D. P. acknowledges funding from the European Union project CRIMSON under Grant Agreement No. 101016923 and the Regione Lombardia project NEWMED under Grant Agreement No. POR FESR 2014-2020. G. C. acknowledges funding from the European Union project GRAPHENE Core3 under grant agreement number 881603. G. C. also acknowledges funding from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Grant Award Number: OSR-2016-CRG5-3017-01.

<ol>
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G. C. declares involvement with the company, Cambridge Raman Imaging, which aims to commercialize the broadband SRS microscopy technology. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Broadband SRS microscopy is a powerful imaging technique that offers authentic chemical contrast to identify and disentangle the chemical constituents of a heterogeneous sample. The potential of this analytical tool can be beneficial to several research fields, ranging from materials science to histopathology. The downside of broadband SRS microscopy is the fact that it is technically demanding; the experimentalist not only requires know-how on broadband laser sources but also needs to manipulate the laser pulses to efficiently generate SRS, a signal that, in turn, needs to be measured with sophisticated detection schemes. This paper presents a protocol that describes a workflow to produce chemical maps of mixed chemical compounds using a multiplex broadband SRS microscope. Although the work described may be trivial for some laser physicists and nonlinear microscopists, it may not be the case for readers interested in the benefits of broadband SRS microscopy whose scientific knowledge resides outside these domains. Therefore, we aimed to detail every step to guide the wide audience interested in broadband SRS microscopy.
The protocol at hand started by showing how to prepare a simple yet spectroscopically rich sample composed of several strong and well-known Raman scatterers. We discussed how to obtain the broadband pump and narrowband Stokes beams necessary to set up an SRS microscope. Figure 5C shows a scheme of the SHG and OPO setups. Note that lens f1 focuses the fundamental beam onto LBO1 to generate the SHG, while a dichroic mirror reflects the SHG radiation and transmits the residual fundamental beam. A second lens f2 collimates the SHG beam. As f2 &gt; f1, the SHG beam is expanded by a factor equal to f2/f1. A third lens f3 focuses the expanded SHG beam onto a second Type I LBO crystal (LBO2) cut at θ = 90° and φ = 29.0°. By pumping LBO2 with the aforementioned SGH (520 nm), radiation within the 680-910 nm range will emerge from LBO2 through difference-frequency generation (DFG), producing two beams: the signal and idler27 (Figure 5D,E). The latter is discarded while the former is amplified in the OPO cavity to deliver the pump pulses employed in the SRS experiments. The pump of the OPO at 520 nm, namely, the SHG beam, should not be confused with the pump of the SRS experiments (i.e., the signal beam of the OPO).
The contrast in SRS microscopy originates from a nonlinear signal generated at the focal spot of the microscope, a signal that demands confining a large number of photons in the sample plane at a given time. This photon confinement is achieved with a high numerical aperture (NA) microscope objective, an array of lenses that also sets the spatial resolution of the system: the higher the NA, the higher the spatial resolution. However, high NA objectives are densely packed with glass, which introduces positive GDD to pulsed radiation, a frequency chirp that ultimately broadens the temporal profile of the pulses39. Thus, the GDD introduced by the microscope objective might increase the duration of the broadband pump pulses, making it even longer than the Stokes temporal envelope and reducing the effective, accessible bandwidth of the Raman signal. Furthermore, this broadening might also introduce a distortion of the spectral profile of the measured SRS spectrum.
In CARS, the spectroscopically relevant signal emerges at wavelengths that differ from those of the excitation fields. A simple photomultiplier tube or charge-coupled device (CCD) camera can be used to integrate the CARS signal in time, summing up thousands of pulses to average out the laser noise. Instead, the SRS signal appears as a faint modulation transfer embedded within a strong and fluctuating laser background. Because this modulation is weak, the laser noise can readily overwhelm it, reducing both the imaging speed and the sensitivity of the SRS microscope. Therefore, before imaging, it is imperative to measure the relative intensity noise (RIN) to determine whether the laser is suitable for high-speed SRS imaging and to select the modulation frequency with the lowest noise. The RIN is defined as the noise power spectral density [δP(f), with W2/Hz units] of the laser normalized by the mean optical power (<img alt="Static equilibrium; 3D diagram; ΣF=0, MA=0; vectors; force balance analysis; educational physics." src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq02.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 2">)40,41. In other words, the RIN describes the normalized laser fluctuations at different frequencies (Eq [4]).
