This work was supported by the Thomas F. and Kate Miller Jeffress Memoria Trust (to DEC) and NIH grant R35GM119617 (to DEC). The confocal microscope imaging was performed at the VCU Nanomaterials Characterization Core (NCC) Facility.

1. Obtain Nesprin-2G Sensor DNA and Other Plasmid DNA
<ol>
	<li>Obtain Nesprin-2G TS (tension sensor), Nesprin-2G HL (headless) control, mTFP1, venus, and TSmod from a commercial source. Propagate all the DNA plasmids and purify them using standard E. coli strains, such as DH5-&#945;, as described previously12,13.</li>
</ol>
2. Transfect Cells with Nesprin-2G and Other Plasmid DNA
<ol>
	<li>Grow NIH 3T3 fibroblasts cells to 70-90% confluence in a 6-well cell culture dish in a standard cell culture incubator with temperature (37 &#176;C) and CO2 (5%) regulation. For the cell growth medium, use Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum.</li>
	<li>In a cell culture hood, remove the medium and rinse each well with approximately 1 mL of a reduced-serum cell medium. Add 800 &#181;L of reduced-serum cell medium to each well and place the 6-well chamber in the incubator.</li>
	<li>Pipette 700 &#181;L of reduced-serum cell medium into a 1.5 mL tube with 35 &#181;L of lipid carrier solution to form the &#34;lipomix&#34;. Mix by pipetting. Label the tube with an &#34;L.&#34;</li>
	<li>Gather six 1.5 mL tubes and label them 1 through 6. Pipette 100 &#181;L of reduced-serum cell medium into each tube.
	<ol>
		<li>Using the plasmid DNA concentration from step 1, pipette 2 &#181;g of Nesprin 2G-TS into tubes 1 and 2. Pipette 2 &#181;g of Nesprin-HL into tubes 3 and 4. Pipette 1 &#181;g of mTFP into tube 5. Pipette 1 &#181;g of mVenus into tube 6. Do not re-use pipette tips when pipetting different types of DNA.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pipette 100 &#181;L of the lipomix from the &#34;L&#34; tube into each labeled tube (1-6) and mix by repeated pipetting. Use a clean pipette for each tube. Incubate for 10-20 min.</li>
	<li>Add 200 &#181;L from each labeled tube to a well in the 6-well chamber with 70-90% confluent cells. Label the top of each well with the corresponding DNA added. Place the 6-well chamber in an incubator for 4-6 h.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the medium and add 1-2 mL of reduced-serum cell medium to rinse. Aspirate the reduced-serum cell medium, add 2 mL of trypsin to each well, and place the 6-well dish in the incubator (5-15 min).</li>
	<li>While the cells detach in the incubator, coat 6 glass-bottom viewing dishes with a layer of fibronectin at a concentration of 20 &#181;g/mL dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Allow the dishes to coat the surface in the cell culture hood (approximately 20 min).</li>
	<li>Neutralize the trypsin by adding 2 mL of DMEM once the cells are detached.</li>
	<li>Transfer the contents of each well to a labeled 15-mL centrifuge tube and spin down at 90 x g for 5 min in a swinging rotor centrifuge. Aspirate the supernatant and re-suspend each cell pellet in 1,000 &#181;L of DMEM by pipette mixing.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the fibronectin mixture from the glass dishes and pipette 1,000 &#181;L of each cell suspension onto the glass dishes.</li>
	<li>After the cells settle to the bottom of the glass dishes (~15 min), add another 1 mL of DMEM + 10% FBS + 1% Pen-Strep to each well and place in the cell incubator. Allow the cells to attach and express sensor for at least 18-24 h. 
	NOTE: Cells are transfected using commercial cationic lipid transfection reagents (see the Table of Materials). Alternatively, stable cell lines can be selected by using a plasmid with a gene conferring resistance to a toxin (the pcDNA plasmids for Nesprin-TS and -HL are available on a DNA repository website (see the Table of Materials) provide cells expressing geneticin resistance). Additionally, viral infection methods (lentivirus, retrovirus, or adenovirus) can be utilized to express the sensor in cells that are hard to transfect.</li>
	<li>In addition to Nesprin-TS, transfect additional cells with the Nesprin HL zero-force control, as described in steps 2.1-2.12; TSmod can also be used as a zero-force control and should exhibit similar FRET to Nesprin-HL.</li>
	<li>Transfect cells with mTFP1 and venus to generate spectral fingerprints (see step 4). 
	NOTE: mTFP1 and venus typically express at higher levels than Nesprin-TS, and as such, lower amounts of DNA may need to be transfected to achieve similar expression levels.</li>
</ol>
3. Verify Transfection Efficiency
<ol>
	<li>Roughly 18-24 h after completing the transfection, use an inverted fluorescent microscope to examine the efficiency of transfection by comparing the number of fluorescent cells to the total number of cells in view (usually 5-30%).
	<ol>
