity, and/or use of compounds that do not fully inhibit ROS production. Certain inhibitors can also alter the mitochondrial bioenergetics and direction of electron flow, and this alters ROS release from other sites of production and confounds results. Absolute rates for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release from individual sites in mitochondria are also difficult to quantify due to the high concentration of O2&#9679;- and H2O2 eliminating enzymes in the matrix and intermembrane space. Therefore, elimination of any competing reactions that can interfere with O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release measurements can be useful when identifying high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming sites.
Here, we present a simple method that allows for the simultaneous examination of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production and NADH formation by purified flavin-dependent dehydrogenases. By using purified enzymes, unwanted ROS forming side reactions and ROS degrading enzymes can be eliminated allowing for a more accurate measure of native O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production rates for individual flavoenzymes. This method can be used to directly compare the O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming capacity of different purified dehydrogenases or to screen potential site-specific inhibitors for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release. Finally, measuring O2&#9679;-/H2O2 and NADH production simultaneously can allow for a real-time assessment of the relationship between enzyme activity and ROS release capacity.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P7032-10UN</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">purified flavoenzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">K1502-20UN</td>
			<td>purified flavoenzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">30% hydrogen peroxide solution</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HX0640-5</td>
			<td>reagent, standard curves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NAD+</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N0632-1G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NADH</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N4505-100MG</td>
			<td>reagent, standard curves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">pyruvate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P2256-5G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">alpha-ketoglutarate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">75892-25G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CoASH</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C3019-25MG</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">thiamine pyrophosphate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C8754-1G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">mannitol</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M4125-100G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Hepes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H3375-25G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S7903-250G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EGTA</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E3889-10G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">KMV</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">198978-5G</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release inhibitor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CPI-613</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Santa Cruz</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">sc-482709</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release inhibitor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">SOD</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9697-15KU</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">horseradish peroxidase</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P8375-1KU</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Amplex Ultra Red</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A36006</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Biotech Synergy 2 microplate reader</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">BioTek Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>microplate reader for assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Gen5 software</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">BioTek Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, used for collection of raw RFU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Graphpad Prism</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Graphpad software</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microsoft EXCEL</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Microsoft</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, data analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simultaneous measurement of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and nadh production by flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenases

It has been reported that mitochondria can contain up to 12 enzymatic sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A majority of these sites include flavin-dependent respiratory complexes and dehydrogenases that produce a mixture of superoxide (O2&#9679;-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Accurate quantification of the ROS-producing potential of individual sites in isolated mitochondria can be challenging due to the presence of antioxidant defense systems&#160;and side reactions that also form O2&#9679;-/H2O2. Use&#160;of nonspecific inhibitors that can disrupt mitochondrial bioenergetics can also compromise measurements by altering&#160;ROS release from other sites of production. Here, we present an easy method for the simultaneous measurement of H2O2 release and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) production by purified flavin-linked dehydrogenases. For our purposes here, we have used purified pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) and &#945;-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) of porcine heart origin as examples. This method allows for an accurate measure of native H2O2 release rates by individual sites of production by eliminating other potential sources of ROS and antioxidant systems. In addition, this method allows for a direct comparison of the relationship between H2O2 release and enzyme activity and the screening of the effectiveness and selectivity of inhibitors for ROS production. Overall, this approach can allow for the in-depth assessment of native rates of ROS release for individual enzymes prior to conducting more sophisticated experiments with isolated mitochondria or permeabilized muscle fiber.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Measurement of Superoxide/Hydrogen Peroxide and NADH Production by Flavin-containing Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases at JoVE.com

Simultaneous Measurement of Superoxide/Hydrogen Peroxide and NADH Production by Flavin-containing Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases

Mitochondria contain several flavin-dependent enzymes that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Monitoring ROS release from individual sites in mitochondria is challenging due to unwanted side reactions. We present an easy, inexpensive method for direct assessment of native rates for ROS release using purified flavoenzymes and microplate fluorometry.