<img alt="Relative Intensity Noise, RIN equation in decibels per Hertz for optical studies, formula image." src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq07.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 7"> (4)
Thus, the RIN is a parameter of the SRS system that determines the ideal modulation frequency range for the experiments. For example, the olive bar in Figure 8 shows the ideal modulation frequency range for SRS imaging. In the case of narrowband SRS, the user should measure the RIN of both pump and Stokes to choose what beam needs to be modulated to achieve optimum performance. Note from Figure 8, for example, that the Stokes beam has a slightly higher RIN than the pump, implying that the SRG measurements would turn out noisier than their SRL counterparts. In the case of broadband SRS, the beam that should be modulated is the narrowband beam.
The angular dispersion D of the grating expresses the diffraction angle as a function of wavelength, and is defined as the derivative of the grating equation. For the Littrow configuration, the angular dispersion is given by Eq (5).
<img alt="Dispersion equation, D=dβ/dλ=2/λ tanβ, optics analysis formula, scientific study." src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq08.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 8"> (5)
To get Eq (5), we assumed α = β, solved Eq (2) for m/d and inserted the result into dβ/ dλ. Note that in the Littrow configuration, β = sin-1(mλ/2d). Within the small-angle approximation, the change in position along the spectrum is fdβ ≈ dl (Figure 10). Thus, by inserting dβ into Eq (5), we can calculate the linear dispersion, a quantity with units of nm mm-1 using Eq (6):
<img alt="chromatic dispersion equation, dλ/dl=1/Df, formula, optics, physics study, wavelength analysis" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq09.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 9"> (6)
For a diffraction grating operating in the Littrow configuration with 1,851.85 grooves/mm, d = 540 nm. If we use the first-order diffraction of light at ~789 nm, D = 0.0027 rad nm-1. With an f = 750 mm lens, we get a linear dispersion of ≈ 0.5 nm mm-1, translating into ≈ 7.8 cm-1mm-1. Thus, the focal length of the lens determines the "density" of nm per mm at the detector plane: The longer the focal length, the fewer nm per mm obtained, increasing the space between the spectral lines of the broadband pump. Conversely, with shorter focal lengths, there will be more nm per mm at the detector plane, reducing the space occupied by the dispersed pump.
Balanced detection improves the image quality and sensitivity of noisy setups. For example, according to the RIN spectra shown in Figure 8 and considering typical SRS with an amplitude of 1 x 10-5, the unbalanced signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is ≈60. Using balanced detection (i.e., close to the shot-noise), it is possible to attain an SNR of ≈145. Figure 11 shows spectra and composite images under balanced and unbalanced conditions. Naturally, the effects of balanced detection impact the final results of the experiments, namely, the chemical maps. Supported by these results, we emphasize that balanced detection is a powerful technique to counter the detrimental effects of laser fluctuations on image quality. It is worth mentioning that balanced detection is best suited for noisy lasers, such as fiber oscillators. SRS microscopes operating with quiet optical light sources (e.g., solid-state lasers), may not require balanced detection.
The protocol also explains an approach based on nonlinear optics to find the spatiotemporal overlap between the pulses of these beams. We described the advantages of using the 1st instead of the 0th diffraction-order of an AOM as the modulated Stokes beam. Further, the detrimental effects of dispersion on the SRS generation efficiency were described with suggestions of ways to mitigate them via a prism compressor. In addition, the protocol explains how to align the prisms and highlights three critical aspects to consider for optimum performance. We not only discuss the relevance of the RIN for SRS microscopy but also show how to measure it with a lock-in amplifier and, with the RIN spectrum, define the best modulation frequency. With a concrete example, this paper explains how the grating equation helps in designing the detection chain. Finally, the protocol illustrates, with real SRS data, the structure of the SRS hypercube and how to analyze it with a conventionally used scientific programming language.