		<li>Use a fluorescent microscope equipped with an excitation frequency near 462 nm (mTFP1) or 525 nm (venus) and an emission filter centered near 492 nm (mTFP1) or 525 nm (venus). 
		NOTE: Alternatively, GFP filter sets will capture a combination of mTFP1 and venus emissions and will allow the confirmation of the transfection efficiency.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Image live cells within 48 h after transfection.
	<ol>
		<li>Alternatively, fix cells in 4% paraformaldehyde (in PBS with calcium and magnesium) for 5 min, store in PBS, and view after 48 h8. 
		NOTE: Beyond 48 h, the signal quality and strength decays. Fixing the cells preserves their state, including the FRET being expressed8; however, cells should only be imaged in PBS, as mounting medium may affect FRET14. Fixed cells can only be compared to other fixed cells, as there may be a change in expression. 
		Caution: Paraformaldehyde is toxic. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Capture Spectral Fingerprints of mTFP1 and Venus Fluorophores for Spectral Unmixing
<ol>
	<li>In a cell culture hood, replace the cell medium with imaging medium (HEPES-buffered) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum.</li>
	<li>Place the viewing dishes in a temperature-controlled (37 &#176;C) confocal microscope stage.</li>
	<li>Place the glass viewing dish with mTFP1-transfected cells over the oil objective at 60X magnification with a numerical aperture of 1.4. 
	NOTE: The oil is used on a laser scanning microscope on the 60X objective to closely resemble the refractive index of the glass substrate. The oil is placed on top of the objective lens and comes in direct contact with the glass coverslip.</li>
	<li>Locate mTFP1 expressing cells with a 458 nm excitation source and an emission bandpass filter centered at 500 nm.</li>
	<li>With a fluorescent cell in the field of view, select the spectral detection mode (&#34;Lambda Mode&#34; in the software used here) and capture the spectral image (Figure 3-1); include all frequencies beyond 458 nm using 10 nm increments (Figure 3-3). Select a bright fluorescent region (ROI) on the cell (20-pixel radius). 
	NOTE: The spectral shape of the mTFP1-expressing ROI should remain relatively constant across the cell. If the shape varies considerably, re-adjust the laser and gain settings to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.</li>
	<li>Add the fluorescent ROI mean, normalized intensity to the spectral database by clicking &#34;save spectra to database.&#34;</li>
	<li>Optimize the laser power and gain such that a good signal-to-noise ratio is achieved. Settings will vary for different equipment. Using non-fluorescent, untransfected cells as a background reference, increase the gain and power until the cells are bright, but not beyond the dynamic range of the detector (saturation point). Background cells should not have detectable fluorescence after averaging.</li>
	<li>Repeat the process for the venus-transfected cells with the following exceptions:
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that the excitation frequency is at 515 nm and that the bandpass filter is centered near 530 nm when locating venus-expressing cells.</li>
		<li>In &#34;Spectral Mode,&#34; use an excitation frequency of 515 nm instead of 458 nm.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Capture Unmixed Images
<ol>
	<li>Switch the capturing mode to &#34;Spectral Unmixing.&#34;</li>
	<li>Add the spectral fingerprints of venus and mTFP1 into the unmixing channels (Figure 3, Arrow-2).</li>
	<li>Set the excitation laser back to a 458 nm argon source.</li>
	<li>Place the Nesprin-TS viewing dish above the 60X oil objective.</li>
	<li>After focusing on a fluorescent cell with sufficiently bright expression, adjust the gain and laser power to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio. 
	NOTE: Since the FRET efficiency of Nesprin-TS is near 20%, the unmixed venus image should be substantially dimmer than the unmixed mTFP1 image. Once an acceptable power and gain setting have been determined iteratively, these parameters must remain constant for all images captured.</li>
	<li>Capture a minimum of 15-20 images of Nesprin-TS cells with relatively similar brightness and avoid excessive pixel saturation (all saturated pixels are removed during image processing).</li>
	<li>Repeat the image capturing process with Nesprin-HL cells using identical imaging parameters.</li>
</ol>
6. Image Processing and Ratio Image Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Using open-source ImageJ (FIJI) software (http://fiji.sc/), open native format images using BioFormats Reader.</li>
	<li>Pre-process the images and compute the ratio images using previously established protocols15.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