It has been reported that mitochondria can contain up to 12 enzymatic sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A majority of these sites include ...

simultaneous-measurement-superoxidehydrogen-peroxide-nadh-production

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

10.0K Views.  Memorial University of Newfoundland. Mitochondria contain several flavin-dependent enzymes that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Monitoring ROS release from individual sites in mitochondria is challenging due to unwanted side reactions. We present an easy, inexpensive method for direct assessment of native rates for ROS release using purified flavoenzymes and microplate fluorometry.

Video: Simultaneous Measurement of Superoxide/Hydrogen Peroxide and NADH Production by Flavin-containing Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating these studies, reincorporation of detergent-solubilized membrane proteins into liposomes is a stochastic process where protein topology is impossible to enforce. This paper offers an alternative method to these challenging techniques that utilizes a liposome-based scaffold. Protein solubility is enhanced by deletion of the transmembrane domain, and these amino acids are replaced with a tethering moiety, such as a His-tag. This tether interacts with an anchoring group (Ni2+ coordinated by nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA(Ni2+)) for His-tagged proteins), which enforces a uniform protein topology at the surface of the liposome. An example is presented wherein the interaction between Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with an integral membrane protein, Mitochondrial Fission Factor (Mff), was investigated using this scaffold liposome method. In this work, we have demonstrated the ability of Mff to efficiently recruit soluble Drp1 to the surface of liposomes, which stimulated its GTPase activity. Moreover, Drp1 was able to tubulate the Mff-decorated lipid template in the presence of specific lipids. This example demonstrates the effectiveness of scaffold liposomes using structural and functional assays and highlights the role of Mff in regulating Drp1 activity.

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

This paper describes a method for assessing the interactions and assemblies of integral membrane proteins in vitro with various partner factors in a lipid-proximal environment.

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating ...

Laboratory Scale Production and Purification of a Therapeutic Antibody

Ensuring the successful production of a therapeutic antibody begins early on in the development process. The first stage is vector expression of the antibody genes followed by stable transfection into a suitable cell line. The stable clones are subjected to screening in order to select those clones with desired production and growth characteristics. This is a critical albeit time-consuming step in the process. This protocol considers vector selection and sourcing of antibody sequences for the expression of a therapeutic antibody. The methods describe preparation of vector DNA for stable transfection of a suspension variant of human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK-293) cell line, using polyethylenimine (PEI). The cells are transfected as adherent cells in serum-containing media to maximize transfection efficiency, and afterwards adapted to serum-free conditions. Large scale production, setup as batch overgrow cultures is used to yield antibody protein that is purified by affinity chromatography using an automated fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) instrument. The antibody yields produced by this method can provide sufficient protein to begin initial characterization of the antibody. This may include in vitro assay development or physicochemical characterization to aid in the time-consuming task of clonal screening for lead candidates. This method can be transferable to the development of an expression system for the production of biosimilar antibodies.

This protocol describes the production of a therapeutic antibody in a mammalian expression system. The methods described include preparation of vector DNA, stable transfection and serum-free adaptation of a human embryonic kidney 293 cell line, set up of large scale cultures and purification using affinity chromatography.

Ensuring the successful production of a therapeutic antibody begins early on in the development process. The first stage is vector expression of the ...

A Guide to Production, Crystallization, and Structure Determination of Human IKK1/&#945;

A class of extracellular stimuli requires activation of IKK1/&#945; to induce generation of an NF-&#954;B subunit, p52, through processing of its precursor p100. p52 functions as a homodimer or heterodimer with another NF-&#954;B subunit, RelB. These dimers in turn regulate the expression of hundreds of genes involved in inflammation, cell survival, and cell cycle. IKK1/&#945; primarily remains associated with IKK2/&#946; and NEMO as a ternary complex. However, a small pool of it is also observed as a low molecular weight complex(es). It is unknown if the p100 processing activity is triggered by activation of IKK1/&#945; within the larger or the smaller complex pool. Constitutive activity of IKK1/&#945; has been detected in several cancers and inflammatory diseases. To understand the mechanism of activation of IKK1/&#945;, and enable its use as a drug target, we expressed recombinant IKK1/&#945; in different host systems, such as E. coli, insect, and mammalian cells. We succeeded in expressing soluble IKK1/&#945; in baculovirus infected insect cells, obtaining mg quantities of highly pure protein, crystallizing it in the presence of inhibitors, and determining its X-ray crystal structure. Here, we describe the detailed steps to produce the recombinant protein, its crystallization, and its X-ray crystal structure determination.