This protocol has three minor limitations. First, the detection scheme employed in this contribution consists of a nonconventional, multichannel lock-in detector designed and built in-house by Sciortino et al.26 As demonstrated previously25, this detector can be replaced by an off-the-shelf balanced photodiode. Although this modification concerns only the detector and leaves the protocol virtually unchanged, with a single-photodiode, one needs to scan each spectral component on the detector instead of measuring them all at once. Second, this protocol employs inline balanced detection, which requires inserting several optical elements into the beam path. These optical elements increase the system complexity and lead to losses of optical power and pulse broadening.
Inline balanced detection also demands that the two pump replicas pass through the sample, a situation that may not be ideal for light-sensitive samples, such as living cells, or for strongly birefringent ones in which the two pump replicas may experience different optical properties, thus canceling the balanced detection. Third, the protocol relies on a home-built OPO, a device that may not be readily available. However, alternatives to the broadband spectra delivered by the OPO are the supercontinua from nonlinear optical fibers or bulk crystals. The latter could be employed only with low repetition rate lasers (up to 5 MHz). Thus, as with every experimental design, the protocol at hand has some limitations. However, they are minimal and do not compromise the success of this approach.
Although a reference sample is described here, this protocol can successfully disentangle chemical species within cells and animal and plant tissues, such as cellulose, lipidic species, or proteins, finding practical applications in different biochemical quests or as a diagnostics tool in histopathology. Similarly, this protocol can be a valuable tool in material sciences. For example, following this protocol, one can interrogate the molecular composition and concentration of polymeric species42. Furthermore, this methodology is compatible with other nonlinear microscopy techniques, such as broadband microscopy based on pump-probe43 and heterodyne CARS44, four-wave mixing processes that, as with SRS, also require two excitation light beams and modulation-transfer measurements. Finally, some of the information contained in this paper can be applied to nonlinear imaging techniques that do not rely on modulation transfer techniques, but require aligning two or more pulsed laser beams, such as conventional CARS45 and SFG microscopies46.
In summary, this protocol describes a powerful methodology based on broadband SRS microscopy to extract chemical maps and their characteristic SRS spectra from chemically heterogeneous mixtures, delivering datasets that allow straightforward quantitative data analysis. The versatility and simplicity of the method also give the interested reader the possibility to adapt it to different nonlinear techniques.

Raman microscopy is a powerful imaging technique that delivers rich chemical maps by measuring Raman scattering1, an inelastic radiative process that originates from molecules vibrating in response to incident light2,3. Each pixel of a Raman map contains a spectrum that carries direct information on the chemical composition and structure of the sample, resulting in images with intrinsic vibrational contrast. To date, Raman microscopy is the reference standpoint for microspectroscopy studies of molecular vibrations as no other imaging technique can produce images with both high chemical specificity and high spatial resolution4. Despite its outstanding chemical specificity, the generation efficiency of Raman scattering is low, calling for either extended pixel dwell times or high-power excitation, leading, respectively, to low acquisition rates and incompatibility with sensitive samples.
This single deficiency of Raman microscopy led researchers to apply coherent Raman scattering5,6,7,8,9 as a source of contrast for microscopy. This is a nonlinear optical process that enhances the vibrational response by several (up to seven) orders of magnitude, thus allowing high-speed chemical imaging10,11,12,13. In particular, the two most employed coherent Raman scattering techniques are coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS)14 and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)15. In contrast to CARS, SRS shows a linear dependence on the concentration of resonant molecules. It is immune to the nonresonant background, a nonlinear effect unrelated to any vibrational transition but distortive to the Lorentzian shapes characteristic of the Raman spectra of the molecular vibrations16,17. Thus, SRS microscopy yields authentic Raman information that allows direct quantitative image analysis.
