This work was funded, in part, by NIH grants HL087653 and HL105314. Some of the methods described in this work were developed in the laboratory of Dr. Robert Mecham at the Washington University School of Medicine.

1. Pressure myograph set-up
<ol>
	<li>Summarized from the manufacturer instructions (Danish Myotechnology). A schematic of the complete system with optional accessories is shown in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Turn on the air tank and myograph control boxes and start the MyoView software (Danish Myotechnology). In the software, load the appropriate diameter calibration file, inflation protocol file and name the file for saving data for the first protocol. Recommended inflation protocols for each age are given in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Choose the required cannulae and suture size for the test system depending on the mouse age. Dimensions of the custom-designed stainless steel cannulae for young and adult mice are shown in Figure 2. Place the bath under the dissecting microscope and mount the cannulae in the test system, being careful not to apply excessive force (&gt; 1 N) to the force transducer.</li>
	<li>Fill the inflow bottle to 150 mL with physiological saline solution (PSS) (Table 2)8. Fill the bath and inflow tubing with PSS. Fill the outflow tubing halfway with PSS. Leaving the outflow bottle empty eliminates having to clean this side of the system. However, if PSS enters this side of the system, clean and flush after use following the manufacturers instructions.</li>
	<li>When the temperature reaches 37.5 &deg;C, place the filled bath on the inverted microscope stage and zero the force transducer using the MyoView software. The force transducer drifts with temperature and location, therefore it is important to zero it in the condition it will be used for testing.</li>
</ol>
2. Carotid dissection
<ol>
	<li>Sacrifice the mouse using approved euthanasia methods (we use CO2 asphyxiation). All methods shown in this protocol have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.</li>
	<li>Secure the mouse by taping the hands and feet to a dissecting board and place under a dissecting microscope. Open the chest to expose the right and left carotid arteries using dissecting scissors and curved forceps. Both arteries can be used for mechanical testing to increase numbers or to provide an internal control for different treatment protocols.</li>
	<li>Carefully clear fat and nearby tissue using curved forceps and fine tweezers until the full length of both carotids from the aorta to the common carotid bifurcation can be visualized (Figure 3). Make sure to keep the arteries moist with PSS during the dissection procedure.</li>
	<li>Cut a piece of 7-0 suture to the desired length using the digital calipers and dissection scissors. Suggested lengths for each age are given in Table 1. Lay the suture on the vessel and use an 18 G needle dipped in activated charcoal to mark the ends of the suture on the vessel (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Make sure that the complete length of the artery is lying in a single horizontal plane, otherwise the in vivo length measurements may be incorrect. The head of the mouse may have to be tilted up to accomplish this. Take a picture of each carotid using a camera connected to the dissection microscope. Using known calibrations, measure the in vivo length using Image J software. The length is measured from the image rather than the suture length because the charcoal markers for the cut sites often cannot be applied directly at the ends of the suture.</li>
	<li>Use a syringe attached to an 18 G needle to inject PSS into the left ventricle and clear all blood out of the carotid arteries. Cut the carotids at the charcoal markers using micro-scissors.</li>
	<li>Place the cut carotids in a petri dish with a small amount of PSS. Remove any fat from the outside of the arteries and let equilibrate for 2 - 3 minutes. Take a picture of each artery (Figure 4B) and use Image J software and known calibrations to measure the ex vivo length. Calculate the in vivo stretch ratio using the in vivo and ex vivo lengths.</li>
	<li>Place the carotids in a microfuge tube filled with PSS until ready for testing. They can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 3 days with no changes in passive mechanical behavior9.</li>
</ol>
3. Mounting an artery in the test system
<ol>
	<li>If the arteries have been in the refrigerator, remove and allow to come to room temperature.</li>
