Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research of the National Institutes of Health under award numbers R01DE019648, R01DE018234, and R01DE019638.

White Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos), white Leghorn chicken (Gallus gallus) and Japanese quail (Cortunix coturnix japonica) are incubated at 37 &#176;C in a humidified chamber until stage-matched at HH7/817.
1. Preparing the donor tissue
NOTE: Preparation of reagents and tools and how to open eggs for experimental manipulation has been described6.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare DMEM media with neutral red, a glass transfer pipette, and sharpened tungsten needles.</li>
	<li>Expose embryos (as shown in6).</li>
	<li>Harvest tissue grafts from the left side of basal forebrain of stage 7/8 embryos. Use curved sharpened tungsten needles6 to gently incise a piece of the forebrain measuring ~0.3 mm in length by 0.2 mm in width, making sure to not include the underlying endoderm by sliding the needle beneath the forebrain so that the needle is parallel to the axis of the neural tube.</li>
	<li>Using the glass transfer pipette, pick the graft up from the donor embryo.</li>
	<li>Transfer the graft into DMEM containing Neutral Red (0.01% in PBS, 23 &#176;C) for 2 minutes to stain it, and then place the stained graft into DMEM that does not contain Neutral Red until ready for engraftment.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing the host
<ol>
	<li>Incubate fertilized eggs from white Leghorn chicken (Gallus gallus) at 37 &#176;C in a humidified chamber until HH7/8 17.</li>
	<li>Expose embryos (as shown in6).</li>
	<li>Using sharpened tungsten needles, prepare the graft site by gently cutting, then removing a 0.3 mm by 0.2 mm piece of basal forebrain from the left side to accommodate the graft as was done to isolate the donor tissue.</li>
	<li>Take care to avoid excessive disruption of the underlying endoderm, which will be evident as yolk granules will begin to leak through any tear that is made. This takes practice and not all attempts will be successful.</li>
	<li>After transferring to the host6, position the graft to replace the extirpated basal forebrain of the host.</li>
	<li>Place tape tightly over the hole and return the embryo to the 37 &#176;C incubator for the appropriate length of time for analysis.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unique+organization+of+the+frontonasal+ectodermal+zone+in+birds+and+mammals.">Unique organization of the frontonasal ectodermal zone in birds and mammals.</a> Developmental Biology. 325 (1), 200-210 (2009).</li><li>Griffin, J. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fgf8+dosage+determines+midfacial+integration+and+polarity+within+the+nasal+and+optic+capsules.">Fgf8 dosage determines midfacial integration and polarity within the nasal and optic capsules.</a> Developmental Biology. 374 (1), 185-197 (2013).</li><li>Schneider, R. A., Helms, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cellular+and+molecular+origins+of+beak+morphology.">The cellular and molecular origins of beak morphology.</a> Science. 299 (5606), 565-568 (2003).</li><li>Tucker, A. S., Lumsden, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+crest+cells+provide+species-specific+patterning+information+in+the+developing+branchial+skeleton.">Neural crest cells provide species-specific patterning information in the developing branchial skeleton.</a> Evolution &amp; Development. 6 (1), 32-40 (2004).</li><li>Fish, J. L., Schneider, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+species-specific+contributions+to+craniofacial+development+using+quail-duck+chimeras.">Assessing species-specific contributions to craniofacial development using quail-duck chimeras.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (87), (2014).</li><li>Schneider, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+crest+and+the+origin+of+species-specific+pattern.">Neural crest and the origin of species-specific pattern.</a> Genesis. 56 (6-7), 23219 (2018).</li><li>Sohal, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+reciprocal+forebrain+transplantation+on+motility+and+hatching+in+chick+and+duck+embryos.">Effects of reciprocal forebrain transplantation on motility and hatching in chick and duck embryos.</a> Brain Research. 113 (1), 35-43 (1976).</li><li>Chen, C. C., Balaban, E., Jarvis, E. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interspecies+avian+brain+chimeras+reveal+that+large+brain+size+differences+are+influenced+by+cell-interdependent+processes.">Interspecies avian brain chimeras reveal that large brain size differences are influenced by cell-interdependent processes.</a> PLoS One. 7 (7), 42477 (2012).</li><li>Hu, D., Marcucio, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+crest+cells+pattern+the+surface+cephalic+ectoderm+during+FEZ+formation.">Neural crest cells pattern the surface cephalic ectoderm during FEZ formation.</a> Developmental Dynamics. 241 (4), 732-740 (2012).</li><li>Hu, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signals+from+the+brain+induce+variation+in+avian+facial+shape.">Signals from the brain induce variation in avian facial shape.</a> Developmental Dynamics. 244 (9), 1133-1143 (2015).</li><li>Hamburger, V., Hamilton, H. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+series+of+normal+stages+in+the+development+of+the+chick+embryo.">A series of normal stages in the development of the chick embryo.</a> Journal of Morphology. 88 (1), 49-92 (1951).</li><li>Xu, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Correlations+Between+the+Morphology+of+Sonic+Hedgehog+Expression+Domains+and+Embryonic+Craniofacial+Shape.">Correlations Between the Morphology of Sonic Hedgehog Expression Domains and Embryonic Craniofacial Shape.</a> Evolutionary Biology. 42 (3), 379-386 (2015).</li><li>Eames, B. F., Schneider, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genesis+of+cartilage+size+and+shape+during+development+and+evolution.">The genesis of cartilage size and shape during development and evolution.</a> Development. 135 (23), 3947-3958 (2008).</li><li>Merrill, A. E., Eames, B. F., Weston, S. J., Heath, T., Schneider, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesenchyme-dependent+BMP+signaling+directs+the+timing+of+mandibular+osteogenesis.">Mesenchyme-dependent BMP signaling directs the timing of mandibular osteogenesis.</a> Development. 135 (7), 1223-1234 (2008).</li></ol>

