Work is our laboratory is supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health.

Preparation
<ul>
<li> Coverslips should be autoclaved.</li>
<li> Sterile distilled or deionized water should be used to prepare solutions and for washing coverslips.</li>
<li> AC (40% w/v) and bis-AC (1% w/v) solutions are sterilized by 0.2 &mu;m filtration. Prepare 10% ammonium persulfate (APS; 100&mu;g/ml water) shortly before use and sterile filter. Replace the APS solution monthly.</li>
<li> Chemical reagents such as 3-APTMS, chloroform, glutaradehyde, NHS, and SurfaSil that cannot be autoclaved are kept in an assigned bottle used solely for the preparation of hydrogels.</li>
<li> For best results, hydrogels should be utilized within a couple of days after the overnight incubation with the appropriate ECM protein.</li>
<li> Prepare a 10% SurfaSil solution in chloroform (10 ml is usually enough for 20 top coverslips) in a 50 ml polypropylene Falcon tube prior to pouring of hydrogel. (Our lab usually siliconizes the top coverslips during the 0.5% glutaraldehyde incubation step). Add the coverslips to the Falcon tube and rock for at least 10 min. Decant the SurfaSil solution and air dry the coverslips on Kimwipes in the biological safety cabinet where the hydrogels will be prepared.</li>
<li> Prepare the heat-inactivated BSA solution as follows: a 20 mg/ml solution of fatty-acid free BSA in PBS is incubated in a 68&deg;C water bath for 30 min. The solution is then sterile filtered and stored at 4&deg;C.</li>
</ul>

Procedure
<ol>
<li> Place a layer of Parafilm on the bottom half of a 150-mm Petri dish.</li>
<li> Place up to 9 25-mm coverslips on top of the Parafilm and cover them with 1 ml 0.1 M NaOH. Incubate for 3 min and then aspirate with a vacuum line.</li>
<li> Working in a chemical hood, place 0.5 ml 3-APTMS on each coverslip. Incubate for 3 min and then aspirate the APTMS. If you wait too long, a foam will form. </li>
<li> Rinse the coverslips once with 20 ml deionized water in the same dish. Remove the coverslips from the dish using curved forceps and transfer them, with their treated-side facing up, to a new 150-mm dish. Wash the coverslips with deionized water three times, on the rocker, for 10 min each wash. If you fail to remove all the APTMS, it will react with the glutaraldehyde in the next step and leave a white cloudy precipitate (Figure 1).</li>
<li> Thaw the glutaraldehyde (~10 min before use).</li>
<li> Using curved forceps, transfer the coverslips to a clean dish layered with Parafilm and aspirate any remaining liquid. Use a vacuum line or Kimwipe to blot the remaining water as needed.</li>
<li> Cover each coverslip completely with 0.5 ml of 0.5% glutaraldehyde in sterile deionized water and incubate for 30 min in a chemical hood. Aspirate the glutaraldehyde. Rinse and wash the coverslips as in step 4. Dry the coverslips completely. [You can stop here and leave the coverslips for several weeks in a dry area]. </li>
<li> When you are ready to prepare the hydrogels, use curved forceps to transfer the coverslips, reactive side up, to a sheet of Parafilm that has been taped onto the surface of the biological safety cabinet. Make sure that the coverslips are flat on the Parafilm surface.</li>
<li> Prepare a saturated NHS solution in toluene. (Dissolve a small amount of NHS in enough toluene for the particular experiment. Keep adding NHS bit by bit until the NHS no longer dissolves. The saturated solution is usually cloudy and pink.)</li>
<li> Next, prepare the acrylamide, bis-acrylamide, water and APS to reach the desired acrylamide percentage. Add the reagents in microcentrifuge tubes as outlined below to a total volume of 0.8ml.</li>
<li> Then, one aliquot at a time, add the NHS and TEMED to the 0.8 ml AC solution, vortex briefly and IMMEDIATELY pour 3-5 gels using 140 &mu;l per coverslip in the biological safety hood. Whenever possible, all steps from this point should be performed in a biological safety cabinet. [Note: different size coverslips can be utilized based upon need. If 18-mm coverslips are used, use ~33 &mu;l AC solution per coverslip and an 18-mm top siliconized coverslip.] 
 <table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td colspan="4">Bis-AC (%)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>0.3 (stiff)</td>
 <td>0.15</td>
 <td>0.06</td>
 <td>0.03 (soft)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&mu;l</td>
 <td>&mu;l</td>
 <td>&mu;l</td>
 <td>&mu;l</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Water</td>
 <td>402</td>
 <td>522</td>
 <td>594</td>
 <td>618</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>AC</td>
 <td>150</td>
 <td>150</td>
 <td>150</td>
 <td>150</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Bis-AC</td>
 <td>240</td>
 <td>120</td>
 <td>48</td>
 <td>24</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>APS</td>
 <td>8</td>
 <td>8</td>
 <td>8</td>
 <td>8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>TEMED</td>
 <td>1</td>
 <td>1</td>
 <td>1</td>
 <td>1</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NHS</td>
 <td>228</td>
 <td>228</td>
 <td>228</td>
 <td>228</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 </li>
<li> Quickly place the siliconized 25-mm coverslip on top of each gel before it begins to polymerize. Addition of the top coverslip should allow the AC to completely cover the bottom coverslip. Incubate this "sandwich" at room temperature until the AC polymerizes. (Check the residual AC solution in the microcentrifuge tube to determine when polymerization has occurred. Usually a few minutes for stiff gels and a little longer for soft ones will suffice.). </li>
<li> Carefully pick up the sandwich (sterile gloves on!) and slide off the top coverslip until it overhangs the polymerized gel. You can then pry it off the gel. If you wait too long before removing the top coverslip, the gel will rip as the coverslip is removed.</li>
<li> Discard the top coverslip. Place the bottom gel-coverslips (hereafter called the hydrogel) into 6-well plates with 2 ml PBS/well. PBS can be added before or after the gel-coverslip to each well. Wash the hydrogels with PBS three times, on a rocker, 5 min per wash. </li>
<li> Repeat steps 11-14 until the required number of hydrogels have been prepared.</li>
<li> Cover each hydrogel with 2 ml of a fibronectin solution (3 &mu;g/ml in PBS) or other ECM protein (see Klein et al.13 for details.). The ECM protein becomes covalently bound to the hydrogel during overnight incubation at 4&deg;C. </li>
<li> Aspirate the ECM solution and block unreacted NHS with 1mg/ml heat-inactivated fatty-acid free BSA in serum-free media for at least 30 min at 37&deg;C in a cell culture incubator. Rinse the hydrogels once with sterile PBS or cell culture medium.</li>
<li> Plate cells in the appropriate culture medium containing FBS. The number of cells seeded on the hydrogel should be determined by the user based upon the degree of cell spreading and confluency required for experimentation. Approximately 105 cells is usually sufficient for western blotting and qPCR analysis.</li>
<li> Following the incubation period, cell protein or mRNA can be extracted. The coverslips are carefully removed from the wells using curved forceps and placed (cell-side down) on top of 100 &mu;l droplets of lysis buffer which have been spaced out (2-3cm) along a sheet of Parafilm on the lab bench. (We use standard SDS sample buffer and TRIzol, respectively, to prepare samples for western blotting and to isolate RNA for qPCR.) Incubate the cells with the lysis buffer for exactly one minute. Remove the coverslips and transfer the lysis buffer to a microcentrifuge tube. Alternatively for RNA extraction only, the user can transfer each hydrogel to a new 6-well plate and add 1ml of TRIzol/well. Incubate for 3 minutes and remove TRIzol solution for storage in a microcentrifuge tube.</li>
</ol>

