The authors thank funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council to AJN.

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	<li>Chen, R., Yung, D., Li, J. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organization+of+ipsilateral+excitatory+and+inhibitory+pathways+in+the+human+motor+cortex.">Organization of ipsilateral excitatory and inhibitory pathways in the human motor cortex.</a> J Neurophysiol. 89 (3), 1256-1264 (2003).</li><li>Criswell, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cram's Introduction to Surface Electromyorgaphy. , (2011).</li><li>Di Lazzaro, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiological+basis+of+transcranial+motor+cortex+stimulation+in+conscious+humans.+Magnetic+stimulation:+motor+evoked+potentials.+The+International+Federation+of+Clinical+Neurophysiology.">The physiological basis of transcranial motor cortex stimulation in conscious humans. Magnetic stimulation: motor evoked potentials. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology.</a> Clin. Neurophysiol. 115 (2), 255-266 (2004).</li><li>Ferbert, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interhemispheric+inhibition+of+the+human+motor+cortex.">Interhemispheric inhibition of the human motor cortex.</a> J Physiol. 453, 525-546 (1992).</li><li>Hallett, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+magnetic+stimulation:+a+primer.">Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a primer.</a> Neuron. 55 (2), 187-199 (2007).</li><li>Huang, Y. Z., Edwards, M. J., Rounis, E., Bhatia, K. P., Rothwell, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Theta+burst+stimulation+of+the+human+motor+cortex.">Theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex.</a> Neuron. 45 (2), 201-206 (2005).</li><li>Jacobs, M., Premji, A., Nelson, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasticity-inducing+TMS+protocols+to+investigate+somatosensory+control+of+hand+function.">Plasticity-inducing TMS protocols to investigate somatosensory control of hand function.</a> Neural Plast. , 350574 (2012).</li><li>Kujirai, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corticocortical+inhibition+in+human+motor+cortex.">Corticocortical inhibition in human motor cortex.</a> 471, 501-519 (1993).</li><li>Miller, D., Nelson, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biomechanics of Sport: A Research Approach. , (1973).</li><li>Nussbaum, M. A., Zhang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heuristics+for+locating+upper+extremity+joint+centres+from+a+reduced+set+of+surface+markers.">Heuristics for locating upper extremity joint centres from a reduced set of surface markers.</a> Human Movement Sciences. 19, 797-816 (2000).</li><li>Rossini, P. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+electrical+and+magnetic+stimulation+of+the+brain,+spinal+cord+and+roots:+basic+principles+and+procedures+for+routine+clinical+application.+Report+of+an+IFCN+committee.">Non-invasive electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain, spinal cord and roots: basic principles and procedures for routine clinical application. Report of an IFCN committee.</a> Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 91 (2), 79-92 (1994).</li><li>Winter, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement. , (2009).</li><li>Zatsiorsky, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Kinetics of Human Motion. , (2002).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The present manuscript details an innovative method to integrate TMS and motion capture systems in the context of a visuo-motor task. To make rapid and meaningful advances in the study of human motor control, it is essential that methodologies allow for precise communication across multiple hardware and software systems. The paradigm presented could be used to study a variety of research interests including the cortical contribution to motor learning, the neurophysiology of motor control, and multi-joint movement control in special populations. For example, we have used this paradigm to study how corticospinal excitability changes with varying magnitudes and directions of interaction torques acting about the shoulder and elbow joints. Interaction torques are present in all "real-world" multi-joint movements and their influence on the movement plan becomes more apparent with faster actions. Individuals with cerebellar ataxia and children with Developmental Coordination Disorder, however, have issues "accounting" for these interaction torques when performing voluntary goal-directed arm movements. The paradigm presented could be used to understand cortical functioning in these populations.
There are several advantages to using the techniques presented. Relative to the high costs associated with a TMS system, the addition of the electromagnetic motion capture system and the necessary software and cables is minimal. Although the demonstrated usage of this system is focused on arm control, it can be adapted to the finger, leg, and even multiple limbs to study increasingly complex movements. Further, future systems can build on this current set-up and be adapted to study three-dimensional movements of the arm or other limbs, and examine human motor control in a variety of contexts. This system also allows the experimenter to have access to corticospinal measurements during multiple phases within a movement sequence, such as the pre-movement, movement onset and later phases of movements, increasing the precision with which these phases can be systematically studied. Although analog signals of EMG activity and joint angle were used in the present demonstration, the software is adaptable to allow any analog signal to trigger TMS pulses throughout the trial. Last, this experimental set-up could be extended for use with paired, multiple, dual-site, and repetitive TMS protocols to allow for advances in the study of brain and behavior.