A method and demonstration of live cell imaging of mechanical tension across Nesprin-2G, a protein in the nuclear LINC complex, was outlined above. Prior to this work, various techniques, such as micropipette aspiration, magnetic-bead cytometry, and microscopic laser-ablation, have been used to apply strain on the cell nucleus and to measure its bulk material properties16,17,18. However, until our recent work, no stud...

Force-sensitive, genetically encoded FRET sensors have recently emerged as an important tool for measuring tensile-based forces in live cells, providing insight into how mechanical forces are applied across proteins1,2,3,4. With these tools, researchers can non-invasively image intracellular forces in living cells using conventional fluorescent microscopes. These sensors consist of a FRET-pair (donor and acceptor fluorescent proteins, most frequently a blue donor and yellow acceptor) separated by an elastic peptide3. In contrast to C- or N-terminal tagging, this sensor is inserted into an internal site of a protein to measure the mechanical force transmitted across the protein, behaving as a molecular strain gauge. Increased mechanical tension across the sensor results in an increased distance between the FRET-pair, resulting in decreased FRET3. As a result, the FRET is inversely related to tensile force.
These fluorescent-based sensors have been developed for focal adhesion proteins (vinculin3 and talin4), cytoskeletal proteins (&#945;-actinin5), and cell-cell junction proteins (E-Cadherin6,7, VE-Cadherin8, and PECAM8). The most frequently used and well-characterized elastic linker in these biosensors is known as TSmod and consists of a repetitive sequence of 40 amino acids, (GPGGA)8, which was derived from the spider silk protein flagelliform. TSmod has been shown to behave as a linear elastic nano-spring, with FRET responsiveness to 1 to 5 pN of tensile force3. Different lengths of flagelliform can be used to alter the dynamic range of TSmod FRET-force sensitivity9. In addition to flagelliform, spectrin repeats5 and villin headpiece peptide (known as HP35)4 have been used as the elastic peptides between FRET-pairs in similar force biosensors4. Finally, a recent report showed that TSmod can also be used to detect compressive forces10.
We recently developed a force sensor for the linker of the nucleo-cytoskeleton (LINC) complex protein Nesprin-2G by using TSmod inserted into a previously developed truncated Nesprin-2G protein known as mini-Nesprin2G (Figure 2C), which behaves similarly to endogenous Nesprin-2G11. The LINC complex contains multiple proteins that lead from the outside to the inside of the nucleus, linking the cytoplasmic cytoskeleton to the nuclear lamina. Nesprin-2G is a structural protein binding to both the actin cytoskeleton in the cytoplasm and to SUN proteins in the perinuclear space. Using our biosensor, we were able to show that Nesprin-2G is subject to actomyosin-dependent tension in NIH3T3 fibroblasts2. This was the first time that force was directly measured across a protein in the nuclear LINC complex, and it is likely to become an important tool to understand the role of force on the nucleus in mechanobiology.
The protocol below provides a detailed methodology of how to use the Nesprin-2G force sensor, including the expression of the Nesprin tension sensor (Nesprin-TS) in mammalian cells, as well as the acquisition and analysis of FRET images of cells expressing Nesprin-TS. Using an inverted confocal microscope equipped with a spectral detector, a description of how to measure sensitized emission FRET using spectral unmixing and ratiometric FRET imaging is provided. The output ratiometric images can be used to make relative quantitative force comparisons. While this protocol is focused on the expression of Nesprin-TS in fibroblasts, it is easily adaptable to other mammalian cells, including both cell lines and primary cells. Furthermore, this protocol as it relates to image acquisition and FRET analysis can readily be adapted to other FRET-based force biosensors that have been developed for other proteins.