Additional information on procedures such as immunofluorescence, BrdU staining, transfection, etc. for cells seeded on hydrogels is described in Klein et al. 200713.

Representative Results
Thorough washing of the coverslips following addition of APTMS is an important step in producing "reactive" coverslips. If one fails to remove the APTMS completely, it will react with the glutaraldehyde in the following step and produce a white cloudy precipitate as seen in Figure 1A. Figure 1B shows a properly washed and dried coverslip. If the precipitate develops, the whole procedure must be restarted from the beginning as the coverslip is no longer useable.
Following hydrogel formation and coating with ECM proteins overnight, cells can be seeded the following day. As Figure 2 shows, there is a distinct difference between cell spreading on stiff versus soft hydrogels. As can be seen by phalloidin staining in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), cells spread to a greater extent on stiff as compared to soft hydrogels. Indeed, most cells attaching to a soft hydrogel will remain compact and attach less efficiently.
Although only MEF morphology is shown in Figure 2, the difference in cell spreading is consistent across several other cell lines tested11-12,14.
Secrets to Success
<ol>
<li> Once the procedure is started, it is very important to keep the coverslips with the "reactive" side up and keep in mind which side has been coated.</li>
<li> Gloves should be worn at all time during the procedure to provide a working environment that is as sterile as possible.</li>
<li> Most of the initial steps are performed between a chemical fume hood and the lab bench. All steps subsequent to removing excess glutaraldehyde from the coverslips should be executed under a biological safety cabinet.</li>
<li> Due to differences in cell spreading (Figure 2), we recommend seeding twice the number of cells on soft hydrogels as compared to stiff hydrogels.</li>
<li> The AC polymerization process is extremely quick. For first time users, one can decrease the amount of APS or TEMED in the solution to prolong the polymerization process. Do not try to prepare more than a few coverslips at one time.</li>
<li> In cell cycle studies where synchronization in G0 is required, we usually serum-starve cells in plastic culture dishes, trypsinize the cells and reseed them on hydrogels of different compliances in the presence of mitogens (FBS and/or growth factors). This procedure ensures that the starting population of G0-synchronized cells is identical in all samples. However, for many signal transduction studies, the required mitogen stimulation period may not be long enough to allow for attachment and spreading of cells. In this case, we serum-starve the cells on the hydrogels and then directly stimulate them with mitogen.</li>
</ol>
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2089/2089fig1a.jpg" alt="Figure 1a" /> 
 Figure 1A. Improperly washed coverslip. Following addition of APTMS, coverslip was washed for 1-2 minutes before addition of the glutaraldehyde solution. A precipitate forms on the coverslip that has not been washed according to the steps outlined in Procedure.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2089/2089fig1b.jpg" alt="Figure 1b" /> 
Figure 1B. Properly washed coverslip. Following addition of APTMS, coverslip was washed for three times 10 minutes each before addition of the glutaraldehyde solution. No precipitate forms on the coverslip.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2089/2089fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2. Morphology of cells on hydrogels of varying stiffness. Established MEFs were seeded on fibronectin-coated hydrogels of high or low stiffness for 9 hours. Following the incubation period, the cells were fixed, permeabilized and stained with FITC-phalloidin which binds to f-actin. MEFs on high stiffness gels exhibit stress fibers and are well spread compared to those seeded on low stiffness hydrogels. Scale bar= 50&mu;m.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2089/2089fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> 
Figure 3. Representative quantitative PCR result of mouse cyclin D1 mRNA levels. Serum starved mouse embryonic fibroblasts were plated onto high (3% acrylamide) or low (0.3% acrylamide) stiffness hydrogels and stimulated with 10% FBS for 9 hrs. Following RNA extraction, real-time quantitative PCR analysis was performed for cyclin D1 mRNA levels (normalized to 18S RNA). G0 represents cyclin D1 mRNA from quiescent cells. Cyclin D1 mRNA levels increase significantly on stiff hydrogels but not on soft hydrogels. Data are mean +/- SD of duplicate PCR reactions.