SRS is a third-order, nonlinear, optical process that provides direct information on the chemical bonds of a sample. It originates from the spatiotemporal superposition of two optical fields generally in the near-infrared spectral region, namely the pump and the Stokes at frequency &#969;pu and &#969;S, respectively10,11,18. This superposition generates a beating at the pump-Stokes frequency detuning &#937; = &#969;pu-&#969;S. When &#937; matches a molecular vibration &#937;R, the molecule resonates, causing a coherent energy transfer between the light fields and the molecule. As a result, the molecule reaches a vibrationally excited state. This process can be monitored by measuring either the annihilation of pump photons (a signal known as stimulated Raman loss [SRL]) or the concomitant amplification of Stokes photons (a process known as stimulated Raman gain [SRG]). SRG and SRL are small signals (&#916;I) that sit on top of an intense and fluctuating background (I). As typical values of the SRS signal (&#916;I/I) are in the 10-6-10-4 range, the laser noise can easily obscure it. To mitigate the detrimental effects of the laser noise on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and consequently on the imaging speed, SRS detection relies on modulation transfer techniques (e.g., lock-in amplifiers, resonant circuits, or box-car averagers) at high modulation frequencies (&#62;1 MHz), where the laser noise reaches its minimum values15,19,20.
Conventional SRS microscopy employs narrowband (&#8776;10 cm&#8722;1) pump and Stokes pulses to produce chemical images at a single vibrational frequency, allowing video-rate imaging with pixel dwell times as low as &#8776;100 ns21,22. However, because narrowband SRS microscopy forms chemical maps by sequentially scanning the sample at only a few vibrational frequencies, its information is limited23. SRS images with one or two vibrational contrasts may not suffice to differentiate chemical species with overlapping Raman bands, especially within heterogeneous systems. Therefore, the paradigmatic narrowband SRS microscope does not exploit the full potential of SRS, because investigating a handful of vibrational frequencies hinders its chemical specificity and neglects the wealth of information encoded within vibrational spectra. Furthermore, sequential scanning of the sample at different frequencies results in extended pixel dwell times that can trigger photodamage and prevent rigorous spatial coregistration between consecutive images, leading to motion artifacts.
Contrary to its narrowband counterpart, broadband SRS microscopy retrieves a vibrational spectrum per pixel at each sample scan10,12,24. Thus, broadband SRS provides hyperspectral imaging with strict spatial coregistration of different vibrational contrasts, allowing rigorous data analysis. This not only reveals the chemical constituents of the specimen through Raman spectra, but also helps to determine their relative concentrations. Depending on how the spectra are acquired, broadband SRS microscopy is classified either as hyperspectral SRS or multiplex SRS. In hyperspectral SRS, the SRS spectrum per scanned point of the sample is acquired sequentially (i.e., it is retrieved by sweeping the frequency detuning &#8486;), building an SRS spectrum by stacking together the SRS signals at consecutive Raman shifts. The Raman spectrum is measured simultaneously at several vibrational modes in multiplex SRS. Thus, the multiplex SRS approach combines a modulated narrowband pulse with a broadband pulse to drive the SRS signal at different frequencies, and uses a multichannel detector with a sensitivity comparable to that of narrowband SRS to detect the SRS spectra.
This paper presents a protocol to produce chemical maps of heterogeneous samples using multiplex SRS microscopy. A scheme of the SRS microscope employed in this protocol is depicted in Figure 1 and described in detail elsewhere25,26,27. Briefly, a commercial mode-locked Yb fiber laser, producing 140 fs pulses centered at 1040 nm, with 10 W average power and an 80 MHz repetition rate, drives the broadband SRS microscope. A polarizing beam splitter (PBS) separates the fundamental beam into two branches. To produce the narrowband Stokes pulses, one branch with 4 W of the fundamental beam is sent to an etalon that generates a narrowband (&#8776;15 cm-1) beam, which is then modulated at 1.6 MHz with an acoustic optic modulator (AOM). The remaining fraction with 6 W of the fundamental beam is frequency-doubled with a 2.8 mm thick lithium triborate (LBO) crystal, cut for type-I phase matching (&#952; = 90&#176;, &#966; = 13.8&#176;). The resulting second harmonic generation at 520 nm travels to an X-folded cavity to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO), a device that uses a 3.0 mm thick LBO crystal (type I phase matching, &#952; = 90&#176;, &#966; = 9.8&#176;) as active medium to deliver a broadband optical radiation tunable within the 680-910 nm spectral region (Figure 2). These broadband pulses serve as the pump in the SRS experiments and propagate to a prism compressor to precompensate the dispersion effects induced by the microscope objective.