All authors have nothing to disclose.

The method described allows examination of the tissue interactions between the basal forebrain and the adjacent ectoderm. This approach differs from previous forebrain transplant methods, because the donor tissue was restricted to the ventral forebrain. This eliminates transplantation of the neural crest cells, which have been shown to participate in patterning facial morphology9,10. Hence, restricting the graft to the basal forebrain was essential to evaluate the experimental outcomes planned. 
In the previous research that employed forebrain transplants13,14 the presence of extra-neural tissue did not interfere with interpretation of the planned outcome measures, because the outcomes were either behavioral, or specifically tested the host and donor environment on overall brain development. This is an important consideration in designing experiments using these embryological approaches and feasibility must be balanced with rigor. For example, the requirement to exclude the presumptive neural crest cells created significant obstacles to overcome. The transplants had to be performed on early neurula stage embryos. At these stages the endoderm is immediately adjacent to the transplant site, and extreme care had to be taken to avoid damaging the endoderm, because this reduces survival. While it is not clear contamination of the graft by endoderm would impact out outcome measures, the goal was to exclusively isolate the effect of the ventral forebrain on facial development. So, for this purpose the extra rigor was warranted.
Consideration needs to be given to the rate of development of the host and donor species. While differences in the rates of these animals have been used to advantage in assessing the role of neural crest cells in patterning the developing facial skeleton19,20, in this case, the faster developing quail neural tissue created extremely malformed embryos when transplanted into the slower developing duck. This meant chimerism and contamination had to be assessed in another set of chimeras created by grafting quail tissue into chick hosts, and while not ideal, this did provide confidence in the grafting technique.
Overall, creating chimeras to assess tissue interactions during development can be a powerful approach to help understand mechanisms of development. Care needs to be given during the planning stages to ensure the results will be as conclusive as possible, and appropriate controls determined that include normal embryos and other chimeras to account for variation due to surgery. In this case, it was very important to employ quantitative analyses, because the changes observed were subtle.