<ol>
	<li>Beattie, D., Xu, C., Vito, R., Glagov, S., Whang, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+analysis+of+heterogeneous,+atherosclerotic+human+aorta.">Mechanical analysis of heterogeneous, atherosclerotic human aorta.</a> J Biomech Eng. 120, 602-607 (1998).</li><li>Bernini, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arterial+stiffness,+intima-media+thickness+and+carotid+artery+fibrosis+in+patients+with+primary+aldosteronism.">Arterial stiffness, intima-media thickness and carotid artery fibrosis in patients with primary aldosteronism.</a> J Hypertens. 26, 2399-2405 (2008).</li><li>Boonyasirinant, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aortic+stiffness+is+increased+in+hypertrophic+cardiomyopathy+with+myocardial+fibrosis:+novel+insights+in+vascular+function+from+magnetic+resonance+imaging.">Aortic stiffness is increased in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with myocardial fibrosis: novel insights in vascular function from magnetic resonance imaging.</a> J Am Coll Cardiol. 54, 255-2562 (2009).</li><li>Discher, D. E., Janmey, P., Wang, Y. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+cells+feel+and+respond+to+the+stiffness+of+their+substrate.">Tissue cells feel and respond to the stiffness of their substrate.</a> Science. 310, 1139-1143 (2005).</li><li>Duprez, D. A., Cohn, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arterial+stiffness+as+a+risk+factor+for+coronary+atherosclerosis.">Arterial stiffness as a risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis.</a> Curr Atheroscler Rep. 9, 139-144 (2007).</li><li>Lee, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prediction+of+mechanical+properties+of+human+atherosclerotic+tissue+by+high-frequency+intravascular+ultrasound+imaging.+An+in+vitro+study.">Prediction of mechanical properties of human atherosclerotic tissue by high-frequency intravascular ultrasound imaging. An in vitro study.</a> Arterioscler Thromb. 12, 1-5 (1992).</li><li>Levental, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Matrix+crosslinking+forces+tumor+progression+by+enhancing+integrin+signaling.">Matrix crosslinking forces tumor progression by enhancing integrin signaling.</a> Cell. 139, 891-906 (2009).</li><li>Paszek, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tensional+homeostasis+and+the+malignant+phenotype.">Tensional homeostasis and the malignant phenotype.</a> Cancer Cell. 8, 241-254 (2005).</li><li>Samani, A., Zubovits, J., Plewes, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastic+moduli+of+normal+and+pathological+human+breast+tissues:+an+inversion-technique-based+investigation+of+169+samples.">Elastic moduli of normal and pathological human breast tissues: an inversion-technique-based investigation of 169 samples.</a> Phys Med Biol. 52, 1565-1576 (2007).</li><li>Wells, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+matrix+stiffness+in+regulating+cell+behavior.">The role of matrix stiffness in regulating cell behavior.</a> Hepatology. 47, 1394-1400 (2008).</li><li>Pelham, R. J., Wang, Y. -. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+locomotion+and+focal+adhesions+are+regulated+by+substrate+flexibility.">Cell locomotion and focal adhesions are regulated by substrate flexibility.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad Sci USA. 94, 13661-13665 (1997).</li><li>Klein, E. A., Yung, Y., Castagnino, P., Kothapalli, D., Assoian, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+adhesion,+cellular+tension,+and+cell+cycle+control.">Cell adhesion, cellular tension, and cell cycle control.</a> Methods Enzymol. 426, 155-175 (2007).</li><li>Klein, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-cycle+control+by+physiological+matrix+elasticity+and+in+vivo+tissue+stiffening.">Cell-cycle control by physiological matrix elasticity and in vivo tissue stiffening.</a> Current Biology. 19, 1511-1518 (2009).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