After the compression stage, a &#955;/2 waveplate, combined with a YVO4 birefringent plate, produces two orthogonally polarized replicas whose electronic subtraction at the detection plane cancels the noise of the broadband pump. A dichroic mirror combines the pump and Stokes beams and sends them to an upright microscope. A water-immersion objective with a numerical aperture (NA) of 1.27 focuses the light onto the sample, while an oil-immersion objective with a NA of 1.4 collects it. Before the detection stage, a short-pass filter (SPF) removes the modulated Stokes, while a diffraction grating operating in Littrow configuration disperses the transmitted broadband pump. A second PBS2 separates the pump replicas, and a lens focuses them onto two photodiode arrays. The signals from these photodiode arrays are electronically subtracted and sent to a home-built multichannel-lock-in amplifier (M-LIA). The demodulated signal is then normalized by the direct current (DC) readings of one of the photodiode arrays, thus producing the SRL spectrum.
As an exemplary experiment, we image mixtures of several well-known Raman scatterers, each with a unique Raman spectrum. Thus, the protocol starts by describing how to prepare the reference samples. As we detect SRL, we continue to explain how to obtain narrowband Stokes pulses and set up the optical source that delivers the broadband (&#8776;250 cm-1) pump pulses, namely, the homebuilt OPO. The protocol shows the alignment and optimization of the optical beams, describing critical parameters such as the power and spectra of the narrowband Stokes and the broadband pump. The protocol describes in detail the optical path of the broadband pump because it requires special optical elements. It also explains how to find the spatiotemporal overlap between pump-Stokes pulses and shows a practical way to determine the relative intensity noise (RIN), which in turn helps define the best modulation frequency for SRS experiments. Then, we explain the working principle and calibration of the detection chain. Finally, the protocol shows the data acquisition process, chemometrics, and image processing pipeline.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Collection objective</td><td>Nikon</td><td>CFI Apo Lambda S 60x Oil, NA=1.4, Nikon</td><td>Oil immersion objective</td></tr><tr><td>Coverslips</td><td>Thermo Fisher</td><td>043211-KJ</td><td>Quartz, cover slip for microscope slide, 25.4 x 25.4 x 0.15 mm</td></tr><tr><td>Delay line</td><td>Physik Instrumente (PI)</td><td>M-406.6PD</td><td>Precision microtranslation stage, 150 mm travel range</td></tr><tr><td>DMSO</td><td>Merck</td><td>D8418-500ML</td><td>Methylsulfinylmethane, Molecular Biology Grade DMSO, DMSO, Methyl Sulfoxide</td></tr><tr><td>Etalon</td><td>SLS Optics Ltd</td><td>Custom made</td><td>Anti reflective coating at 1,040 nm, Mounted in a 38 mm diameter x 35.5 mm long stainless steel cell with protective dust caps, and a 50 mm diameter &amp;lsquo;pinch-clamp&amp;rsquo; mounting ring</td></tr><tr><td>Excitation objective</td><td>Nikon</td><td>CFI Plan Apo IR 60XC WI, NA=1.27, Nikon</td><td>Water immersion objective</td></tr><tr><td>Grating</td><td>LightSmyth</td><td>T-1850-800s Series</td><td>High Efficiency Transmission Grating T-1850-800s Series</td></tr><tr><td>Laser</td><td>Coherent</td><td>Custom made</td><td>Fidelity, HP</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;lambda;/2</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>SAHWP05M-1700</td><td>Mounted superachromatic half-wave plate</td></tr><tr><td>PBS</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>CM5-PBS203/M</td><td>16 mm Cage-Cube-Mounted Polarizing Beamsplitter Cube,</td></tr><tr><td>PMMA beads</td><td>Merck</td><td>MFCD00198073</td><td>Micro particles based on polymethacrylate</td></tr><tr><td>Prisms</td><td>Crisel</td><td>320-8218</td><td>LASER DISPERSING PRISMS in SF11</td></tr><tr><td>PS beads</td><td>Merck</td><td>72986-10ML-F</td><td>Micro particles based on polystyrene</td></tr><tr><td>YVO4 crystal</td><td>Dr. Sztatecsny GmbH</td><td>Custom made</td><td>&amp;nbsp;thickness 8 mm, dia 1.00 cm, 1 689,00 689,00 suitable for 1&quot; mount, coated for 850 - 1,100 nm</td></tr></tbody></table>

multiplex chemical imaging based on broadband stimulated raman scattering microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy is a nonlinear optical technique for label-free chemical imaging. This analytical tool delivers chemical maps at high speed, and high spatial resolution of thin samples by directly interrogating their molecular vibrations. In its standard implementation, SRS microscopy is narrowband and forms images with only a single vibrational frequency at a time. However, this approach not only hinders the chemical specificity of SRS but also neglects the wealth of information encoded within vibrational spectra. 