	<li>Place the heated, filled bath under the dissection microscope. Use the micrometer to bring the cannulae tips together until they are just touching and record this value. This is the "zero length" of the micrometer.</li>
	<li>Place a small loop of suture tied with a loose overhand knot on each end of the cannulae. Using fine tweezers, grasp the end of an artery and place it in the bath. Do not use the tweezers on any other part of the artery as the tips may puncture the wall.</li>
	<li>Use two tweezers to hold one end of the artery and slip it over one cannula. For mice &ge; 21 days, tighten the suture knot and repeat the process for the other side. If it is difficult to mount the second side, apply a slight pressure to open up the artery. For mice &lt; 21 days it may be easier to slide the vessel completely onto one side, bring the cannulae together until they are touching, slide the vessel back over the second cannula, separate the cannulae and tighten the suture knot. Avoid twisting the artery during mounting.</li>
	<li>Calculate the necessary micrometer reading for the artery to be at the measured ex vivo length. We tie our arteries onto the cannulae with about 0.6 mm on each side, so our total unstretched artery length can be calculated from the increase in the micrometer distance from the zero length + 1.2 mm. The artery length that will be stretched in the mechanical test protocols does not include the extra 1.2 mm beyond the suture ties. The distance beyond the suture ties may need to be adjusted for different ages.</li>
	<li>Turn the micrometer to set the total artery length to the measured ex vivo distance and note the appearance and the axial force readings. Check the ex vivo length using the digital calipers. The artery should look unstretched (Figure 5) and the force should be close to zero. We have found that setting the artery at the measured ex vivo length is easier than trying to estimate the unloaded length based on zero force measurements or visualization alone.</li>
	<li>Calculate the necessary micrometer reading for the artery length between the suture ties to be at the measured in vivo stretch ratio. Turn the micrometer to set the artery at this length and begin testing protocols. This is the "in vivo testing length" of the artery.</li>
</ol>
4. Testing protocols
<ol>
	<li>Diameter tracking. Place the bath on the inverted microscope stage, position the central portion of the artery over the lens and focus on the edges of the artery wall. Start the diameter tracking in MyoView and check tracking of the outer diameter (Figure 6). The inner diameter will not track well for the carotid artery and must be calculated in the data analysis. Tracking problems can be remedied by ensuring no fat is on the artery wall, adjusting the contrast and brightness of the image and eliminating all bubbles from the fluid tubing.</li>
	<li>Pressure preconditioning. Biologic tissues must be preconditioned to obtain repeatable mechanical loading curves10. We have found that mouse arteries show repeatable behavior after 3 preconditioning cycles. With the artery at the in vivo testing length, manually increase and decrease the pressure 3x from zero to the maximum pressure for the specimen age (Table 1). The artery is pressurized by fluid flowing in from both cannulae. When the artery is at the in vivo stretch ratio, the axial forces should decrease slightly as the pressure is increased11.</li>
	<li>Axial stretch preconditioning. Manually set the pressure to 1/3 of the maximum pressure and stretch the artery axially 3x by manually turning the micrometer from the in vivo stretch ratio to the maximum axial stretch. The maximum axial stretch should be 1.2 x the in vivo testing length for mice &lt; 21 days and 1.4 x the in vivo testing length for mice &ge; 21 days. In preliminary tests, this was the approximate maximum stretch that could be applied without any permanent creep of the artery in the axial direction.</li>
	<li>Pressure protocols. After preconditioning, three pressure and three axial stretch protocols are performed on each artery. With the vessel at the in vivo stretch ratio, run the appropriate inflation protocol for the specimen age (Table 1) to automatically increase pressure from zero to the maximum pressure 3x and record the data. Stretch the artery to half the maximum axial stretch and repeat, recording the data in a new file. At this length, the axial force should remain approximately constant as the pressure increases. Stretch the artery to the maximum axial stretch and repeat. At this length, the axial force should increase as the pressure increases.</li>