A crucial element of the hydrogel polymerization process is to avoid air bubble formation which will allow cells to bind to the glass coverslip rather than the ECM-coated hydrogel itself. This can be prevented by carefully pipetting the polymerization solution after vortexing and visually making sure that no air bubbles have become trapped in the gel. We always recommend preparing additional "reactive" coverslips and hydrogels to ensure having enough for experimentation.
Particular attention should be paid whenever the gels are washed with PBS. The suction process must avoid close contact with the hydrogel itself as it may get caught and torn. The safest way to aspirate liquid without perturbing hydrogels is to tip the plate while suctioning.
It is hard to obtain completely level hydrogels, and microscopic differences in hydrogel thickness can result in uneven surfaces that make it hard to focus images throughout a field of view. One can focus on relatively small areas, and we find that this approach is sufficient for most phase contrast and epifluorescence applications as shown in Fig. 2. The problem becomes more severe as the magnification increases, so high-resolution analyses such as co-localization of proteins are best analyzed as optical slices from confocal microscopes. Confocal microscopy is performed using standard procedures, but the hydrogel may need to be inverted onto a coverslip rather than a slide in order to accommodate the working distance of objectives in an inverted confocal microscope.
This in vitro polyacrylamide gel system is capable of modeling different physiological ECM stiffness conditions. ECM compliance varies among normal tissues, and changes in stiffness are also detected pathologically. As such, this hydrogel system can be a valuable in vitro assay for investigating how changes in ECM stiffness affect progression of disease.

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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">	
		
		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Glutaraldehyde, 70%</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>G7776</td>
<td>Store at -20&deg;C</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3-APTMS (3-Aminopropyltrimethosysilane 97%)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>281778</td>
<td>Store at room temperature</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>SurfaSil Siliconizing Fluid</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
<td>42800</td>
<td>Store at room temperature</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NHS (N-hydroxysucinimide Ester)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>A-8060</td>
<td>Store at 4&deg;C Replace monthly</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Albumin, bovine serum, essentially fatty acid free</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>A6003-100G</td>
<td>Store at 4&deg;C</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Coverslips (25mm)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>12-545-86 25 Cir 1D</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Coverslips (18mm)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>12-545-84 18 Cir 1D</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

studying the effects of matrix stiffness on cellular function using acrylamide-based hydrogels

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and cardiovascular disease1-11. Traditional cell biological approaches to studying cellular function involve culturing cells on a rigid substratum (plastic dishes or glass coverslips) which cannot account for the effect of an elastic ECM or the variations in ECM stiffness between tissues. To model in vivo tissue compliance conditions in vitro, we and others use ECM-coated hydrogels. In our laboratory, the hydrogels are based on polyacrylamide which can mimic the range of tissue compliances seen biologically12. "Reactive" cover slips are generated by incubation with NaOH followed by addition of 3-APTMS. Glutaraldehyde is used to cross-link the 3-APTMS and the polyacrylamide gel. A solution of acrylamide (AC), bis-acrylamide (Bis-AC) and ammonium persulfate is used for the polymerization of the hydrogel. N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) is incorporated into the AC solution to crosslink ECM protein to the hydrogel. Following polymerization of the hydrogel, the gel surface is coated with an ECM protein of choice such as fibronectin, vitronectin, collagen, etc.
The stiffness of a hydrogel can be determined by rheology or atomic force microscopy (AFM) and adjusted by varying the percentage of AC and/or bis-AC in the solution12. In this manner, substratum stiffness can be matched to the stiffness of biological tissues which can also be quantified using rheology or AFM. Cells can then be seeded on these hydrogels and cultured based upon the experimental conditions required. Imaging of the cells and their recovery for molecular analysis is straightforward. For this article, we define soft substrata as those having elastic moduli (E) &lt;3000 Pascal and stiff substrata/tissues as those with E &gt;20,000 Pascal.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels at JoVE.com

Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels

The effect of substrata stiffness on cellular function can be modeled in vitro using polyacrylamide hydrogels of varying compliances.

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and ...

studying-effects-matrix-stiffness-on-cellular-function-using

Nanyang Technological University

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JoVE Journal

Biology

22.0K Views.  University of Pennsylvania. The effect of substrata stiffness on cellular function can be modeled in vitro using polyacrylamide hydrogels of varying compliances.

Video: Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo for studying mitosis1. Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced genome, and it can be easily maintained and manipulated. Many mitotic mutants exist, and transgenic flies expressing functional fluorescently (e.g. GFP) - tagged mitotic proteins have been and are being generated. Targeted gene expression is possible using the GAL4/UAS system2. 