There are a few critical components of this set-up that require experimenter attention. First, it is very important to locate the motor hotspot to ensure TMS-evoked responses are as focused as possible to evoke activity in the muscles to be studied. To aid with this process, place the coil on the scalp in a location that requires the lowest stimulator intensity to elicit a consistent 1 mV response in the muscle of interest. Second, errors in motion capture sensor placement may create errors in joint kinematics and kinetics calculations. Therefore, the motion capture sensors should be placed over bony landmarks that represent joint centers of rotation. Third, obtain the best representation of each individual's anthropometric data. Errors of determining anthropometric data and subsequent calculations could cause drastic errors in approximating the joint kinetics. Fourth, the head should remain as motionless as possible during the arm movements and the postural muscle should remain relaxed. Head motion can be prevented by a head rest that is available with most TMS equipment. Activity of postural muscles may alter corticospinal excitability and surface EMG can be used to record this activity. Further, to isolate signals obtained from a single muscle EMG electrode placement should avoid pick-up from neighboring muscles. The reader is referred to the electrode placement guidelines provided.2 Last, we have demonstrated an experiment that is focused on discrete arm movements. There are however, movements that may be too complex to provide accurate information of the phenomenon studied using TMS.
The integrative system includes several large and heavy components, thereby limiting its portability and the opportunity to perform testing in non-laboratory environments. There are limitations of the motion capture system used in this study, such as limited sensors, interference with conductive materials and small pick-up range for the sensors, but the software provided in this study is flexible and can be used with other motion capture systems. A future user of this set-up might have reservations about having an electromagnetic motion capture system concurring with TMS. In a small percentage of the trials, the TMS pulse causes a transient artifact in the motion capture data, but this artifact can easily be smoothed offline (a sweep-based data acquisition script file can be obtained from the corresponding author upon request if necessary). Overall, these limitations are minimal, and do not affect the versatility of this set-up to study a number of uncovered areas in brain and behavior.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method to stimulate the human cortex.3,5 There are several TMS protocols that are used to understand cortical function such as single and multiple pulses, dual-site stimulation to probe functional connectivity, and repetitive pulses to promote neural plasticity.4,6-8 TMS protocols may also be combined to advance the present understanding of human cortical processes and guide neural rehabilitation strategies. In addition to stimulating the cortex, TMS can also be used to understand sub-cortical function by stimulation of the corticospinal tract or cerebellum.
One of the largest technical challenges currently facing TMS research is the ability to study the role of cortical areas during goal-directed voluntary movement in humans. Several considerations contribute to this technical challenge. First, TMS delivery should be combined with real-time human motion capture. In this way, TMS pulses can be delivered or triggered by features within a movement sequence providing a time-locked approach to study complex movement. Second, integrating TMS delivery and motion capture permits a detailed characterization of complex movement as it unfolds, which will advance the understanding of brain-behavior relationships that underpin motor control. At present, there are no commercially available systems that inclusively integrate TMS and motion capture methodologies. For neuroscientists in the field of motor control, this void typically translates into time consuming, technical challenges to integrate multiple software and hardware data acquisition and delivery systems. This technical limitation has also resulted in sparse research dedicated to the study of dynamic multi-joint movements involving the upper limb. For TMS to advance the field of human motor control, it is imperative that cortical function be probed during complex human movement.
To effectively integrate TMS and motion capture methodologies, the acquisition system must allow real-time simultaneous TMS and motion capture. Second, the system must be suitable to study movement kinematics (i.e., description of the movement), movement kinetics (i.e., forces that cause movement), and muscle activity. Third, the system must be able to synchronize TMS pulses to these movement features, and be triggered by criteria based on complex movement features. Such a system will provide an essential linkage between cortical function and kinematic and kinetics of movement.
This manuscript details a unique approach to integrate methods of TMS and motion capture. This approach allows detailed analysis of the mechanics of complex multi-joint movements, and permits automated control of TMS pulses triggered by specific features of the movement (i.e., kinematics, kinetics, or muscle activity). Further, this data acquisition system allows for TMS and motion capture to be integrated with experimental paradigms that require visuo-motor or sensorimotor tasks. This manuscript details an innovative approach to integrate commonly used motion capture hardware and software systems for the purpose of combining TMS and human movement acquisition and analysis. Data are presented using a sample study of human cortical functioning during planar multi-joint movement. The software scripts required to perform the experiment are available for download.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="626">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Polhemus FASTRAK</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Polhemus Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">6 degrees of freedom electromagnetic motion tracking device with 4 sensors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Presentation</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Neurobehavioural Systems Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>A fully programmable software for experiments involving data acquisition and stimulus delivery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Cutom built Exoskeleton</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">80/20 Inc. - The industrial erector set</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Varies</td>
			<td>Various parts used to build the exoskeleton</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Brainsight</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Rogue Research Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Neuronavigation software to track coil position throughout the experiment</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