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Nesprin-TS DNA</td><td>Addgene</td><td>68127</td><td>Retrieve from https://www.addgene.org/68127/</td></tr><tr><td>Nesprin-HL DNA</td><td>Addgene</td><td>68128</td><td>Retrieve from https://www.addgene.org/68128/</td></tr><tr><td>mTFP1 DNA</td><td>Addgene</td><td>54613</td><td>Retrieve from https://www.addgene.org/54613/</td></tr><tr><td>mVenus DNA</td><td>Addgene</td><td>27793</td><td>Retrieve from https://www.addgene.org/27793/</td></tr><tr><td>TSmod DNA</td><td>Addgene</td><td>26021</td><td>Retrieve from https://www.addgene.org/26021/</td></tr><tr><td>Competent Cells</td><td>Bioline</td><td>BIO-85026</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liquid LB Media</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>10855001</td><td>https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/10855001</td></tr><tr><td>Solid LB Bacterial Culture Plates</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>L5667</td><td>http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/l5667?lang=en&amp;amp;region=US</td></tr><tr><td>Ampicillin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A9518</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spectrophotometer</td><td>Biorad</td><td>273 BR 07335</td><td>SmartSpec Plus</td></tr><tr><td>quartz cuvette</td><td>Biorad</td><td>1702504</td><td>Cuvette for SmartSpec Plus</td></tr><tr><td>DNA isolation kit</td><td>Macherey-Nagel</td><td>740412.5</td><td>NucleoBond Xtra Midi Plus</td></tr><tr><td>6-well cell culture dish</td><td>Falcon-Corning</td><td>353046</td><td>Multiwell 6-well Polystrene Culture Dish</td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modified Eagle Medium, (DMEM) cell media</td><td>Gibco</td><td>11995-065</td><td>DMEM(1x)</td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Serum</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>16170-078</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>reduced serum cell media</td><td>Gibco</td><td>31985-070</td><td>Reduced Serum Medium, &quot;optimem&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>Lipid Carrier Solution</td><td>invitrogen</td><td>11668-019</td><td>Lipid Reagent, &quot;Lipofectamine 2000&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>1.5 mL sterile plastic tube</td><td>Denville</td><td>c2170</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>25200-056</td><td>0.25% Trypsin-EDTA (1x)</td></tr><tr><td>glass-bottom microscope viewing dish</td><td>In Vitro Scientific</td><td>D35-20-1.5-N</td><td>35 mm Dish with 20 mm Bottom Well #1.5 glass</td></tr><tr><td>Fibronectin</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>33016015</td><td>fibronectin human protein, plasma</td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14190-144</td><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Phosphate Buffered Saline</td></tr><tr><td>15 mL sterile centrifuge tube</td><td>Greiner bio-one</td><td>188261</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>swinging rotor centrifuge&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo electron</td><td>Centra CL2</td><td>Swinging rotor thermo electron 236</td></tr><tr><td>cell culture biosafety hood</td><td>Forma Scientific</td><td>1284</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>climate controlled cell culture incubator</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>3596</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>inverted LED widefield fluorescent microscope</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>EVOS FL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Clear HEPES buffered imaging media</td><td>Molecular Probes</td><td>A14291DJ</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal bovine Serum</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>10437-028</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Temperature Controlled-Inverted confocal w/458 and 515 nm laser sources&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Zeiss</td><td>&amp;nbsp;LSM 710-w/spectral META detector</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Outgrowth Media</td><td>Newengland Biolabs</td><td>B9020s</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NIH 3T3 Fibroblasts</td><td>ATCC</td><td>CRL-1658</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a protocol for using f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (fret)-force biosensors to measure mechanical forces across the nuclear linc complex