The Drosophila early embryo carries out multiple mitoses very rapidly (cell cycle duration, &asymp;10 min). It is well suited for imaging mitosis, because during cycles 10-13, nuclei divide rapidly and synchronously without intervening cytokinesis at the surface of the embryo in a single monolayer just underneath the cortex. These rapidly dividing nuclei probably use the same mitotic machinery as other cells, but they are optimized for speed; the checkpoint is generally believed to not be stringent, allowing the study of mitotic proteins whose absence would cause cell cycle arrest in cells with a strong checkpoint. Embryos expressing GFP labeled proteins or microinjected with fluorescently labeled proteins can be easily imaged to follow live dynamics (Fig. 1). In addition, embryos can be microinjected with function-blocking antibodies or inhibitors of specific proteins to study the effect of the loss or perturbation of their function3. These reagents can diffuse throughout the embryo, reaching many spindles to produce a gradient of concentration of inhibitor, which in turn results in a gradient of defects comparable to an allelic series of mutants. Ideally, if the target protein is fluorescently labeled, the gradient of inhibition can be directly visualized4. It is assumed that the strongest phenotype is comparable to the null phenotype, although it is hard to formally exclude the possibility that the antibodies may have dominant effects in rare instances, so rigorous controls and cautious interpretation must be applied. Further away from the injection site, protein function is only partially lost allowing other functions of the target protein to become evident.

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of microinjection and high resolution imaging in the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo to study mitosis.

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo  for studying mitosis1.  Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced ...

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering 

The 3D encapsulation of cells within hydrogels represents an increasingly important and popular technique for culturing cells and towards the development of constructs for tissue engineering. This environment better mimics what cells observe in vivo, compared to standard tissue culture, due to the tissue-like properties and 3D environment. Synthetic polymeric hydrogels are water-swollen networks that can be designed to be stable or to degrade through hydrolysis or proteolysis as new tissue is deposited by encapsulated cells. A wide variety of polymers have been explored for these applications, such as poly(ethylene glycol) and hyaluronic acid. Most commonly, the polymer is functionalized with reactive groups such as methacrylates or acrylates capable of undergoing crosslinking through various mechanisms. In the past decade, much progress has been made in engineering these microenvironments - e.g., via the physical or pendant covalent incorporation of biochemical cues - to improve viability and direct cellular phenotype, including the differentiation of encapsulated stem cells (Burdick et al.).
The following methods for the 3D encapsulation of cells have been optimized in our and other laboratories to maximize cytocompatibility and minimize the number of hydrogel processing steps. In the following protocols (see Figure 1 for an illustration of the procedure), it is assumed that functionalized polymers capable of undergoing crosslinking are already in hand; excellent reviews of polymer chemistry as applied to the field of tissue engineering may be found elsewhere (Burdick et al.) and these methods are compatible with a range of polymer types. Further, the Michael-type addition (see Lutolf et al.) and light-initiated free radical (see Elisseeff et al.) mechanisms focused on here constitute only a small portion of the reported crosslinking techniques. Mixed mode crosslinking, in which a portion of reactive groups is first consumed by addition crosslinking and followed by a radical mechanism, is another commonly used and powerful paradigm for directing the phenotype of encapsulated cells (Khetan et al., Salinas et al.).

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

We present protocols for the 3-dimensional (3D) encapsulation of cells within synthetic hydrogels. The encapsulation procedure is outlined for two commonly used methods of crosslinking (michael-type addition and light-initiated free radical mechanisms), as well as a number of techniques for assessing encapsulated cell behavior.

The 3D encapsulation of cells within hydrogels represents an increasingly important and popular technique for culturing cells and towards the development ...

Measuring the Bending Stiffness of Bacterial Cells Using an Optical Trap

We developed a protocol to measure the bending rigidity of filamentous rod-shaped bacteria. Forces are applied with an optical trap, a microscopic three-dimensional spring made of light that is formed when a high-intensity laser beam is focused to a very small spot by a microscope's objective lens. To bend a cell, we first bind live bacteria to a chemically-treated coverslip. As these cells grow, the middle of the cells remains bound to the coverslip but the growing ends are free of this restraint. By inducing filamentous growth with the drug cephalexin, we are able to identify cells in which one end of the cell was stuck to the surface while the other end remained unattached and susceptible to bending forces. A bending force is then applied with an optical trap by binding a polylysine-coated bead to the tip of a growing cell. Both the force and the displacement of the bead are recorded and the bending stiffness of the cell is the slope of this relationship.

We present a protocol for bending filamentous bacterial cells attached to a cover-slip surface with an optical trap to measure the cellular bending stiffness.

We developed a protocol to measure the bending rigidity of filamentous rod-shaped bacteria. Forces are applied with an optical trap, a microscopic ...