combining multiple data acquisition systems to study corticospinal output and multi-segment biomechanics

Transcranial magnetic stimulation techniques allow for an in-depth investigation into the neural mechanisms that underpin human behavior. To date, the use of TMS to study human movement, has been limited by the challenges related to precisely timing the delivery of TMS to features of the unfolding movement and, also, by accurately characterizing kinematics and kinetics. To overcome these technical challenges, TMS delivery and acquisition systems should be integrated with an online motion tracking system. The present manuscript details technical innovations that integrate multiple acquisition systems to facilitate and advance the use of TMS to study human movement. Using commercially available software and hardware systems, a step-by-step approach to both the hardware assembly and the software scripts necessary to perform TMS studies triggered by specific features of a movement is provided. The approach is focused on the study of upper limb, planar, multi-joint reaching movements. However, the same integrative system is amenable to a multitude of sophisticated studies of human motor control.

Figure 3 displays the results from a single trial. In this trial, Figure 3A shows the initial position of the participant and, after an auditory &#39;go&#39; cue, the participant moved as quickly and accurately as possible to the target (i.e., the final position). The sweep-based data acquisition software triggered a TMS pulse based on EMG onset in the biceps brachii muscle. This permitted the measure of corticospinal output directed to upper arm muscles to be evaluated at a specific time during performance of the task. Figure 3B displays the MEP obtained from each muscle from the single TMS pulse during EMG onset of this trial. The peak-to-peak amplitude of the MEP from the TMS pulse is measured from each muscle. Alternatively, the area of the MEP could be measured. Changes in the MEP size across different movement phases or movement types indicate changes in corticospinal excitability across different tasks or points in time. Using the integrated approach of motion capture and TMS systems, researchers may quantify neural activity originating from motor cortex at a precise moment during the behavior, such as during EMG onset in this example. Further, there can be a delay inserted between the EMG onset and the triggering of TMS delivery (see the sequencer file on lines 88 to 98 and 109 to 117 to insert this delay) to investigate the time course of corticospinal output that may vary throughout the movement. Importantly, other analog signals such as movement kinematics (joint angle, joint velocity, joint acceleration) and sensory cues (visual, auditory) may also be used to trigger TMS delivery.
Figures 3C and 3D display the angular displacement of the shoulder and elbow joint. Figures 3E and 3F display the angular velocity at the shoulder and elbow joint. Figure 3G and 3H display the kinetics at the shoulder and elbow joints. The blue, green, and red lines are the net, muscle, and bone on bone contact moment, respectively. The corticospinal excitability, directed to each muscle, could then be compared to the different movement outcome measures (i.e., movement kinematics and kinetics). These measures are computed based on the motion capture data and the anthropometric data. Additionally, this set-up allows for time-locked TMS pulses to occur at any point prior to or during the movement and can assess changes in corticospinal excitability in relation to certain features of the movement.
Figure 4 shows example MEPs recorded from the biceps brachii (A) and pectoralis major (C), while reaching to a target that requires both biceps brachii and pectoralis major (E) to be active. Figure 4 also shows MEP recorded from triceps brachii (B) and posterior deltoid (D), while reaching to a target that requires both triceps brachii and posterior deltoid (F) to be active.
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/53492/53492fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Representative results from a single trial.&#160;(A) the schematic on the left shows the starting position at the trial beginning, while the schematic on the right shows the end position during the trial. (B) the peak to peak amplitude of the MEP evoked in the upper arm muscles. BB = Biceps Brachii, TB = Triceps Brachii, PM = Pectoralis Major, PD = Posterior Deltoid. (C &#38; D) the angular displacement time profile of the shoulder and elbow joints throughout the trial. The values indicate the rotation (in radians) displaced by a counterclockwise rotation in relation to the right horizontal. An increasing angle indicates flexion, while a decreasing angle indicates extension. (E &#38; F) the angular velocity time profile of the shoulder and elbow joints throughout the trial. (G &#38; H) the moment time profile of the shoulder and elbow joint throughout the trial. The blue line depicts the Net Moment, the red line depicts the Bone on Bone Contact Moment, and the green line depicts the predicted Muscle Moment. Positive values indicate that the moment is acting in the flexor direction (i.e., counterclockwise rotation), while negative values indicate that the moment is acting in the extensor direction (i.e., clockwise rotation). See Supplementary Information 4 for calculation of muscle, bone on bone contact and net moment. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/53492/53492fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/53492/53492fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Representative MEPs recorded from upper arm muscles. MEP recorded from biceps brachii (A) and pectoralis major (C), while reaching to a target that requires activity of both biceps brachii and pectoralis major (E). MEP recorded from triceps brachii (B) and posterior deltoid (D), while reaching to a target that requires activity of both triceps brachii and posterior deltoid (F). <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/53492/53492fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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Combining Multiple Data Acquisition Systems to Study Corticospinal Output and Multi-segment Biomechanics