The LINC complex has been hypothesized to be the critical structure that mediates the transfer of mechanical forces from the cytoskeleton to the nucleus. Nesprin-2G is a key component of the LINC complex that connects the actin cytoskeleton to membrane proteins (SUN domain proteins) in the perinuclear space. These membrane proteins connect to lamins inside the nucleus. Recently, a F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-force probe was cloned into mini-Nesprin-2G (Nesprin-TS (tension sensor)) and used to measure tension across Nesprin-2G in live NIH3T3 fibroblasts. This paper describes the process of using Nesprin-TS to measure LINC complex forces in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. To extract FRET information from Nesprin-TS, an outline of how to spectrally unmix raw spectral images into acceptor and donor fluorescent channels is also presented. Using open-source software (ImageJ), images are pre-processed and transformed into ratiometric images. Finally, FRET data of Nesprin-TS is presented, along with strategies for how to compare data across different experimental groups.

Following the protocol above, plasmid DNA was acquired from the DNA repository and transformed into E. coli cells. E. coli expressing the sensor DNA were selected from LB/Ampicillin plates and amplified in a liquid LB broth. Following the amplification of the vectors, DNA plasmids were purified into TRIS-EDTA buffer using a standard, commercially available DNA isolation kit. Using a spectrophotometer, purified DNA was quantified into a standard concentration of &#181;g/m...

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A Protocol for Using F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-force Biosensors to Measure Mechanical Forces across the Nuclear LINC Complex

A number of FRET-based force biosensors have recently been developed, enabling the protein-specific resolution of intracellular force. In this protocol, we demonstrate how one of these sensors, designed for the linker of the nucleoskeleton-cytoskeleton (LINC) complex protein Nesprin-2G can be used to measure actomyosin forces on the nuclear LINC complex.

The LINC complex has been hypothesized to be the critical structure that mediates the transfer of mechanical forces from the cytoskeleton to the nucleus. ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

10.5K Views.  Virginia Commonwealth University. A number of FRET-based force biosensors have recently been developed, enabling the protein-specific resolution of intracellular force. In this protocol, we demonstrate how one of these sensors, designed for the linker of the nucleoskeleton-cytoskeleton (LINC) complex protein Nesprin-2G can be used to measure actomyosin forces on the nuclear LINC complex. 

Video: A Protocol for Using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-force Biosensors to Measure Mechanical Forces across the Nuclear LINC Complex

High Precision FRET at Single-molecule Level for Biomolecule Structure Determination

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule level in multiparameter fluorescence detection (MFD) mode is presented here. MFD maximizes the usage of all &#34;dimensions&#34; of fluorescence to reduce photophysical and experimental artifacts and allows for the measurement of interdye distance with an accuracy up to ~1 &#197; in rigid biomolecules. This method was used to identify three conformational states of the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor to explain the activation of the receptor upon ligand binding. When comparing the known crystallographic structures with experimental measurements, they agreed within less than 3 &#197; for more dynamic biomolecules. Gathering a set of distance restraints that covers the entire dimensionality of the biomolecules would make it possible to provide a structural model of dynamic biomolecules.

A protocol for high-precision FRET experiments at the single molecule level is presented here. Additionally, this methodology can be used to identify three conformational states in the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Determining precise distances is the first step towards building structural models based on FRET experiments.

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule ...