	<li>Axial stretch protocols. The Danish Myotechnology myograph system does not have automated axial stretch capabilities. Therefore, this is done manually with care taken to apply the correct stretch distance and a constant stretch rate during each protocol. Set the pressure to 1/3 the maximum pressure, manually stretch the artery to the maximum axial stretch 3x at approximately 10 &mu;m/sec, recording the data in a new file. Set the pressure to 2/3 of the maximum pressure and repeat. Set the pressure equal to the maximum pressure and repeat.</li>
</ol>
5. Unloaded dimensions and opening angles
<ol>
	<li>Remove the artery from the bath and place in a petri dish with PSS.</li>
	<li>Under the dissection microscope, hold one end of the artery with fine tweezers and cut 3 - 5 rings about 0.5 mm thick using a disposable scalpel. Use the tweezers to gently open up each ring into a circle. Take pictures of the most circular rings for unloaded dimension measurements (Figure 7A). Use the micro-scissors or a scalpel to cut each ring at one location and allow it to open into an arc. After 10 minutes to equilibrate to their final shape, take a picture of the open rings for opening angle measurements12 (Figure 7B).</li>
	<li>If desired, fix the remainder of the carotid artery in 10% formalin for histology processing.</li>
</ol>
6. Data analysis
<ol>
	<li>We use custom Matlab (Mathworks Inc.) scripts to plot the pressure, diameter and force versus time for the 3 cycles of each protocol (Figure 8). The software records all data at 1 Hz. The third cycle is used for analysis unless there is something wrong with the data, i.e. the system lost the automatic diameter tracking. Because the axial stretch is manual, we enter the starting and final stretch values in Matlab and assume a constant stretch rate.</li>
	<li>We isolate the loading portion for a single cycle and save the measured pressure, diameter and force data, as well as the calculated axial stretch ratios (Figure 9). For the inflation cycles, the average pressure, diameter and force is calculated for each pressure step. The recorded data can be used to determine differences in the mechanical behavior between arteries.</li>
	<li>The deformed outer diameter, unloaded dimensions and axial stretch ratio are necessary to calculate the deformed inner diameter based on conservation of volume11. Additional calculations include compliance, stiffness, average stress and average strain3. The opening angle measurement is necessary for calculating stress and strain distributions through the wall thickness12. The complete set of six test protocols and the opening angle can be used to fit constitutive equations and fully characterize the mechanical behavior of each artery13-16.</li>
</ol>
7. Clean up
<ol>
	<li>Flush and clean the myograph system according to the manufacturers instructions.</li>
	<li>If there is a suspected clog in a cannula, clear it by inserting fine wire into the cannula tip. Do not try to force fluid through a clogged tip, as this will overload the pressure transducers.</li>
</ol>
8. Representative Results
All results are shown for C57BL6J 3-day-old mouse carotid arteries. Example closed and open rings are shown in Figure 7 for calculating unloaded dimensions and opening angles12. Example raw pressure, diameter and force data versus time are shown in Figure 8. Single loading cycles with no artifacts are isolated from this data for each protocol (Figure 9), which can then be used for further calculations, analyses and modeling to determine differences in the mechanical behavior between arteries3,11,15,16.
<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Approximate age (days)</td>
			<td>Max pressure (mmHg)</td>
			<td>Wait time (sec)</td>
			<td>Pressure steps (mmHg)</td>
			<td>Deflation time (sec)</td>
			<td>Suture length (mm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>8</td>
			<td>9</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>7</td>
			<td>120</td>
			<td>9</td>
			<td>12</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>3.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>140</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>4.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>21</td>
			<td>160</td>
			<td>11</td>
			<td>16</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30 and above</td>
			<td>180</td>
			<td>12</td>
			<td>18</td>
			<td>90</td>