I&#954;B Kinase 1/&#945; (IKK1/&#945; CHUK) is a Ser/Thr protein kinase that is involved in a myriad of cellular activities primarily through activation of NF-&#954;B transcription factors. Here, we describe the main steps necessary for the production and crystal structure determination of this protein.

A class of extracellular stimuli requires activation of IKK1/&#945; to induce generation of an NF-&#954;B subunit, p52, through processing of its ...

Analyses of Mitochondrial Calcium Influx in Isolated Mitochondria and Cultured Cells

Ca2+ handling by mitochondria is a critical function regulating both physiological and pathophysiological processes in a broad spectrum of cells. The ability to accurately measure the influx and efflux of Ca2+ from mitochondria is important for determining the role of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling in these processes. In this report, we present two methods for the measurement of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling in both isolated mitochondria and cultured cells. We first detail a plate reader-based platform for measuring mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake using the Ca2+ sensitive dye calcium green-5N. The plate reader-based format circumvents the need for specialized equipment, and the calcium green-5N dye is ideally suited for measuring Ca2+ from isolated tissue mitochondria. For our application, we describe the measurement of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in mitochondria isolated from mouse heart tissue; however, this procedure can be applied to measure mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in mitochondria isolated from other tissues such as liver, skeletal muscle, and brain. Secondly, we describe a confocal microscopy-based assay for measurement of mitochondrial Ca2+ in permeabilized cells using the Ca2+ sensitive dye Rhod-2/AM and imaging using 2-dimensional laser-scanning microscopy. This permeabilization protocol eliminates cytosolic dye contamination, allowing for specific recording of changes in mitochondrial Ca2+. Moreover, laser-scanning microscopy allows for high frame rates to capture rapid changes in mitochondrial Ca2+ in response to various drugs or reagents applied in the external solution. This protocol can be applied to measure mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in many cell types including primary cells such as cardiac myocytes and neurons, and immortalized cell lines.

Here, we present two protocols for the measurement of mitochondrial Ca2+ influx in isolated mitochondria and cultured cells. For isolated mitochondria, we detail a plate reader-based Ca2+ import assay using the Ca2+ sensitive dye calcium green-5N. For cultured cells, we describe a confocal microscopy method using the Ca2+ dye Rhod-2/AM.

Ca2+ handling by mitochondria is a critical function regulating both physiological and pathophysiological processes in a broad spectrum of cells. The ...

Measurement of Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption in Permeabilized Fibers of Drosophila Using Minimal Amounts of Tissue

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, represents an emerging model for the study of metabolism. Indeed, drosophila have structures homologous to human organs, possess highly conserved metabolic pathways and have a relatively short lifespan that allows the study of different fundamental mechanisms in a short period of time. It is, however, surprising that one of the mechanisms essential for cellular metabolism, the mitochondrial respiration, has not been thoroughly investigated in this model. It is likely because the measure of the mitochondrial respiration in Drosophila usually requires a very large number of individuals and the results obtained are not highly reproducible. Here, a method allowing the precise measurement of mitochondrial oxygen consumption using minimal amounts of tissue from Drosophila is described. In this method, the thoraxes are dissected and permeabilized both mechanically with sharp forceps and chemically with saponin, allowing different compounds to cross the cell membrane and modulate the mitochondrial respiration. After permeabilization, a protocol is performed to evaluate the capacity of the different complexes of the electron transport system (ETS) to oxidize different substrates, as well as their response to an uncoupler and to several inhibitors. This method presents many advantages compared to methods using mitochondrial isolations, as it is more physiologically relevant because the mitochondria are still interacting with the other cellular components and the mitochondrial morphology is conserved. Moreover, sample preparations are faster, and the results obtained are highly reproducible. By combining the advantages of Drosophila as a model for the study of metabolism with the evaluation of mitochondrial respiration, important new insights can be unveiled, especially when the flies are experiencing different environmental or pathophysiological conditions.