Biochemistry

Multiplexed Single-molecule Force Proteolysis Measurements Using Magnetic Tweezers

The generation and detection of mechanical forces is a ubiquitous aspect of cell physiology, with direct relevance to cancer metastasis1, atherogenesis2 and wound healing3. In each of these examples, cells both exert force on their surroundings and simultaneously enzymatically remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM). The effect of forces on ECM has thus become an area of considerable interest due to its likely biological and medical importance4-7.
	Single molecule techniques such as optical trapping8, atomic force microscopy9, and magnetic tweezers10,11 allow researchers to probe the function of enzymes at a molecular level by exerting forces on individual proteins. Of these techniques, magnetic tweezers (MT) are notable for their low cost and high throughput. MT exert forces in the range of ~1-100 pN and can provide millisecond temporal resolution, qualities that are well matched to the study of enzyme mechanism at the single-molecule level12. Here we report a highly parallelizable MT assay to study the effect of force on the proteolysis of single protein molecules. We present the specific example of the proteolysis of a trimeric collagen peptide by matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1); however, this assay can be easily adapted to study other substrates and proteases.

In this article we describe the use of magnetic tweezers to study the effect of force on enzymatic proteolysis at the single molecule level in a highly parallelizable manner.

The  generation and detection of mechanical forces is a ubiquitous aspect of cell physiology,  with direct relevance to cancer metastasis1, atherogenesis2 ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Investigating Receptor-ligand Systems of the Cellulosome with AFM-based Single-molecule Force Spectroscopy

Cellulosomes are discrete multienzyme complexes used by a subset of anaerobic bacteria and fungi to digest lignocellulosic substrates. Assembly of the enzymes onto the noncatalytic scaffold protein is directed by interactions among a family of related receptor-ligand pairs comprising interacting cohesin and dockerin modules. The extremely strong binding between cohesin and dockerin modules results in dissociation constants in the low picomolar to nanomolar range, which may hamper accurate off-rate measurements with conventional bulk methods. Single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) with the atomic force microscope measures the response of individual biomolecules to force, and in contrast to other single-molecule manipulation methods (i.e.&#160;optical tweezers), is optimal for studying high-affinity receptor-ligand interactions because of its ability to probe the high-force regime (&#62;120 pN). Here we present our complete protocol for studying cellulosomal protein assemblies at the single-molecule level. Using a protein topology derived from the native cellulosome, we worked with enzyme-dockerin and carbohydrate binding module-cohesin (CBM-cohesin) fusion proteins, each with an accessible free thiol group at an engineered cysteine residue. We present our site-specific surface immobilization protocol, along with our measurement and data analysis procedure for obtaining detailed binding parameters for the high-affinity complex. We demonstrate how to quantify single subdomain unfolding forces, complex rupture forces, kinetic off-rates, and potential widths of the binding well. The successful application of these methods in characterizing the cohesin-dockerin interaction responsible for assembly of multidomain cellulolytic complexes is further described.

Cellulosomes are multienzyme complexes designed for digesting cellulose. AFM-based SMFS was used to study the mechanical properties and folding configuration of cellulosome-associated protein assemblies. We present a complete workflow for protein immobilization, data acquisition, and data analysis to study the interactions of individual receptor-ligand complexes involved in cellulosome assembly.

Cellulosomes are discrete multienzyme complexes used by a subset of anaerobic bacteria and fungi to digest lignocellulosic substrates. Assembly of the ...

FIBS-enabled Noninvasive Metabolic Profiling

In the era of computational biology, new high throughput experimental systems are necessary in order to populate and refine models so that they can be validated for predictive purposes. Ideally such systems would be low volume, which precludes sampling and destructive analyses when time course data are to be obtained. What is needed is an in situ monitoring tool which can report the necessary information in real-time and noninvasively. An interesting option is the use of fluorescent, protein-based in vivo biological sensors as reporters of intracellular concentrations. One particular class of in vivo biosensors that has found applications in metabolite quantification is based on F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) between two fluorescent proteins connected by a ligand binding domain. FRET integrated biological sensors (FIBS) are constitutively produced within the cell line, they have fast response times and their spectral characteristics change based on the concentration of metabolite within the cell. In this paper, the method for constructing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines that constitutively express a FIBS for glucose and glutamine and calibrating the FIBS in vivo in batch cell culture in order to enable future quantification of intracellular metabolite concentration is described. Data from fed-batch CHO cell cultures demonstrates that the FIBS was able in each case to detect the resulting change in the intracellular concentration. Using the fluorescent signal from the FIBS and the previously constructed calibration curve, the intracellular concentration was accurately determined as confirmed by an independent enzymatic assay.