The use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to study human motor control requires the integration of data acquisition systems to control TMS delivery and simultaneously record human behavior. The present manuscript provides a detailed methodology for integrating data acquisition systems for the purpose of investigating human movement via TMS.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation techniques allow for an in-depth investigation into the neural mechanisms that underpin human behavior. To date, the use ...

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6.8K Views.  McMaster University. The use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to study human motor control requires the integration of data acquisition systems to control TMS delivery and simultaneously record human behavior. The present manuscript provides a detailed methodology for integrating data acquisition systems for the purpose of investigating human movement via TMS. 

Video: Combining Multiple Data Acquisition Systems to Study Corticospinal Output and Multi-segment Biomechanics

Assessment and Evaluation of the High Risk Neonate: The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale

There has been a long-standing interest in the assessment of the neurobehavioral integrity of the newborn infant. The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was developed as an assessment for the at-risk infant. These are infants who are at increased risk for poor developmental outcome because of insults during prenatal development, such as substance exposure or prematurity or factors such as poverty, poor nutrition or lack of prenatal care that can have adverse effects on the intrauterine environment and affect the developing fetus. The NNNS assesses the full range of infant neurobehavioral performance including neurological integrity, behavioral functioning, and signs of stress/abstinence. The NNNS is a noninvasive neonatal assessment tool with demonstrated validity as a predictor, not only of medical outcomes such as cerebral palsy diagnosis, neurological abnormalities, and diseases with risks to the brain, but also of developmental outcomes such as mental and motor functioning, behavior problems, school readiness, and IQ. The NNNS can identify infants at high risk for abnormal developmental outcome and is an important clinical tool that enables medical researchers and health practitioners to identify these infants and develop intervention programs to optimize the development of these infants as early as possible. The video shows the NNNS procedures, shows examples of normal and abnormal performance and the various clinical populations in which the exam can be used.

The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was developed as an assessment for the at-risk infant. The purpose of this article is to describe the NNNS, provide video examples of the NNNS procedures and discuss the ways in which the exam has been used.

There has been a long-standing interest in the assessment of the neurobehavioral integrity of the newborn infant.  The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale ...