In this paper, a method to measure oxygen consumption using high-resolution respirometry in permeabilized thoraxes of Drosophila is described. This technique requires a minimal amount of tissue compared to the classic mitochondrial isolation technique and the results obtained are more physiologically relevant.

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, represents an emerging model for the study of metabolism. Indeed, drosophila have structures homologous to human ...

Measuring Liver Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption and Proton Leak Kinetics to Estimate Mitochondrial Respiration in Holstein Dairy Cattle

Oxygen consumption, proton motive force (PMF) and proton leak are measurements of mitochondrial respiration, or how well mitochondria are able to convert NADH and FADH into ATP. Since mitochondria are also the primary site for oxygen use and nutrient oxidation to carbon dioxide and water, how efficiently they use oxygen and produce ATP directly relates to the efficiency of nutrient metabolism, nutrient requirements of the animal, and health of the animal. The purpose of this method is to examine mitochondrial respiration, which can be used to examine the effects of different drugs, diets and environmental effects on mitochondrial metabolism. Results include oxygen consumption measured as proton dependent respiration (State 3) and proton leak dependent respiration (State 4). The ratio of State 3 / State 4 respiration is defined as respiratory control ratio (RCR) and can represent mitochondrial energetic efficiency. Mitochondrial proton leak is a process that allows dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation from ADP decreasing the efficiency of ATP synthesis. Oxygen and TRMP+ sensitive electrodes with mitochondrial substrates and electron transport chain inhibitors are used to measure State 3 and State 4 respiration, mitochondrial membrane PMF (or the potential to produce ATP) and proton leak. Limitations to this method are that liver tissue must be as fresh as possible and all biopsies and assays must be performed in less than 10 h. This limits the number of samples that can be collected and processed by a single person in a day to approximately 5. However, only 1 g of liver tissue is needed, so in large animals, such as dairy cattle, the amount of sample needed is small relative to liver size and there is little recovery time needed.

Here, we share methods for measuring mitochondrial oxygen consumption, a defining concept of nutritional energetics, and proton leak, the primary cause of inefficiency in mitochondrial generation of ATP. These results can account for 30% of the energy lost in nutrient utilization to help evaluate mitochondrial function.

Oxygen consumption, proton motive force (PMF) and proton leak are measurements of mitochondrial respiration, or how well mitochondria are able to convert ...

High Sensitivity Measurement of Transcription Factor-DNA Binding Affinities by Competitive Titration Using Fluorescence Microscopy

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing approaches suffer from significant limitations, we have developed a new method for determining TF-DNA binding affinities with high sensitivity on a large scale. The assay relies on the established fluorescence anisotropy (FA) principle but introduces important technical improvements. First, we measure a full FA competitive titration curve in a single well by incorporating TF and a fluorescently labeled reference DNA in a porous agarose gel matrix. Unlabeled DNA oligomer is loaded on the top as a competitor and, through diffusion, forms a spatio-temporal gradient. The resulting FA gradient is then read out using a customized epifluorescence microscope setup. This improved setup greatly increases the sensitivity of FA signal detection, allowing both weak and strong binding to be reliably quantified, even for molecules of similar molecular weights. In this fashion, we can measure one titration curve per well of a multi-well plate, and through a fitting procedure, we can extract both the absolute dissociation constant (KD) and active protein concentration. By testing all single-point mutation variants of a given consensus binding sequence, we can survey the entire binding specificity landscape of a TF, typically on a single plate. The resulting position weight matrices (PWMs) outperform those derived from other methods in predicting in vivo TF occupancy. Here, we present a detailed guide for implementing HiP-FA on a conventional automated fluorescent microscope and the data analysis pipeline.

Here we present a novel method for determining binding affinities at equilibrium and in solution with high sensitivity on a large scale. This improves the quantitative analysis of transcription factor-DNA binding. The method is based on automated fluorescence anisotropy measurements in a controlled delivery system.

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing ...