A description of how to calibrate F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer integrated biological sensors (FIBS) for in situ metabolic profiling is presented.&#160;The FIBS can be used to measure intracellular levels of metabolites noninvasively aiding in the development of metabolic models and high throughput screening of bioprocess conditions.

In the era of computational biology, new high throughput experimental systems are necessary in order to populate and refine models so that they can be ...

Fluorescence Biomembrane Force Probe: Concurrent Quantitation of Receptor-ligand Kinetics and Binding-induced Intracellular Signaling on a Single Cell

Membrane receptor-ligand interactions mediate many cellular functions. Binding kinetics and downstream signaling triggered by these molecular interactions are likely affected by the mechanical environment in which binding and signaling take place. A recent study demonstrated that mechanical force can regulate antigen recognition by and triggering of the T-cell receptor (TCR). This was made possible by a new technology we developed and termed fluorescence biomembrane force probe (fBFP), which combines single-molecule force spectroscopy with fluorescence microscopy. Using an ultra-soft human red blood cell as the sensitive force sensor, a high-speed camera and real-time imaging tracking techniques, the fBFP is of ~1 pN (10-12 N), ~3 nm and ~0.5 msec in force, spatial and temporal resolution. With the fBFP, one can precisely measure single receptor-ligand binding kinetics under force regulation and simultaneously image binding-triggered intracellular calcium signaling on a single live cell. This new technology can be used to study other membrane receptor-ligand interaction and signaling in other cells under mechanical regulation.

We describe a technique for concurrently measuring force-regulated single receptor-ligand binding kinetics and real-time imaging of calcium signaling in a single T lymphocyte.

Membrane receptor-ligand interactions mediate many cellular functions. Binding kinetics and downstream signaling triggered by these molecular interactions ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser scanning microscopes have become a workhorse for biologists. Commercial systems offer high flexibility in laser power adjustment and detector sensitivity and often combine different detectors to obtain the perfect image. However, the comparison of intensity-based data from different experiments and setups is often impossible due to this flexibility. Biologist-friendly procedures are of advantage and allow for simple and reliable adjustment of laser and detector settings. 
Furthermore, as FRET experiments in living cells are affected by the variability in protein expression and donor-acceptor ratios, protein expression levels must be considered for data evaluation. Described here is a simple protocol for reliable and reproducible FRET measurements, including routines for the estimation of protein expression and adjustment of laser intensity and detector settings. Data evaluation will be performed by calibration with a fluorophore fusion of known FRET efficiency. To improve simplicity, correction factors have been compared that have been obtained in cells and by measuring recombinant fluorescent proteins.

A protocol is provided for setting up a standard confocal laser-scanning microscope for in vivo F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer measurements, followed by data evaluation.

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Mapping: A New Methodology to Elucidate Global Structural Features

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is an established fluorescence-based method used to successfully measure distances in and between biomolecules in vitro as well as within cells. In FRET, the efficiency of energy transfer, measured by changes in fluorescence intensity or lifetime, relates to the distance between two fluorescent molecules or labels. Determination of dynamics and conformational changes from the distances are just some examples of applications of this method to biological systems. Under certain conditions, this methodology can add to and enhance existing X-ray crystal structures by providing information regarding dynamics, flexibility, and adaptation to binding surfaces. We describe the use of FRET and associated distance determinations to elucidate structural properties, through the identification of a binding site or the orientations of dimer subunits. Through judicious choice of labeling sites, and often employment of multiple labeling strategies, we have successfully applied these mapping methods to determine global structural properties in a protein-DNA complex and the SecA-SecYEG protein translocation system. In the SecA-SecYEG system, we have used FRET mapping methods to identify the preprotein-binding site and determine the local conformation of the bound signal sequence region. This study outlines the steps for performing FRET mapping studies, including identification of appropriate labeling sites, discussion of possible labels including non-native amino acid residues, labeling procedures, how to perform measurements, and interpreting the data.