Much contemporary research in developmental biology focuses on the role of genes in shaping embryos. There are good tools to examine developmental mechanisms from a genetic perspective. However, embryos are assembled and undergo morphogenesis in response to tissue interactions. The avian system is a classic tool used to assess the variety of tissue interactions that regulate development for the following reasons: the embryology is well-understood, the embryos are easily accessible, tools for analysis of avian systems are well-developed, and the embryos are inexpensive.
The avian transplantation system has been widely employed for lineage tracing and to assess tissue interactions during development for almost a century1,2,3,4. This system was used to investigate a signaling center, the Frontonasal Ectodermal Zone (FEZ), that regulates morphogenesis of the upper jaw5, and a video was published describing that technique previously6. In addition to quail-chick, other species have also been used to produce chimeras for analysis of tissue interactions. For example, the mouse FEZ was transplanted from wild type7 and mutant mice8, and others have used a duck, quail and chick systems to assess the role of neural crest in patterning the facial skeleton9,10,11,12.
In this work, the role of the forebrain in regulating the pattern of gene expression in the FEZ by transplanting the ventral forebrain reciprocally among quail, duck, and chick embryos was assessed, because a signal from the forebrain is required to induce Sonic hedgehog expression in the FEZ. Forebrain transplants are not unique in the field. These transplants were used to assess development of motility in quail and duck embryos13, although in these experiments tissues that contributed to non-neural derivatives were also transplanted. In other work, auditory circuits in birds have been assessed by forebrain transplantation14, but these transplants contained presumptive neural crest cells, which contribute to facial shape9,10 and participate in regulating SHH expression in the FEZ15. Hence, a system to transplant just the ventral forebrain from one species of bird to another prior to closure of the neural tube was devised to assess the role of the brain in facial shape16 (Figure 1A,B). This method was devoid of neural crest contamination of the graft. In this article, the method is illustrated and the expected results are described, and the challenges faced are discussed.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1x PBS</td>
			<td>TEK</td>
			<td>TEKZR114</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>35x10 mm Petri dish</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>1008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>11965084</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle holder</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>26016-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neutral Red</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>553-24-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>No. 5 Dumont forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11252-20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur Pipets</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>13-678-6B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QCPN antibody</td>
			<td>Developmental Studies Hybridoma bank, Iowa University, Iowa, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>14058-11</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tungsten Needle</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>26000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

creating avian forebrain chimeras to assess facial development

The avian embryo has been used as a model system for more than a century and has led to fundamental understanding of vertebrate development. One of the strengths of this model system is that the effect of, and interaction among, tissues can be directly assessed in chimeric embryos. We have previously shown that signals from the forebrain contribute to facial morphogenesis by regulating the shape of the expression domain of Sonic hedgehog (SHH) in the Frontonasal Ectodermal Zone (FEZ). In this article, the method of generating the forebrain chimeras and provide illustrations of the outcomes of these experiments is described.

Assessment of Chimerism and Transplant Contamination 
In order to assess the chimeras, the extent of chimerism and contamination of the graft with other cell types should be addressed. Creating chimeras by transplanting quail tissues into chick embryos allows for this type of analysis. Using the QCPN antibody quail cells can be visualized and distinguished from the host tissues (Figure 1 C,D). In this case, only tissues derived from the ventral forebrain were stained with the antibody indicating the graft was not contaminated with other cell types including neural crest. The extent of chimerism could be estimated from these sections using stereology to either count host and donor cells or by assessing the area occupied by the donor and host tissues.
Assessment of Morphological and Molecular Outcomes 
The objective was to assess the impact of the ventral forebrain on facial morphology and SHH expression in the FEZ. Initially, quail tissue was transplanted into duck embryos in order to use QCPN to assess chimerism as described above. However, the faster developing quail brain led to severely deformed chimeras (Figure 2), which precluded this approach in the experiments. Due to this limitation transplanting duck tissues into chicken embryos was used for experimental analysis. While this did not allow assessment of chimerism, the quail chick system was used to do this and confirmed that all of the grafts were comprised only of neural tissue16. The resulting duck-chick chimeras had morphological changes that suggested the brain participated in regulating morphology (Figure 3). The duck side of the transplant appeared to develop slower and appeared more duck-like. A quantitative analysis was used to determine these chimeras were shifted toward duck morphology16. As controls stage matched duck and chick embryos, as well as chick-chick chimeras were used.
Whole mount in situ hybridization was used to assess SHH expression. Similar to morphology, SHH expression on the duck side of the chimera appeared more duck-like (Figure 3). A quantitative analysis18 was also used to show this expression domain was correlated with head shape16.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Transplantation and Assessment of Chimerism in Experimental Embryos 
(A)&#160;Dorsal view of stage 8 chicken embryo stained with neutral red showing the location of the graft and engraftment site. Dotted line is approximate level shown in B. (B) Cross section through a stage 8 chicken embryo after in situ hybridization to show SHH expression. The approximate location of the graft is shown, red dotted box. (C) Immunostaining to detect QCPN in quail-chick chimeras shows the graft is widespread and contributes only to the ventro-lateral neural tube (arrow) and ventral optic cup (arrowhead). (D) Higher magnification in C. Scale bars: A: 500 &#181;m, B: 100 &#181;m, C: 1 mm, D: 200 &#181;m.&#160;<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Assessing Morphology of Quail-Duck Chimeras. 
(A, B) Two examples of quail-duck chimeras at stage 22. These embryos have serious malformations that preclude further analysis. Scale bar: 2 mm&#160;<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Assessing Duck-Chick Chimeras. 
(A)&#160;Normal chick and (B) duck embryos at stage 22 after whole mount in situ hybridization to visualize SHH expression. (C) A chick-chick control shows a pattern of SHH and morphology that resembles a normal chick embryo. (D) A duck-chick chimera shows an altered pattern of SHH expression. On the transplanted side SHH expression (yellow dotted line) is more rounded and resembles the duck pattern. The nasal pit is also more rounded on the transplanted side (yellow arrow) compared to the more &#34;slit&#34; like appearance on the host side (red arrow). The red bar indicates the midline and the transplant is on the right side of the image. Scale bar: 1 mm&#160;<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/62183/62183fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Creating Avian Forebrain Chimeras to Assess Facial Development at JoVE.com