			<td>6</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1. Recommended automatic myograph inflation protocols and suture lengths for different age specimens. The maximum pressure avoids damage to the artery from overinflation, while capturing the nonlinear mechanical behavior, and ranges from 1.5 to 3 times the systolic pressure for each age3. The wait time provides enough time for the system to stabilize at each pressure and allows operator intervention if necessary to correct tracking problems. The pressure steps provide ten steps for each inflation cycle and an overall rate of 1 - 2 mmHg/sec from a starting pressure of 0 mmHg. This is considerably slower than the physiologic loading rate in an adult mouse artery (about 330 mmHg/sec for a 40 mmHg pulse pressure at 600 bpm), but soft biologic tissues are generally insensitive to loading rates over about three orders of magnitude10. Preliminary data showed no differences between mechanical behavior of mouse arteries when pressurized at the maximum rate of the system (approximately 7 mmHg/sec) and the rates listed here11. The deflation time allows the artery to fully return to the starting dimensions, while minimizing total cycle time. The suture length is approximated from the available carotid artery length at each age.
<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemical</td>
			<td>Conc (mM)</td>
			<td>For 1 Liter (g)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>130</td>
			<td>7.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>15</td>
			<td>1.25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose</td>
			<td>5.5</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>4.7</td>
			<td>.35</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4-7H2O</td>
			<td>1.2</td>
			<td>.29</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>1.2</td>
			<td>.16</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>.026</td>
			<td>.01</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2 solution, pH 7.2</td>
			<td>1.6</td>
			<td>1.6 mL of 1M solution</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2. Recipe for physiological saline solution (PSS). All chemicals from Sigma. PSS can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 3 days.
<img alt="Figure 1." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic of the mechanical test system with optional accessories. Used with permission from Danish Myotechnology.
<img alt="Figure 2." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Dimensions of the custom-made cannulae for different aged specimens. All parts are made from 316 stainless steel hypodermic tubing (Small Parts). 7-0 suture should be used to secure the arteries to the large cannulae and 10-0 suture should be used for the small cannulae.
<img alt="Figure 3." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Diagram of the carotid artery dissection. The heart, aorta, right and left common carotid arteries and cut locations for the arteries are shown.
<img alt="Figure 4." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Images of a 3-day-old right common carotid artery in vivo (A) and ex vivo (B). The reference length is determined with a suture and the cut locations are marked with carbon particles. Note the decrease in length upon dissection. Scale bar = 0.25 mm.
<img alt="Figure 5." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. 3-day-old mouse carotid artery mounted on the cannulae in the myograph bath at its unstretched, ex vivo length. Scale bar = 0.2 mm.
<img alt="Figure 6." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6. Screen shot of the MyoView software showing outer diameter tracking of a 3-day-old carotid artery stretched to 1.2 times the in vivo length and pressurized to 0 mmHg (A) and 90 mmHg (B).
<img alt="Figure 7." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7. Example closed (A) and open (B) rings of a 3-day-old carotid artery cut to measure unloaded dimensions and opening angle. Scale bar = 0.1 mm.
<img alt="Figure 8." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8. Example raw pressure, diameter and force data versus time for a single inflation protocol for a 3-day-old carotid artery.
<img alt="Figure 9." src="/files/ftp_upload/3733/3733fig9.jpg" /> 
Figure 9.Example isolated loading cycles showing the recorded pressure, diameter, force and calculated axial stretch for all six mechanical test protocols for a 3-day-old carotid artery. The left panels show the inflation protocols at constant axial stretch (&lambda;z) with respect to the in vivo length and the right panels show the axial stretch protocols at constant pressure (P, mmHg). The manual axial stretch protocols are performed at a faster rate than the automated inflation protocols, so less data points are recorded.