Identifying the Effects of BRCA1 Mutations on Homologous Recombination using Cells that Express Endogenous Wild-type BRCA1

The functional analysis of missense mutations can be complicated by the presence in the cell of the endogenous protein. Structure-function analyses of the BRCA1 have been complicated by the lack of a robust assay for the full length BRCA1 protein and the difficulties inherent in working with cell lines that express hypomorphic BRCA1 protein1,2,3,4,5. We developed a system whereby the endogenous BRCA1 protein in a cell was acutely depleted by RNAi targeting the 3'-UTR of the BRCA1 mRNA and replaced by co-transfecting a plasmid expressing a BRCA1 variant. One advantage of this procedure is that the acute silencing of BRCA1 and simultaneous replacement allow the cells to grow without secondary mutations or adaptations that might arise over time to compensate for the loss of BRCA1 function. This depletion and add-back procedure was done in a HeLa-derived cell line that was readily assayed for homologous recombination activity. The homologous recombination assay is based on a previously published method whereby a recombination substrate is integrated into the genome (Figure 1)6,7,8,9. This recombination substrate has the rare-cutting I-SceI restriction enzyme site inside an inactive GFP allele, and downstream is a second inactive GFP allele. Transfection of the plasmid that expresses I-SceI results in a double-stranded break, which may be repaired by homologous recombination, and if homologous recombination does repair the break it creates an active GFP allele that is readily scored by flow cytometry for GFP protein expression. Depletion of endogenous BRCA1 resulted in an 8-10-fold reduction in homologous recombination activity, and add-back of wild-type plasmid fully restored homologous recombination function. When specific point mutants of full length BRCA1 were expressed from co-transfected plasmids, the effect of the specific missense mutant could be scored. As an example, the expression of the BRCA1(M18T) protein, a variant of unknown clinical significance10, was expressed in these cells, it failed to restore BRCA1-dependent homologous recombination. By contrast, expression of another variant, also of unknown significance, BRCA1(I21V) fully restored BRCA1-dependent homologous recombination function. This strategy of testing the function of BRCA1 missense mutations has been applied to another biological system assaying for centrosome function (Kais et al, unpublished observations). Overall, this approach is suitable for the analysis of missense mutants in any gene that must be analyzed recessively.

We provide a method for testing BRCA1 variants in a tissue culture based assay for homologous recombination repair of DNA damage by depleting endogenous BRCA1 protein from a cell using RNAi and replacing it with a BRCA1 point mutant that contains a coding change.

The functional analysis of missense mutations can be complicated by the presence in the cell of the endogenous protein. Structure-function analyses of the ...

Analyzing the Function of Small GTPases by Microinjection of Plasmids into Polarized Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces the 'free' surfaces and the basolateral membrane is in contact with the substrate and neighboring cells. Both membrane domains are separated by tight junctions, which form a diffusion barrier. Apical-basolateral polarization can be recapitulated successfully in culture when epithelial cells such as Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells are seeded at high density on polycarbonate filters and cultured for several days 1 2. Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is regulated by an array of small GTPases of the Ras superfamily such as RalA, Cdc42, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab13 3 4 5 6 7. Like all GTPases these proteins cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active GTP-bound state. Specific mutations in the nucleotide binding regions interfere with this cycling 8. For example, Rab13T22N is permanently locked in the GDP-form and thus dubbed 'dominant negative', whereas Rab13Q67L can no longer hydrolyze GTP and is thus locked in a 'dominant active' state 7. To analyze their function in cells both dominant negative and dominant active alleles of GTPases are typically expressed at high levels to interfere with the function of the endogenous proteins 9. An elegant way to achieve high levels of overexpression in a short amount of time is to introduce the plasmids encoding the relevant proteins directly into the nuclei of polarized cells grown on filter supports using microinjection technique. This is often combined with the co-injection of reporter plasmids that encode plasma membrane receptors that are specifically sorted to the apical or basolateral domain. A cargo frequently used to analyze cargo sorting to the basolateral domain is a temperature sensitive allele of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVGts045) 10. This protein cannot fold properly at 39&deg;C and will thus be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) while the regulatory protein of interest is assembled in the cytosol. A shift to 31&deg;C will then allow VSVGts045 to fold properly, leave the ER and travel to the plasma membrane 11. This chase is typically performed in the presence of cycloheximide to prevent further protein synthesis leading to cleaner results. Here we describe in detail the procedure of microinjecting plasmids into polarized cells and subsequent incubations including temperature shifts that allow a comprehensive analysis of regulatory proteins involved in basolateral sorting.

This article details the procedures involved in overexpression and analysis of small GTPases in polarized epithelial cells using microinjection technique.

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces ...