These limitations can be overcome by broadband SRS, an implementation capable of extracting a vibrational spectrum per pixel of the image in parallel. This delivers hyperspectral data that, when coupled with chemometric analysis, maximizes the amount of information retrieved from the specimen. Thus, broadband SRS improves the chemical specificity of the system, allowing the quantitative determination of the concentration of the different constituents of a sample. Here, we report a protocol for chemical imaging with broadband SRS microscopy, based on a home-built SRS microscope operating with a custom differential multichannel-lock-in amplifier detection. It discusses the sample preparation, alignment of the SRS apparatus, and chemometric analysis. By acquiring vibrational Raman spectra, the protocol illustrates how to identify different chemical species within a mixture, determining their relative concentrations.

Figure 3 shows exemplary results obtained using this protocol with PS, PMMA, and olive oil. This rotation of LBO1 will change the refractive index experienced by the SHG field, directly modifying its phase velocity. When the phase velocity of the SHG field matches that of the nonlinear polarization induced in LBO1, the nonlinearly generated field and the nonlinear polarization will be in phase, leading to intense SHG radiation. In other words, tweaking the φ angle of LBO1 will allow the user to attain the ideal phase matching condition for SHG. As a Type I phase matching crystal is used here, the polarization of the SHG beam will be orthogonal to that of the fundamental beam (Figure 5B).
Figure 8 shows the RIN of the optical sources used in this protocol and the shot-noise limit, which is a consequence of the quantum nature of electrons and photons that sets a fundamental limit to the laser noise. The shot-noise limited RIN is computed with <img alt="Decibel over Hertz formula; symbol display for frequency analysis, acoustics research." src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq05.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 5"> as shown by Eq (3).
<img alt="Noise calculation, RIN equation, optical measurements, formula, log function, photon analysis." src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709eq06.jpg" style="margin: auto;" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Equation 6"> (3)
Where h is Planck's constant, and ν is the optical frequency. Thus, the shot noise provides useful guidelines for the electronics design.
Figure 11A and Figure 11C show exemplary data of balanced and unbalanced spectra. Naturally, the effects of balanced detection impact the final results of the experiments, namely, the chemical maps. Figure 11B and Figure 11D show composite images in the unbalanced and balanced conditions, respectively. Successfully implementing the described protocol will help identify and localize the different chemical constituents of a heterogeneous sample and extract their characteristic SRS spectra. Subjecting the hyperspectral data of Figure 12 to chemometric analysis gives Figure 13. Figure 13A shows a composite of the concentration maps of the different chemical constituents of the sample, while Figure 13B shows their characteristic SRS spectra. Note that the data shown in Figure 13A not only allows the user to easily identify the different constituents of the sample but also to perform more quantitative analysis. For example, by using the concentration maps, we could calculate the mean of the fractional concentration of each chemical species: 38% DMSO, 25% PMMA, 14% PS, and 22% Olive oil.