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No conflicts of interest declared.

The protocol presented here provides a straightforward and repeatable method for characterizing the passive mechanical behavior of mouse carotid arteries. Although smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells are critical to the function of smaller, muscular arteries and capillaries, they do not contribute significantly to the mechanical behavior of large elastic arteries. Poisoning the cells with KCN has no significant effect on the pressure-diameter behavior of mouse carotid arteries17. Passive mechanical chara...

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent/equipment</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Air tank and regulator</td>
 <td>Airgas Mid America</td>
 <td>UN3156</td>
 <td>For pressurizing myograph</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pressure myograph and software </td>
 <td>Danish Myotechnology</td>
 <td>110P, MyoView</td>
 <td>With custom cannulae (Figure 2)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Inverted microscope, 5x lens and camera</td>
 <td>Zeiss</td>
 <td>Axiovert 40C</td>
 <td>For tracking artery diameter</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Physiological saline solution (PSS)</td>
 <td>Chemicals from Sigma</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Recipe and details in Table 2</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Surgical tape</td>
 <td>Various suppliers</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For securing the mouse during dissection</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dissection board</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>09-002-24A</td>
 <td>For securing mouse during dissection</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dissecting microscope with camera</td>
 <td>Zeiss</td>
 <td>Stemi 
 2000-C</td>
 <td>For arterial dissection and mounting </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dissecting scissors</td>
 <td>Fine Science Tools</td>
 <td>14058-11</td>
 <td>For cutting skin and opening the chest</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Fine tweezers (2)</td>
 <td>Fine Science Tools</td>
 <td>11200-14</td>
 <td>For grasping artery ends</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Curved forceps</td>
 <td>Fine Science Tools</td>
 <td>11274-20</td>
 <td>For clearing tissue and exposing carotid arteries</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micro-scissors</td>
 <td>Fine Science Tools</td>
 <td>15005-08</td>
 <td>For precise cutting of arteries</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>7-0 and 10-0 silk suture</td>
 <td>Various suppliers</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For estimating length and fastening arteries on cannulae</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Digital calipers</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>806-93-111</td>
 <td>For measuring suture length and checking artery length</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Disposable scalpel</td>
 <td>Feather</td>
 <td>No. 15</td>
 <td>For cutting artery rings</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Activated charcoal</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>C4386-500G</td>
 <td>For marking cut locations on vessels</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>18G Needle</td>
 <td>Beckton-Dickinson</td>
 <td>305136</td>
 <td>For applying activated charcoal to vessels, clearing blood and filling myograph tubing </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>20 mL syringe</td>
 <td>Various suppliers</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For clearing blood and filling myograph tubing</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Petri dish</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>08-757-13B</td>
 <td>For inserting vessels after dissection and testing to take pictures</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Microfuge tube</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>02-682-550</td>
 <td>For storing vessels before testing</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Fine wire</td>
 <td>California Fine Wire Company</td>
 <td>100192</td>
 <td>For clearing clogged cannula</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ImageJ software</td>
 <td>National Health Institute</td>
 <td>www. rsbweb.nih.gov/ij</td>
 <td>Open-source image processing program developed by NIH</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Matlab software</td>
 <td>Mathworks</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Useful for analyzing data and fitting constitutive equations</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>

mechanical testing of mouse carotid arteries: from newborn to adult

The large conducting arteries in vertebrates are composed of a specialized extracellular matrix designed to provide pulse dampening and reduce the work performed by the heart. The mix of matrix proteins determines the passive mechanical properties of the arterial wall1. When the matrix proteins are altered in development, aging, disease or injury, the arterial wall remodels, changing the mechanical properties and leading to subsequent cardiac adaptation2. In normal development, the remodeling leads to a functional cardiac and cardiovascular system optimized for the needs of the adult organism. In disease, the remodeling often leads to a negative feedback cycle that can cause cardiac failure and death. By quantifying passive arterial mechanical properties in development and disease, we can begin to understand the normal remodeling process to recreate it in tissue engineering and the pathological remodeling process to test disease treatments.
	Mice are useful models for studying passive arterial mechanics in development and disease. They have a relatively short lifespan (mature adults by 3 months and aged adults by 2 years), so developmental3 and aging studies4 can be carried out over a limited time course. The advances in mouse genetics provide numerous genotypes and phenotypes to study changes in arterial mechanics with disease progression5 and disease treatment6. Mice can also be manipulated experimentally to study the effects of changes in hemodynamic parameters on the arterial remodeling process7. One drawback of the mouse model, especially for examining young ages, is the size of the arteries. 
	We describe a method for passive mechanical testing of carotid arteries from mice aged 3 days to adult (approximately 90 days). We adapt a commercial myograph system to mount the arteries and perform multiple pressure or axial stretch protocols on each specimen. We discuss suitable protocols for each age, the necessary measurements and provide example data. We also include data analysis strategies for rigorous mechanical characterization of the arteries.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mechanical Testing of Mouse Carotid Arteries: from Newborn to Adult at JoVE.com

Mechanical Testing of Mouse Carotid Arteries: from Newborn to Adult

Passive mechanical testing of mouse carotid arteries is described, with special consideration for adapting to different specimen ages. The procedures include determining the in vivo length of the artery, mounting it in a pressure myograph, recording data, measuring the unloaded dimensions and analyzing the resulting data.