Creating Avian Forebrain Chimeras to Assess Facial Development

This article describes a tissue transplantation technique that was designed to test the signaling and patterning properties of basal forebrain&#160;during craniofacial development.

The avian embryo has been used as a model system for more than a century and has led to fundamental understanding of vertebrate development. One of the ...

creating-avian-forebrain-chimeras-to-assess-facial-development

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Developmental Biology

1.1K Views.  University of California. This article describes a tissue transplantation technique that was designed to test the signaling and patterning properties of basal forebrain during craniofacial development.

Video: Creating Avian Forebrain Chimeras to Assess Facial Development

Optimized Ex-ovo Culturing of Chick Embryos to Advanced Stages of Development

Research in anatomy, embryology, and developmental biology has largely relied on the use of model organisms. In order to study development in live embryos model organisms, such as the chicken, are often used. The chicken is an excellent model organism due to its low cost and minimal maintenance, however they present observational challenges because they are enclosed in an opaque eggshell. In order to properly view the embryo as it develops, the shell must be windowed or removed. Both windowing and ex ovo techniques have been developed to assist researchers in the study of embryonic development. However, each of the methods has limitations and challenges. Here, we present a simple, optimized ex ovo culture technique for chicken embryos that enables the observation of embryonic development from stage HH 19 into late stages of development (HH 40), when many organs have developed. This technique is easy to adopt in both undergraduate classes and more advanced research laboratories where embryo manipulations are conducted.

Optimized Ex-ovo Culturing of Chick Embryos to Advanced Stages of Development

Viewing and accessing the chicken embryo during development can be challenging. We have developed an ex ovo method that is simple, cost effective, and can easily be used in a classroom or research setting. This method provides access to the embryo into late stages of embryonic development (HH 40).

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Immunostaining to Visualize Murine Enteric Nervous System Development

The enteric nervous system is formed by neural crest cells that proliferate, migrate and colonize the gut. Following colonization, neural crest cells must then differentiate into neurons with markers specific for their neurotransmitter phenotype. Cholinergic neurons, a major neurotransmitter phenotype in the enteric nervous system, are identified by staining for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the synthesizing enzyme for acetylcholine. Historical efforts to visualize cholinergic neurons have been hampered by antibodies with differing specificities to central nervous system versus peripheral nervous system ChAT. We and others have overcome this limitation by using an antibody against placental ChAT, which recognizes both central and peripheral ChAT, to successfully visualize embryonic enteric cholinergic neurons. Additionally, we have compared this antibody to genetic reporters for ChAT and shown that the antibody is more reliable during embryogenesis. This protocol describes a technique for dissecting, fixing and immunostaining of the murine embryonic gastrointestinal tract to visualize enteric nervous system neurotransmitter expression.

The enteric nervous system is formed by neural crest cells that proliferate, migrate and colonize the gut. Neural crest cells differentiate into neurons with markers specific for their neurotransmitter phenotype. This protocol describes a technique for dissecting, fixing and immunostaining of the murine embryonic gastrointestinal tract to visualize enteric nervous system neurotransmitter expression.