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Recent studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal human walking. Part of this evidence encompasses studies, including our previous work, demonstrating that gait kinematics and limb coordination during treadmill walking can be inferred from the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) with reasonably high decoding accuracies. These results provide impetus for development of non-invasive brain-machine-interface (BMI) systems for use in restoration and/or augmentation of gait- a primary goal of rehabilitation research. To date, studies examining EEG decoding of activity during gait have been limited to treadmill walking in a controlled environment. However, to be practically viable a BMI system must be applicable for use in everyday locomotor tasks such as over ground walking and turning. Here, we present a novel protocol for non-invasive collection of brain activity (EEG), muscle activity (electromyography (EMG)), and whole-body kinematic data (head, torso, and limb trajectories) during both treadmill and over ground walking tasks. By collecting these data in the uncontrolled environment insight can be gained regarding the feasibility of decoding unconstrained gait and surface EMG from scalp EEG.

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography EEG, Electromyography EMG, and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Development of an effective brain-machine-interface (BMI) system for restoration and rehabilitation of bipedal locomotion requires accurate decoding of user's intent. Here we present a novel experimental protocol and data collection technique for simultaneous non-invasive acquisition of neural activity, muscle activity, and whole-body kinematics during various locomotion tasks and conditions.

Recent  studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal  human walking. Part of this evidence  encompasses studies, ...

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation

This study used the transcranial magnetic stimulation/motor evoked potential (TMS/MEP) technique to pinpoint when the automatic tendency to mirror someone else's action becomes anticipatory simulation of a complementary act. TMS was delivered to the left primary motor cortex corresponding to the hand to induce the highest level of MEP activity from the abductor digiti minimi (ADM; the muscle serving little finger abduction) as well as the first dorsal interosseus (FDI; the muscle serving index finger flexion/extension) muscles. A neuronavigation system was used to maintain the position of the TMS coil, and electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from the right ADM and FDI muscles. Producing original data with regard to motor resonance, the combined TMS/MEP technique has taken research on the perception-action coupling mechanism a step further. Specifically, it has answered the questions of how and when observing another person's actions produces motor facilitation in an onlooker's corresponding muscles and in what way corticospinal excitability is modulated in social contexts.

Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation over the primary motor cortex, neuronavigation, and registration of electromyographic activity of hand muscles were used in this study to explore corticospinal excitability while participants were observing action sequences.

This study used the transcranial magnetic stimulation/motor evoked potential (TMS/MEP) technique to pinpoint when the automatic tendency to mirror someone ...

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is relatively flexible with respect to participant positioning and allows for some head movements during tasks. Additionally, it is inexpensive, light weight, and portable, with very few contraindications to its use. This presents a unique opportunity to study functional brain activity during motor tasks in individuals who are typically developing, as well as those with movement disorders, such as cerebral palsy. An additional consideration when studying movement disorders, however, is the quality of actual movements performed and the potential for additional, unintended movements. Therefore, concurrent monitoring of both blood flow changes in the brain and actual movements of the body during testing is required for appropriate interpretation of fNIRS results. Here, we show a protocol for the combination of fNIRS with muscle and kinematic monitoring during motor tasks. We explore gait, a unilateral multi-joint movement (cycling), and two unilateral single-joint movements (isolated ankle dorsiflexion, and isolated hand squeezing). The techniques presented can be useful in studying both typical and atypical motor control, and can be modified to investigate a broad range of tasks and scientific questions.

Monitoring brain activity during upright motor tasks is of great value when investigating the neural source of movement disorders. Here, we demonstrate a protocol that combines functional near infrared spectroscopy with continuous monitoring of muscle and kinematic activity during 4 types of motor tasks.

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is ...

Assessing the Multiple Dimensions of Engagement to Characterize Learning: A Neurophysiological Perspective

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: behavioral, emotional and cognitive. They observed that individual types of engagement had not been studied in conjunction, and little information was available about interactions or synergy between the dimensions; consequently, more studies would contribute to creating finely tuned teaching interventions. Benefiting from the recent technological advances in neurosciences, this paper presents a recently developed methodology to gather and synchronize data on multidimensional engagement during learning tasks. The technique involves the collection of (a) electroencephalography, (b) electrodermal, (c) eye-tracking, and (d) facial emotion recognition data on four different computers. This led to synchronization issues for data collected from multiple sources. Post synchronization in specialized integration software gives researchers a better understanding of the dynamics between the multiple dimensions of engagement. For curriculum developers, these data could provide informed guidelines for achieving better instruction/learning efficiency. This technique also opens up possibilities in the field of brain-computer interactions, where adaptive learning or assessment environments could be developed.