The study details the methodology of FRET mapping including the selection of labeling sites, choice of dyes, acquisition, and data analysis. This methodology is effective at determining binding sites, conformational changes, and dynamic motions in protein systems and is most useful if performed in conjunction with existing 3-D structural information.

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is an established fluorescence-based method used to successfully measure distances in and between ...

Measurement of Force-Sensitive Protein Dynamics in Living Cells Using a Combination of Fluorescent Techniques

Cells sense and respond to physical cues in their environment by converting mechanical stimuli into biochemically-detectable signals in a process called mechanotransduction. A crucial step in mechanotransduction is the transmission of forces between the external and internal environments. To transmit forces, there must be a sustained, unbroken physical linkage created by a series of protein-protein interactions. For a given protein-protein interaction, mechanical load can either have no effect on the interaction, lead to faster disassociation of the interaction, or even stabilize the interaction. Understanding how molecular load dictates protein turnover in living cells can provide valuable information about the mechanical state of a protein, in turn elucidating its role in mechanotransduction. Existing techniques for measuring force-sensitive protein dynamics either lack direct measurements of protein load or rely on the measurements performed outside of the cellular context. Here, we describe a protocol for the F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer-fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRET-FRAP) technique, which enables the measurement of force-sensitive protein dynamics within living cells. This technique is potentially applicable to any FRET-based tension sensor, facilitating the study of force-sensitive protein dynamics in variety of subcellular structures and in different cell types.

Here, we present a protocol for the simultaneous use of F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer-based tension sensors to measure protein load and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching to measure protein dynamics enabling the measurement of force-sensitive protein dynamics within living cells.

Cells sense and respond to physical cues in their environment by converting mechanical stimuli into biochemically-detectable signals in a process called ...

FRET Microscopy for Real-time Monitoring of Signaling Events in Live Cells Using Unimolecular Biosensors

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring of biochemical and signaling events in live cells and tissues. Compared to classical biochemical methods, this novel technology is characterized by high temporal and spatial resolution. FRET experiments use various genetically-encoded biosensors which can be expressed and imaged over time in situ or in vivo1-2. Typical biosensors can either report protein-protein interactions by measuring FRET between a fluorophore-tagged pair of proteins or conformational changes in a single protein which harbors donor and acceptor fluorophores interconnected with a binding moiety for a molecule of interest3-4. Bimolecular biosensors for protein-protein interactions include, for example, constructs designed to monitor G-protein activation in cells5, while the unimolecular sensors measuring conformational changes are widely used to image second messengers such as calcium6, cAMP7-8, inositol phosphates9 and cGMP10-11. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from single commercially available components and how to control the whole setup using the Micro-Manager freeware. This simple but powerful instrument is designed for routine or more sophisticated FRET measurements in live cells. Acquired images are processed using self-written plug-ins to visualize changes in FRET ratio in real-time during any experiments before being stored in a graphics format compatible with the build-in ImageJ freeware used for subsequent data analysis. This low-cost system is characterized by high flexibility and can be successfully used to monitor various biochemical events and signaling molecules by a plethora of available FRET biosensors in live cells and tissues. As an example, we demonstrate how to use this imaging system to perform real-time monitoring of cAMP in live 293A cells upon stimulation with a &beta;-adrenergic receptor agonist and blocker.

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy is a powerful technique for real-time monitoring of signaling events in live cells using various biosensors as reporters. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from commercially available components and how to use it for FRET experiments.

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy  continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring  of biochemical ...

A Protocol for Using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-force Biosensors to Measure Mechanical Forces across the Nuclear LINC Complex

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