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Using Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy to Image Zebrafish Eye Development

Light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) is gaining more and more popularity as a method to image embryonic development. The main advantages of LSFM compared to confocal systems are its low phototoxicity, gentle mounting strategies, fast acquisition with high signal to noise ratio and the possibility of imaging samples from various angles (views) for long periods of time. Imaging from multiple views unleashes the full potential of LSFM, but at the same time it can create terabyte-sized datasets. Processing such datasets is the biggest challenge of using LSFM. In this protocol we outline some solutions to this problem. Until recently, LSFM was mostly performed in laboratories that had the expertise to build and operate their own light sheet microscopes. However, in the last three years several commercial implementations of LSFM became available, which are multipurpose and easy to use for any developmental biologist. This article is primarily directed to those researchers, who are not LSFM technology developers, but want to employ LSFM as a tool to answer specific developmental biology questions. 
Here, we use imaging of zebrafish eye development as an example to introduce the reader to LSFM technology and we demonstrate applications of LSFM across multiple spatial and temporal scales. This article describes a complete experimental protocol starting with the mounting of zebrafish embryos for LSFM. We then outline the options for imaging using the commercially available light sheet microscope. Importantly, we also explain a pipeline for subsequent registration and fusion of multiview datasets using an open source solution implemented as a Fiji plugin. While this protocol focuses on imaging the developing zebrafish eye and processing data from a particular imaging setup, most of the insights and troubleshooting suggestions presented here are of general use and the protocol can be adapted to a variety of light sheet microscopy experiments.

Light sheet fluorescence microscopy is an excellent tool for imaging embryonic development. It allows recording of long time-lapse movies of live embryos in near physiological conditions. We demonstrate its application for imaging zebrafish eye development across wide spatio-temporal scales and present a pipeline for fusion and deconvolution of multiview datasets.

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The human cortex is highly expanded and exhibits a complex structure with specific functional areas, providing higher brain function, such as cognition. Efforts to study human cerebral cortex development have been limited by the availability of model systems. Translating results from rodent studies to the human system is restricted by species differences and studies on human primary tissues are hampered by a lack of tissue availability as well as ethical concerns. Recent development in human pluripotent stem cell (PSC) technology include the generation of three-dimensional (3D) self-organizing organotypic culture systems, which mimic to a certain extent human-specific brain development in vitro. Currently, various protocols are available for the generation of either whole brain or brain-region specific organoids. The method for the generation of homogeneous and reproducible forebrain-type organoids from induced PSC (iPSC), which we previously established and describe here, combines the intrinsic ability of PSC to self-organize with guided differentiation towards the anterior neuroectodermal lineage and matrix embedding to support the formation of a continuous neuroepithelium. More specifically, this protocol involves: (1) the generation of iPSC aggregates, including the conversion of iPSC colonies to a confluent monolayer culture; (2) the induction of anterior neuroectoderm; (3) the embedding of neuroectodermal aggregates in a matrix scaffold; (4) the generation of forebrain-type organoids from neuroectodermal aggregates; and (5) the fixation and validation of forebrain-type organoids. As such, this protocol provides an easily applicable system for the generation of standardized and reproducible iPSC-derived cortical tissue structures in vitro.

Cerebral organoids represent a new model system to investigate early human brain development in vitro. This article provides the detailed methodology to efficiently generate homogeneous dorsal forebrain-type organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells including critical characterization and validation steps.

The human cortex is highly expanded and exhibits a complex structure with specific functional areas, providing higher brain function, such as cognition. ...

Organotypic Culture Method to Study the Development Of Embryonic Chicken Tissues

The embryonic chicken is commonly used as a reliable model organism for vertebrate development. Its accessibility and short incubation period makes it ideal for experimentation. Currently, the study of these developmental pathways in the chicken embryo is conducted by applying inhibitors and drugs at localized sites and at low concentrations using a variety of methods. In vitro tissue&#160;culturing is a technique that enables the study of tissues separated from the host organism, while simultaneously bypassing many of the physical limitations present when working with whole embryos, such as the susceptibility of embryos to high doses of potentially lethal chemicals. Here, we present an organotypic culturing protocol for culturing the embryonic chicken half head in vitro, which presents new opportunities for the examination of developmental processes beyond the currently established methods.