The large conducting arteries in vertebrates are composed of a specialized extracellular matrix designed to provide pulse dampening and reduce the work ...

mechanical-testing-of-mouse-carotid-arteries-from-newborn-to-adult

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

12.7K Views.  Saint Louis University. Passive mechanical testing of mouse carotid arteries is described, with special consideration for adapting to different specimen ages. The procedures include determining the in vivo length of the artery, mounting it in a pressure myograph, recording data, measuring the unloaded dimensions and analyzing the resulting data.

Video: Mechanical Testing of Mouse Carotid Arteries: from Newborn to Adult

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Stress-induced Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing on a Chip

We have developed a rapid microfluidic method for antibiotic susceptibility testing in a stress-based environment. Fluid is passed at high speeds over bacteria immobilized on the bottom of a microfluidic channel. In the presence of stress and antibiotic, susceptible strains of bacteria die rapidly. However, resistant bacteria survive these stressful conditions. The hypothesis behind this method is new: stress activation of biochemical pathways, which are targets of antibiotics, can accelerate antibiotic susceptibility testing. As compared to standard antibiotic susceptibility testing methods, the rate-limiting step -&#160;bacterial growth -&#160;is omitted during antibiotic application. The technical implementation of the method is in a combination of standard techniques and innovative approaches. The standard parts of the method include bacterial culture protocols, defining microfluidic channels in polydimethylsiloxane&#160;(PDMS), cell viability monitoring with fluorescence, and batch image processing for bacteria counting. Innovative parts of the method are in the use of culture media flow for mechanical stress application, use of enzymes to damage but not kill the bacteria, and use of microarray substrates for bacterial attachment. The developed platform can be used in antibiotic and nonantibiotic related drug development and testing. As compared to the standard bacterial suspension experiments, the effect of the drug can be turned on and off repeatedly over controlled time periods. Repetitive observation of the same bacterial population is possible over the course of the same experiment.

We have developed a microfluidic platform for rapid antibiotic susceptibility testing. Fluid is passed at high speeds over bacteria immobilized on the bottom of a microfluidic channel. In the presence of stress and antibiotic, susceptible strains of bacteria die rapidly. However, resistant bacteria can survive these stressful conditions.

We have developed a rapid microfluidic method for antibiotic susceptibility testing in a stress-based environment. Fluid is passed at high speeds over ...

An Improved Mechanical Testing Method to Assess Bone-implant Anchorage

Recent advances in material science have led to a substantial increase in the topographical complexity of implant surfaces, both on a micro- and a nano-scale. As such, traditional methods of describing implant surfaces -&#160;namely numerical determinants of surface roughness -&#160;are inadequate for predicting in vivo performance. Biomechanical testing provides an accurate and comparative platform to analyze the performance of biomaterial surfaces. An improved mechanical testing method to test the anchorage of bone to candidate implant surfaces is presented. The method is applicable to both early and later stages of healing and can be employed for any range of chemically or mechanically modified surfaces -&#160;but not smooth surfaces. Custom rectangular implants are placed bilaterally in the distal femora of male Wistar rats and collected with the surrounding bone. Test specimens are prepared and potted using a novel breakaway mold and the disruption test is conducted using a mechanical testing machine. This method allows for alignment of the disruption force exactly perpendicular, or parallel, to the plane of the implant surface, and provides an accurate and reproducible means for isolating an exact peri-implant region for testing.

An improved method to mechanically test bone anchorage to candidate implant surfaces is presented. This method allows for alignment of the disruption force exactly perpendicular, or parallel, to the plane of the implant surface, and provides an accurate means to direct the disruption forces to an exact peri-implant region.

Recent advances in material science have led to a substantial increase in the topographical complexity of implant surfaces, both on a micro- and a ...