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

Several methods have been developed to functionally characterize novel membrane transporters. Polyamines are ubiquitous in all organisms, but polyamine exchangers in plants have not been identified. Here, we outline a method to characterize polyamine antiporters using membrane vesicles generated from the lysis of Escherichia coli cells heterologously expressing a plant antiporter. First, we heterologously expressed AtBAT1 in an E. coli strain deficient in polyamine and arginine exchange transporters. Vesicles were produced using a French press, purified by ultracentrifugation and utilized in a membrane filtration assay of labeled substrates to demonstrate the substrate specificity of the transporter. These assays demonstrated that AtBAT1 is a proton-mediated transporter of arginine, &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA), putrescine and spermidine. The mutant strain that was developed for the assay of AtBAT1 may be useful for the functional analysis of other families of plant and animal polyamine exchangers. We also hypothesize that this approach can be used to characterize many other types of antiporters, as long as these proteins can be expressed in the bacterial cell membrane. E. coli is a good system for the characterization of novel transporters, since there are multiple methods that can be employed to mutagenize native transporters.

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

We describe a method for the characterization of proton-driven membrane transporters in membrane vesicle preparations produced by heterologous expression in E. coli and lysis of cells using a French press.

Several methods have been developed to functionally characterize novel membrane transporters. Polyamines are ubiquitous in all organisms, but polyamine ...

A Semi-High-Throughput Adaptation of the NADH-Coupled ATPase Assay for Screening Small Molecule Inhibitors

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would not occur spontaneously. These proteins are crucial for essentially all aspects of cellular life, including metabolism, cell division, responses to environmental changes and movement. The protocol presented here describes a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay that has been adapted to semi-high throughput screening of small molecule ATPase inhibitors. The assay has been applied to cardiac and skeletal muscle myosin II's, two actin-based molecular motor ATPases, as a proof of principle. The hydrolysis of ATP is coupled to the oxidation of NADH by enzymatic reactions in the assay. First, the ADP generated by the ATPase is regenerated to ATP by pyruvate kinase (PK). PK catalyzes the transition of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate in parallel. Subsequently, pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), which catalyzes the oxidation of NADH in parallel. Thus, the decrease in ATP concentration is directly correlated to the decrease in NADH concentration, which is followed by change to the intrinsic fluorescence of NADH. As long as PEP is available in the reaction system, the ADP concentration remains very low, avoiding inhibition of the ATPase enzyme by its own product. Moreover, the ATP concentration remains nearly constant, yielding linear time courses. The fluorescence is monitored continuously, which allows for easy estimation of the quality of data and helps to filter out potential artifacts (e.g., arising from compound precipitation or thermal changes).

A nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay has been adapted to semihigh throughput screening of small molecule myosin inhibitors. This kinetic assay is run in a 384-well microplate format with total reaction volumes of only 20 &#181;L per well. The platform should be applicable to virtually any ADP producing enzyme.

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would ...

Production, Crystallization, and Structure Determination of the IKK-binding Domain of NEMO

NEMO is a scaffolding protein which plays an essential role in the NF-&#954;B pathway by assembling the IKK-complex with the kinases IKK&#945; and IKK&#946;. Upon activation, the IKK complex phosphorylates the I&#954;B molecules leading to NF-&#954;B nuclear translocation and activation of target genes. Inhibition of the NEMO/IKK interaction is an attractive therapeutic paradigm for the modulation of NF-&#954;B pathway activity, making NEMO a target for inhibitors design and discovery. To facilitate the process of discovery and optimization of NEMO inhibitors, we engineered an improved construct of the IKK-binding domain of NEMO that would allow for structure determination of the protein in the apo form and while bound to small molecular weight inhibitors. Here, we present the strategy utilized for the design, expression and structural characterization of the IKK-binding domain of NEMO. The protein is expressed in E. coli cells, solubilized under denaturing conditions and purified through three chromatographic steps. We discuss the protocols for obtaining crystals for structure determination and describe data acquisition and analysis strategies. The protocols will find wide applicability to the structure determination of complexes of NEMO and small molecule inhibitors.

We describe protocols for the structure determination of the IKK-binding domain of NEMO by X-ray crystallography. The methods include protein expression, purification and characterization as well as strategies for successful crystal optimization and structure determination of the protein in its unbound form.