Here, we present an organotypic culturing protocol to grow embryonic chicken organs in vitro. Using this method, the development of embryonic chicken tissue can be studied, while maintaining a high degree of control over the culture environment.

The embryonic chicken is commonly used as a reliable model organism for vertebrate development. Its accessibility and short incubation period makes it ...

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and chromosome dynamics. While the germline is an excellent model, the analysis is often two dimensional due to the time and labor required for three-dimensional analysis. Major readouts in such studies are the number/position of nuclei and protein distribution within the germline. Here, we present a method to perform automated analysis of the germline using confocal microscopy and computational approaches to determine the number and position of nuclei in each region of the germline. Our method also analyzes germline protein distribution that enables the three-dimensional examination of protein expression in different genetic backgrounds. Further, our study shows variations in cytoskeletal architecture in distinct regions of the germline that may accommodate specific spatial developmental requirements. Finally, our method enables automated counting of the sperm in the spermatheca of each germline. Taken together, our method enables rapid and reproducible phenotypic analysis of the C. elegans germline.

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and ...

Microinjection-based System for In Vivo Implantation of Embryonic Cardiomyocytes in the Avian Embryo

Interpreting the relative impact of cell autonomous patterning versus extrinsic microenvironmental influence on cell lineage determination represents a general challenge in developmental biology research. In the embryonic heart, this can be particularly difficult as regional differences in the expression of transcriptional regulators, paracrine/juxtacrine signaling cues, and hemodynamic force are all known to influence cardiomyocyte maturation. A simplified method to alter a developing cardiomyocyte's molecular and biomechanical microenvironment would, therefore, serve as a powerful technique to examine how local conditions influence cell fate and function. To address this, we have optimized a method to physically transplant juvenile cardiomyocytes into ectopic locations in the heart or the surrounding embryonic tissue. This allows us to examine how microenvironmental conditions influence cardiomyocyte fate transitions at single cell resolution within the intact embryo. Here, we describe a protocol in which embryonic myocytes can be isolated from a variety of cardiac sub-domains, dissociated, fluorescently labeled, and microinjected into host embryos with high precision. Cells can then be directly analyzed in situ using a variety of imaging and histological techniques. This protocol is a powerful alternative to traditional grafting experiments that can be prohibitively difficult in a moving tissue such as the heart. The general outline of this method can also be adapted to a variety of donor tissues and host environments, and its ease of use, low cost, and speed make it a potentially useful application for a variety of developmental studies.

In this method, embryonic cardiac tissues are surgically microdissected, dissociated, fluorescently labeled, and implanted into host embryonic tissues. This provides a platform for studying the individual or tissue level developmental organization under ectopic hemodynamic conditions, and/or altered paracrine/juxtacrine environments.

Interpreting the relative impact of cell autonomous patterning versus extrinsic microenvironmental influence on cell lineage determination represents a ...

Fast and Efficient Expression of Multiple Proteins in Avian Embryos Using mRNA Electroporation

We report that mRNA electroporation permits fluorescent proteins to label cells in living quail embryos more quickly and broadly than DNA electroporation. The high transfection efficiency permits at least 4 distinct mRNAs to be co-transfected with ~87% efficiency. Most of the electroporated mRNAs are degraded during the first 2 h post-electroporation, permitting time-sensitive experiments to be carried out in the developing embryo. Finally, we describe how to dynamically image live embryos electroporated with mRNAs that encode various subcellular targeted fluorescent proteins.

We report messenger RNA (mRNA) electroporation as a method that permits fast and efficient expression of multiple proteins in the quail embryo model system. This method can be used to fluorescently label cells and record their in vivo movements by time-lapse microscopy shortly after electroporation.

We report that mRNA electroporation permits fluorescent proteins to label cells in living quail embryos more quickly and broadly than DNA electroporation. ...