Visualization of Mitochondrial Respiratory Function using Cytochrome C Oxidase / Succinate Dehydrogenase (COX/SDH) Double-labeling Histochemistry

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects are an important cause of disease and may underlie aging and aging-related alterations 1,2. The mitochondrial theory of aging suggests a role for mtDNA mutations, which can alter bioenergetics homeostasis and cellular function, in the aging process 3. A wealth of evidence has been compiled in support of this theory 1,4, an example being the mtDNA mutator mouse 5; however, the precise role of mtDNA damage in aging is not entirely understood 6,7.
Observing the activity of respiratory enzymes is a straightforward approach for investigating mitochondrial dysfunction. Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase (COX), is essential for mitochondrial function. The catalytic subunits of COX are encoded by mtDNA and are essential for assembly of the complex (Figure 1). Thus, proper synthesis and function are largely based on mtDNA integrity 2. Although other respiratory complexes could be investigated, Complexes IV and II are the most amenable to histochemical examination 8,9. Complex II, or succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), is entirely encoded by nuclear DNA (Figure 1), and its activity is typically not affected by impaired mtDNA, although an increase might indicate mitochondrial biogenesis 10-12. The impaired mtDNA observed in mitochondrial diseases, aging, and age-related diseases often leads to the presence of cells with low or absent COX activity 2,12-14. Although COX and SDH activities can be investigated individually, the sequential double-labeling method 15,16 has proved to be advantageous in locating cells with mitochondrial dysfunction 12,17-21.
Many of the optimal constitutions of the assay have been determined, such as substrate concentration, electron acceptors/donors, intermediate electron carriers, influence of pH, and reaction time 9,22,23. 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) is an effective and reliable electron donor 22. In cells with functioning COX, the brown indamine polymer product will localize in mitochondrial cristae and saturate cells 22. Those cells with dysfunctional COX will therefore not be saturated by the DAB product, allowing for the visualization of SDH activity by reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT), an electron acceptor, to a blue formazan end product 9,24. Cytochrome c and sodium succinate substrates are added to normalize endogenous levels between control and diseased/mutant tissues 9. Catalase is added as a precaution to avoid possible contaminating reactions from peroxidase activity 9,22. Phenazine methosulfate (PMS), an intermediate electron carrier, is used in conjunction with sodium azide, a respiratory chain inhibitor, to increase the formation of the final reaction products 9,25. Despite this information, some critical details affecting the result of this seemly straightforward assay, in addition to specificity controls and advances in the technique, have not yet been presented.

Visualization of Mitochondrial Respiratory Function using Cytochrome C Oxidase / Succinate Dehydrogenase COX/SDH Double-labeling Histochemistry

The cytochrome c oxidase/sodium dehydrogenase (COX/SDH) double-labeling method allows for direct visualization of mitochondrial respiratory enzyme deficiencies in fresh-frozen tissue sections. This is a straightforward histochemical technique and is useful in investigating mitochondrial diseases, aging, and aging-related disorders.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects are an important cause of disease and may underlie aging and aging-related alterations 1,2. The mitochondrial theory of ...

Creating Defined Gaseous Environments to Study the Effects of Hypoxia on C. elegans

Oxygen is essential for all metazoans to survive, with one known exception1. Decreased O2 availability (hypoxia) can arise during states of disease, normal development or changes in environmental conditions2-5. Understanding the cellular signaling pathways that are involved in the response to hypoxia could provide new insight into treatment strategies for diverse human pathologies, from stroke to cancer. This goal has been impeded, at least in part, by technical difficulties associated with controlled hypoxic exposure in genetically amenable model organisms.
The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is ideally suited as a model organism for the study of hypoxic response, as it is easy to culture and genetically manipulate. Moreover, it is possible to study cellular responses to specific hypoxic O2 concentrations without confounding effects since C. elegans obtain O2 (and other gasses) by diffusion, as opposed to a facilitated respiratory system6. Factors known to be involved in the response to hypoxia are conserved in C. elegans. The actual response to hypoxia depends on the specific concentration of O2 that is available. In C. elegans, exposure to moderate hypoxia elicits a transcriptional response mediated largely by hif-1, the highly-conserved hypoxia-inducible transcription factor6-9. C .elegans embryos require hif-1 to survive in 5,000-20,000 ppm O27,10. Hypoxia is a general term for "less than normal O2". Normoxia (normal O2) can also be difficult to define. We generally consider room air, which is 210,000 ppm O2 to be normoxia. However, it has been shown that C. elegans has a behavioral preference for O2 concentrations from 5-12% (50,000-120,000 ppm O2)11. In larvae and adults, hif-1 acts to prevent hypoxia-induced diapause in 5,000 ppm O212. However, hif-1 does not play a role in the response to lower concentrations of O2 (anoxia, operational definition &lt;10 ppm O2)13. In anoxia, C. elegans enters into a reversible state of suspended animation in which all microscopically observable activity ceases10. The fact that different physiological responses occur in different conditions highlights the importance of having experimental control over the hypoxic concentration of O2.
Here, we present a method for the construction and implementation of environmental chambers that produce reliable and reproducible hypoxic conditions with defined concentrations of O2. The continual flow method ensures rapid equilibration of the chamber and increases the stability of the system. Additionally, the transparency and accessibility of the chambers allow for direct visualization of animals being exposed to hypoxia. We further demonstrate an effective method of harvesting C. elegans samples rapidly after exposure to hypoxia, which is necessary to observe many of the rapidly-reversed changes that occur in hypoxia10,14. This method provides a basic foundation that can be easily modified for individual laboratory needs, including different model systems and a variety of gasses.