This paper aims to describe the techniques involved in the collection and synchronization of the multiple dimensions (behavioral, affective and cognitive) of learners&#8217; engagement during a task.

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: ...

Using Gold-standard Gait Analysis Methods to Assess Experience Effects on Lower-limb Mechanics During Moderate High-heeled Jogging and Running

A limited number of studies have explored lower-limb biomechanics during high-heeled jogging and running, and most studies have failed to clarify the wearing experience of subjects. This protocol describes the differences in lower-limb kinematics and ground reaction force (GRF) between experienced wearers (EW) and inexperienced wearers (IEW) during moderate high-heeled jogging and running. A three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis system with a configured force platform was used to synchronously capture lower-limb joint movements and GRF. 36 young females volunteered to participate in this study and were asked about high-heeled shoe-wearing experience, including frequency, duration, heel types, and heel heights. Eleven who had the experience of 3 to 6 cm heels for a minimum of three days per week (6 h per day) for at least two years and eleven who wore high heels less than twice per month participated. Subjects performed jogging and running at comfortable low and high speeds, respectively, with the right foot completely stepping onto a force platform when passing by along a 10 m walkway. EW and IEW adopted different biomechanical adaptations while jogging and running. IEW exhibited a generally larger range of joint movement, while EW showed a dramatically larger loading rate of GRF during running. Hence, further studies on the lower-limb biomechanics of high-heeled gait should strictly control the wearing experience of the subjects.

This study investigated lower-limb kinematics and ground reaction force (GRF) during moderate high-heeled jogging and running. Subjects were divided into groups of experienced wearers and inexperienced wearers. A three-dimensional motion analysis system with a configured force platform captured lower-limb joint movements and GRF.

A limited number of studies have explored lower-limb biomechanics during high-heeled jogging and running, and most studies have failed to clarify the ...

Reversible Cooling-induced Deactivations to Study Cortical Contributions to Obstacle Memory in the Walking Cat

On complex, naturalistic terrain, sensory information about an environmental obstacle can be used to rapidly adjust locomotor movements for avoidance. For example, in the cat, visual information about an impending obstacle can modulate stepping for avoidance. Locomotor adaptation can also occur independent of vision, as sudden tactile inputs to the leg by an expected obstacle can modify the stepping of all four legs for avoidance. Such complex locomotor coordination involves supraspinal structures, such as the parietal cortex. This protocol describes the use of reversible, cooling-induced cortical deactivation to assess parietal cortex contributions to memory-guided obstacle locomotion in the cat. Small cooling loops, known as cryoloops, are specially shaped to deactivate discrete regions of interest to assess their contributions to an overt behavior. Such methods have been used to elucidate the role of parietal area 5 in memory-guided obstacle avoidance in the cat.

Complex locomotion in naturalistic environments requiring careful coordination of the limbs involves regions of the parietal cortex. The following protocol describes the use of reversible cooling-induced deactivation to demonstrate the role of parietal area 5 in memory-guided obstacle avoidance in the walking cat.

On complex, naturalistic terrain, sensory information about an environmental obstacle can be used to rapidly adjust locomotor movements for avoidance. For ...

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, and issues commands to start or stop feeding. Deciphering the processes underlying the decision-making of timely and moderate feeding carries major implications in our understanding of physiological and psychological disorders related to feeding control. Simple, quantitative, and robust methods are required to measure the food ingestion of animals after experimental manipulation, such as forcibly increasing the activities of certain target neurons. Here, we introduced dye-labeling-based feeding assays to facilitate the neurogenetic study of feeding control in adult fruit flies. We review available feeding assays, and then describe our methods step-by-step from setup to analysis, which combine thermogenetic and optogenetic manipulation of neurons controlling feeding motivation with dye-labeled food intake assay. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of our methods, compared with other feeding assays, to help readers choose an appropriate assay.