A Method to Estimate Cadaveric Femur Cortical Strains During Fracture Testing Using Digital Image Correlation

This protocol describes the method using digital image correlation to estimate cortical strain from high speed video images of the cadaveric femoral surface obtained from mechanical testing. This optical method requires a texture of many contrasting fiduciary marks on a solid white background for accurate tracking of surface deformation as loading is applied to the specimen. Immediately prior to testing, the surface of interest in the camera view is painted with a water-based white primer and allowed to dry for several minutes. Then, a black paint is speckled carefully over the white background with special consideration for the even size and shape of the droplets. Illumination is carefully designed and set such that there is optimal contrast of these marks while minimizing reflections through the use of filters. Images were obtained through high speed video capture at up to 12,000 frames/s. The key images prior to and including the fracture event are extracted and deformations are estimated between successive frames in carefully sized interrogation windows over a specified region of interest. These deformations are then used to compute surface strain temporally during the fracture test. The strain data is very useful for identifying fracture initiation within the femur, and for eventual validation of proximal femur fracture strength models derived from Quantitative Computed Tomography-based Finite Element Analysis (QCT/FEA).

In this protocol, the femur surface strains are estimated during fracture testing using the digital image correlation technique. The novelty of the method involves application of a high-contrast stochastic speckle pattern on the femur surface, carefully specified illumination, high speed video capture, and digital image correlation analysis for strain calculations.

This protocol describes the method using digital image correlation to estimate cortical strain from high speed video images of the cadaveric femoral ...

A Performance-testing Platform for a Conduction Micropump with an FR-4 Copper-clad Electrode Plate

Here, a conduction micropump with symmetric planar electrode pairs prepared on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) is fabricated. It is used to investigate the influence of chamber dimensions on the performance of a conduction micropump and to determine the reliability of the conduction pump when acetone is used as the working fluid. A testing platform is set up to evaluate conduction micropump performance under different conditions. When the chamber height is 0.2 mm, the pump pressure reaches its peak value.

This paper presents a protocol for the fabrication of a conduction micropump using symmetric planar electrodes on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) to test the influence of chamber dimensions on the performance of a conduction micropump.

Here, a conduction micropump with symmetric planar electrode pairs prepared on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) is ...

A Millimeter Scale Flexural Testing System for Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Marine Sponge Spicules

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the flexural behavior of these LBBSs is important for understanding the origins of their remarkable mechanical functions.
We describe a protocol for performing three-point bending tests using a custom-built mechanical testing device that can measure forces ranging from 10-5 to 101 N and displacements ranging from 10-7 to 10-2 m. The primary advantage of this mechanical testing device is that the force and displacement capacities can be easily adjusted for different LBBSs. The device&#39;s operating principle is similar to that of an atomic force microscope. Namely, force is applied to the LBBS by a load point that is attached to the end of a cantilever. The load point displacement is measured by a fiber optic displacement sensor and converted into a force using the measured cantilever stiffness. The device&#39;s force range can be adjusted by using cantilevers of different stiffnesses.
The device&#39;s capabilities are demonstrated by performing three-point bending tests on the skeletal elements of the marine sponge Euplectella aspergillum. The skeletal elements&#8212;known as spicules&#8212;are silica fibers that are approximately 50 &#181;m in diameter. We describe the procedures for calibrating the mechanical testing device, mounting the spicules on a three-point bending fixture with a &#8776;1.3 mm span, and performing a bending test. The force applied to the spicule and its deflection at the location of the applied force are measured.

We present a protocol for performing three-point bending tests on sub-millimeter scale fibers using a custom-built mechanical testing device. The device can measure forces ranging from 20 &#181;N up to 10 N and can therefore accommodate a variety of fiber sizes.

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the ...

Simultaneous Electrical and Mechanical Stimulation to Enhance Cells' Cardiomyogenic Potential

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in developed countries. Consequently, the demand for effective cardiac cell therapies has motivated researchers in the stem cell and bioengineering fields to develop in vitro high-fidelity human myocardium for both basic research and clinical applications. However, the immature phenotype of cardiac cells is a limitation on obtaining tissues that functionally mimic the adult myocardium, which is mainly characterized by mechanical and electrical signals. Thus, the purpose of this protocol is to prepare and mature the target cell population through electromechanical stimulation, recapitulating physiological parameters. Cardiac tissue engineering is evolving toward more biological approaches, and strategies based on biophysical stimuli, thus, are gaining momentum. The device developed for this purpose is unique and allows individual or simultaneous electrical and mechanical stimulation, carefully characterized and validated. In addition, although the methodology has been optimized for this stimulator and a specific cell population, it can easily be adapted to other devices and cell lines. The results here offer evidence of the increased cardiac commitment of the cell population after electromechanical stimulation. Electromechanically stimulated cells show an increased expression of main cardiac markers, including early, structural, and calcium-regulating genes. This cell conditioning could be useful for further regenerative cell therapy, disease modeling, and high-throughput drug screening.