A Direct and Simple Method to Assess Drosophila melanogaster's Viability from Embryo to Adult

In Drosophila melanogaster, viability assays are used to determine the fitness of certain genetic backgrounds. Allelic variations can result in partial or complete loss of viability at different stages of development. Our lab has developed a method to assess viability in Drosophila from embryo to fully mature adult. The method relies on quantifying the number of progeny present at different stages during development, starting with hatched embryos. After embryos have been quantified, additional stages are counted, including L1/L2, pupae, and mature adults. After all stages have been examined, a statistical analysis such as the chi-square test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between the starting number of progeny (hatched embryos) and later stages culminating in the observed number of adults, thus rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis (that the number of hatched embryos will be equal to the number of larvae, pupae, and adults recorded throughout the stages of development). The primary advantage of this assay is its simplicity and accuracy, as it does not require an embryo rinse to transfer them to the food vial, avoiding losses from technical errors. Although the protocol described here does not directly examine L2/L3 larvae, additional steps can be added to account for these. Comparing the number of hatched embryos, L1, pupae, and adults can help determine if viability was compromised during the L2/L3 stages for further studies (the use of colored food helps with visual identification of larvae). Overall, this method can help Drosophila researchers and educators determine when viability is compromised during the fly life cycle. Routine assessment of stocks using this assay can prevent accumulation of secondary mutations that may affect the phenotype of the originally isolated mutant, especially if the original mutations affect fitness. For this reason, our lab maintains multiple copies of each of our Dm ime4 alleles and routinely checks the purity of each stock with this method in addition to other molecular analyses.&#160;

A Direct and Simple Method to Assess Drosophila melanogaster's Viability from Embryo to Adult

This protocol is designed to assess the viability of Drosophila at every developmental stage, from embryo to adult. The method can be used to determine and compare the viability of different genotypes or growth conditions.

In Drosophila melanogaster, viability assays are used to determine the fitness of certain genetic backgrounds. Allelic variations can result in partial or ...

Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization in Zebrafish Embryos and Tube Formation Assay in iPSC-ECs to Study the Role of Endoglin in Vascular Development

Vascular development is determined by the sequential expression of specific genes, which can be studied by performing in situ hybridization assays in zebrafish during different developmental stages. To investigate the role of endoglin(eng) in vessel formation during the development of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia&#160;(HHT), morpholino-mediated targeted knockdown of eng in zebrafish are used to study its temporal expression and associated functions. Here, whole-mount in situ RNA hybridization (WISH) is employed for the analysis of eng and its downstream genes in zebrafish embryos. Also, tube formation assays are performed in HHT patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell-differentiated&#160;endothelial cells (iPSC-ECs; with eng mutations). A specific signal amplifying system using the whole amount In Situ Hybridization &#8211; WISH provides higher resolution and lower background results compared to traditional methods. To obtain a better signal, the post-fixation time is adjusted to 30 min after probe hybridization. Because fluorescence staining is not sensitive in zebrafish embryos, it is replaced with diaminobezidine (DAB) staining here. In this protocol, HHT&#160;patient-derived iPSC lines containing an eng mutation are differentiated into endothelial cells. After coating a plate with basement membrane matrix for 30 min at 37 &#176;C, iPSC-ECs are seeded as a monolayer into wells and kept at 37 &#176;C for 3 h. Then, the tube length and number of branches are calculated using microscopic images. Thus, with this improved WISH protocol, it is shown that reduced eng expression affects endothelial progenitor formation in zebrafish embryos. This is further confirmed by tube formation assays using iPSC-ECs derived from a patient with HHT. These assays confirm the role for eng in early vascular development.

Presented here is a protocol for whole-mount in situ RNA hybridization analysis in zebrafish and tube formation assay in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells to study the role of endoglin in vascular formation.

Vascular development is determined by the sequential expression of specific genes, which can be studied by performing in situ hybridization assays in ...

Creating Avian Forebrain Chimeras to Assess Facial Development

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Optimized Ex-ovo Culturing of Chick Embryos to Advanced Stages of Development

Immunostaining to Visualize Murine Enteric Nervous System Development

Using Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy to Image Zebrafish Eye Development

Generation of Standardized and Reproducible Forebrain-type Cerebral Organoids from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Organotypic Culture Method to Study the Development Of Embryonic Chicken Tissues

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

Microinjection-based System for In Vivo Implantation of Embryonic Cardiomyocytes in the Avian Embryo

Fast and Efficient Expression of Multiple Proteins in Avian Embryos Using mRNA Electroporation

A Direct and Simple Method to Assess Drosophila melanogaster's Viability from Embryo to Adult

Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization in Zebrafish Embryos and Tube Formation Assay in iPSC-ECs to Study the Role of Endoglin in Vascular Development