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Quantitative food-intake assays with dyed food provide a robust and high-throughput means to evaluate feeding motivation. Combining the food consumption assay with thermogenetic and optogenetic screens is a powerful approach to investigate the neural circuits underlying appetite in adult Drosophila melanogaster.

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, ...

Using the FishSim Animation Toolchain to Investigate Fish Behavior: A Case Study on Mate-Choice Copying In Sailfin Mollies

Over the last decade, employing computer animations for animal behavior research has increased due to its ability to non-invasively manipulate the appearance and behavior of visual stimuli, compared to manipulating live animals. Here, we present the FishSim Animation Toolchain, a software framework developed to provide researchers with an easy-to-use method for implementing 3D computer animations in behavioral experiments with fish. The toolchain offers templates to create virtual 3D stimuli of five different fish species. Stimuli are customizable in both appearance and size, based on photographs taken of live fish. Multiple stimuli can be animated by recording swimming paths in a virtual environment using a video game controller. To increase standardization of the simulated behavior, the prerecorded swimming path may be replayed with different stimuli. Multiple animations can later be organized into playlists and presented on monitors during experiments with live fish.
In a case study with sailfin mollies (Poecilia latipinna), we provide a protocol on how to conduct a mate-choice copying experiment with FishSim. We utilized this method to create and animate virtual males and virtual model females, and then presented these to live focal females in a binary choice experiment. Our results demonstrate that computer animation may be used to simulate virtual fish in a mate-choice copying experiment to investigate the role of female gravid spots as an indication of quality for a model female in mate-choice copying.
Applying this method is not limited to mate-choice copying experiments but can be used in various experimental designs. Still, its usability depends on the visual capabilities of the study species and first needs validation. Overall, computer animations offer a high degree of control and standardization in experiments and bear the potential to &#39;reduce&#39; and &#39;replace&#39; live stimulus animals as well as to &#39;refine&#39; experimental procedures.

Using the FishSim Animation Toolchain to Investigate Fish Behavior: A Case Study on Mate-Choice Copying In Sailfin Mollies

Using the novel FishSim Animation Toolchain, we present a protocol for non-invasive visual manipulation of public information in the context of mate-choice copying in sailfin mollies. FishSim Animation Toolchain provides an easy-to-use framework for the design, animation and presentation of computer-animated fish stimuli for behavioral experiments with live test fish.

Over the last decade, employing computer animations for animal behavior research has increased due to its ability to non-invasively manipulate the ...

Biomechanical Analysis Methods to Assess Professional Badminton Players' Lunge Performance

Under the condition of simulating a badminton court in the laboratory, this study used the injury mechanism model to analyze the maximal right lunge movements of eight professional badminton players and eight amateur players. The purpose of this protocol is to study the differences in kinematics and joint moment of the right knee and ankle. A motion capture system and force plate were used to capture data of the joint movements of the lower extremity and the vertical ground reaction force (vGRF). Sixteen young men who did not have any sports injuries in the past 6 months took part in the study. The subjects performed a maximal right lunge from the start position with their right foot, stepping on and fully contacting with the force plate, hit the shuttlecock with an underhand stroke to the designated position in the backcourt, and then returned to the start/end position. All subjects wore the same badminton shoes to avoid a difference in impact from different badminton shoes. The amateur players showed a greater range of ankle movement and reverse joint moment on the frontal plane, and a larger internal joint rotation moment on the horizontal plane. The professional badminton players exhibited greater knee moment on the sagittal and frontal planes. Therefore, these factors should be considered in the development of the training program to reduce the risk of sports injuries in knee and ankle joints. This study simulates the real badminton court and calibrates the range of activities of each movement of the subjects so that the subjects complete the experimental action in a natural state with high quality. A limitation of this study is that it does not combine joint load and muscle activity. Another limitation is that the sample size is small and should be expanded in future studies. This research method can be applied to the lower limb biomechanical research of other footwork in the badminton project.

Here, we present a protocol to evaluate the differences in injury mechanisms between professional and amateur players when performing a badminton maximal right lunge movement by analyzing lower limb kinematics.

Under the condition of simulating a badminton court in the laboratory, this study used the injury mechanism model to analyze the maximal right lunge ...