Here we present a protocol for training a cell population using electrical and mechanical stimuli emulating cardiac physiology. This electromechanical stimulation enhances the cardiomyogenic potential of the treated cells and is a promising strategy for further cell therapy, disease modeling, and drug screening.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in developed countries. Consequently, the demand for effective cardiac cell therapies has motivated ...

Environmental Dynamic Mechanical Analysis to Predict the Softening Behavior of Neural Implants

When using dynamically softening substrates for neural implants, it is important to have a reliable in vitro method to characterize the softening behavior of these materials. In the past, it has not been possible to satisfactorily measure the softening of thin films under conditions mimicking body environment without substantial effort. This publication presents a new and simple method that allows dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of polymers in solutions, such as phosphate buffered saline (PBS), at relevant temperatures. The use of environmental DMA allows measurement of the softening effects of polymers due to plasticization in various media and temperatures, which therefore allows a prediction of the materials behavior under in vivo conditions.

To allow reliable predictions of the softening of polymeric substrates for neural implants in an in vivo environment, it is important to have a reliable in vitro method. Here, the use of dynamic mechanical analysis in phosphate buffered saline at body temperature is presented.

When using dynamically softening substrates for neural implants, it is important to have a reliable in vitro method to characterize the softening behavior ...

The Quantification of Injectability by Mechanical Testing

Injectable biomaterials are becoming increasingly popular for the minimally invasive delivery of drugs and cells. These materials are typically more viscous than traditional aqueous injections and may be semi-solid, therefore, their injectability cannot be assumed. This protocol describes a method to objectively assess the injectability of these materials using a standard mechanical tester. The syringe plunger is compressed by the crosshead at a set rate, and the force is measured. The maximum or plateau force value can then be used for comparison between samples, or to an absolute force limit. This protocol can be used with any material, and any syringe and needle size or geometry. The results obtained may be used to make decisions about formulations, syringe and needle sizes early in the translational process. Further, the effects of altering formulations on injectability may be quantified, and the optimum time to inject temporally changing materials determined. This method is also suitable as a reproducible way to examine the effects of injection on a material, to study phenomena such as self-healing and filter pressing or study the effects of injection on cells. This protocol is faster and more directly applicable to injectability than rotational rheology, and requires minimal post processing to obtain key values for direct comparisons.

Presented here is a protocol for quantitatively evaluating the injectability of a material through a syringe-needle system using a standard mechanical testing rig.

Injectable biomaterials are becoming increasingly popular for the minimally invasive delivery of drugs and cells. These materials are typically more ...

Single-Cell Optical Action Potential Measurement in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Conventional intracellular microelectrode techniques to quantify cardiomyocyte electrophysiology are extremely complex, labor intensive, and typically carried out in low throughput. Rapid and ongoing expansion of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology presents a new standard in cardiovascular research and alternate methods are now necessary to increase throughput of electrophysiological data at a single cell level. VF2.1Cl is a recently derived voltage sensitive dye which provides a rapid single channel, high magnitude response to fluctuations in membrane potential. It possesses kinetics superior to those of other existing voltage indicators and makes available functional data equivalent to that of traditional microelectrode techniques. Here, we demonstrate simplified, non-invasive action potential characterization in externally paced human iPSC derived cardiomyocytes using a modular and highly affordable photometry system.

Here we describe optical acquisition and characterization of action potentials from induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes using a high-speed modular photometry system.

Conventional intracellular microelectrode techniques to quantify cardiomyocyte electrophysiology are extremely complex, labor intensive, and typically ...