Creating Defined Gaseous Environments to Study the Effects of Hypoxia on C. elegans

This paper details how to use continuous-flow hypoxia chambers to generate atmospheres with defined concentrations of O2 to understand biological responses to decreased O2. This system is easy to setup and maintain, and flexible enough to suit a wide range of O2 concentrations and model systems

Oxygen is essential for all metazoans to survive, with one known exception1. Decreased O2 availability (hypoxia) can arise during states of disease, ...

Measuring the Effects of Bacteria on C. Elegans Behavior Using an Egg Retention Assay

C. elegans egg-laying behavior is affected by environmental cues such as osmolarity1 and vibration2. In the total absence of food C. elegans also cease egg-laying and retain fertilized eggs in their uterus3. However, the effect of different sources of food, especially pathogenic bacteria and particularly Enterococcus faecalis, on egg-laying
	behavior is not well characterized. The egg-in-worm (EIW) assay is a useful tool to quantify the effects of different types of bacteria, in this case E. faecalis, on egg- laying behavior.
	
	EIW assays involve counting the number of eggs retained in the uterus of C. elegans4. The EIW assay involves bleaching staged, gravid adult C. elegans to remove the cuticle and separate the retained eggs from the animal. Prior to bleaching, worms are exposed to bacteria (or any type of environmental cue) for a fixed period of time. After bleaching, one is very easily able to count the number of eggs retained inside the uterus of the worms. In this assay, a quantifiable increase in egg retention after E. faecalis exposure can be easily measured. The EIW assay is a behavioral assay that may be used to screen for potentially pathogenic bacteria or the presence of environmental toxins. In addition, the EIW assay may be a tool to screen for drugs that affect neurotransmitter signaling since egg-laying behavior is modulated by neurotransmitters such as serotonin and acetylcholine5-9.

Measuring the Effects of Bacteria on C. Elegans Behavior Using an Egg Retention Assay

An egg-in-worm (EIW) assay is a useful method to quantify egg-laying behavior. Alterations in egg laying can be a behavioral response of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans to potentially harmful environmental substances such as those produced by pathogenic bacteria.

C. elegans egg-laying behavior is  affected by environmental cues such as osmolarity1 and  vibration2. In the total absence of food C. elegans also cease ...

Techniques to Induce and Quantify Cellular Senescence

In response to cellular stress or damage, proliferating cells can induce a specific program that initiates a state of long-term cell-cycle arrest, termed cellular senescence. Accumulation of senescent cells occurs with organismal aging and through continual culturing in vitro. Senescent cells influence many biological processes, including embryonic development, tissue repair and regeneration, tumor suppression, and aging. Hallmarks of senescent cells include, but are not limited to, increased senescence-associated &#946;-galactosidase activity (SA-&#946;-gal); p16INK4A, p53, and p21 levels; higher levels of DNA damage, including &#947;-H2AX; the formation of Senescence-associated Heterochromatin Foci (SAHF); and the acquisition of a Senescence-associated Secretory Phenotype (SASP), a phenomenon characterized by the secretion of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and signaling molecules. Here, we describe protocols for both replicative and DNA damage-induced senescence in cultured cells. In addition, we highlight techniques to monitor the senescent phenotype using several senescence-associated markers, including SA-&#946;-gal, &#947;-H2AX and SAHF staining, and to quantify protein and mRNA levels of cell cycle regulators and SASP factors. These methods can be applied to the assessment of senescence in various models and tissues.

Cellular senescence, the irreversible state of cell-cycle arrest, can be induced by various cellular stresses. Here, we describe protocols to induce cellular senescence and methods to assess markers of senescence.

In response to cellular stress or damage, proliferating cells can induce a specific program that initiates a state of long-term cell-cycle arrest, termed ...

Analysis of Beta-cell Function Using Single-cell Resolution Calcium Imaging in Zebrafish Islets

Pancreatic beta-cells respond to increasing blood glucose concentrations by secreting the hormone insulin. The dysfunction of beta-cells leads to hyperglycemia and severe, life-threatening consequences. Understanding how the beta-cells operate under physiological conditions and what genetic and environmental factors might cause their dysfunction could lead to better treatment options for diabetic patients. The ability to measure calcium levels in beta-cells serves as an important indicator of beta-cell function, as the influx of calcium ions triggers insulin release. Here we describe a protocol for monitoring the glucose-stimulated calcium influx in zebrafish beta-cells by using GCaMP6s, a genetically encoded sensor of calcium. The method allows monitoring the intracellular calcium dynamics with single-cell resolution in ex vivo mounted islets. The glucose-responsiveness of beta-cells within the same islet can be captured simultaneously under different glucose concentrations, which suggests the presence of functional heterogeneity among zebrafish beta-cells. Furthermore, the technique provides high temporal and spatial resolution, which reveals the oscillatory nature of the calcium influx upon glucose stimulation. Our approach opens the doors to use the zebrafish as a model to investigate the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to beta-cell function and dysfunction.

Beta-cell functionality is important for blood-glucose homeostasis, which is evaluated at single-cell resolution using a genetically encoded reporter for calcium influx.