<img alt="Laser spectroscopy diagram with fiber laser setup and OPO for transient absorption measurement." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig01.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 1"> 
Figure 1: Schematic of the broadband SRS microscope employed in this protocol. Abbreviations: PBSx = polarizing beamsplitter; SHG = second harmonic generation module; OPO = optical parametric oscillator; AOM = acousto optic modulator; SPF = short-pass filter; M-LIA: Multichannel lock-in amplifier; DM = dichroic mirror. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Optical excitation measurement; graph shows spectral intensity of tunable pump and Stokes components." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig02.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 2"> 
Figure 2: Spectra of the tunable broadband pump (blue) and the narrowband (red) Stokes beams. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Polymer membrane formation diagram, showing PS, PMMA in DMSO, oil interface under microscope." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig03.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 3"> 
Figure 3: Brightfield image of the chemically heterogeneous sample. Note that conventional microscopy does not allow the different constituents to be distinguished. Scale bar = 100 µm. Abbreviations: PS = polystyrene; PMMA = polymethyl methacrylate; DMSO = dimethyl sulfoxide. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Transient absorption spectroscopy chart with optical setup diagram; amplitude vs. time analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig04.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 4"> 
Figure 4: Modulation of the narrowband Stokes pulses. (A) The transparent blue trace shows the 0th diffracted beam, while the black one shows the corresponding 1st order. (B) Optical setup for optimizing the modulation efficiency of the 1st order diffracted beam and finetuning of the Stokes beam's spot size prior to arriving at the excitation objective. Abbreviations: AOM = acousto optic modulator; fx = focal length of lens X. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Nonlinear optics diagram of SHG and OPO processes with LBO crystals, illustrating wave interactions." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig05.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 5"> 
Figure 5: Nonlinear optical processes required to drive the OPO. (A) Geometry of the SHG interaction. Two fundamental photons at ω1 bring the material system to a high-energy virtual level, from where the material system leaps down to the ground state, emitting a photon at ωSHG. (B) Scheme of the SHG experiment. (C) A schematic of the SHG and OPO setups. (D) Geometry of the DFG interaction. A ωSHG photon is split into the signal (ωSignal) and idler (ωIdler) photons. A gain of the signal beam is achieved by feeding back the signal photons and making them resonate in the cavity. (E) Scheme of the DFG experiment. Abbreviations: SMx = spherical mirror (R = 75 mm); OPO = optical parametric oscillator; SHG = second harmonic generation module; DFG = difference-frequency generation; LBO = lithium triborate; OC = oil condenser; DM = dichroic mirror; fx = focal length of lens X. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Optical beam path with prisms, diagram shows refraction angles, dispersion, and spectral analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig06.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 6"> 
Figure 6: Geometry of the prism compressor. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Ultrafast spectroscopy setup with SHG and SFG labeled; corresponding SFG amplitude graph." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig07.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 7"> 
Figure 7: Sum-frequency generation to optimize spatiotemporal overlap. (A) SFG between the pump and Stokes and their respective SHG impinging on a screen. Here, a lens focused the pump and the Stokes beams onto the crystal, while a low-pass filter removed them. (B) Intensity of the SFG between pump and Stokes as a function of time delay. Set the time zero of the SRS setup at the position that maximizes the SFG. The asymmetry of the cross-correlation in B is due to the temporal profile caused by the etalon on the Stokes beam. Abbreviations: SFG = sum-frequency generation; SHG = second harmonic generation module; SRS = stimulated Raman scattering spectroscopy. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig07large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="RIN chart; Stokes, Pump noise vs Frequency; SRS ideal bandwidth; scientific graph analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig08.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 8"> 
Figure 8: RIN spectra. The band highlighted in green shows the best spectral region for the SRS experiments. Modulating the Stokes beam at any frequency within this band guarantees that the effects of the laser noise on the SRS signal will be the lowest possible. Abbreviations: RIN = relative intensity noise; SRS = stimulated Raman scattering spectroscopy. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig08large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Spectroscopy interference pattern; diagrams show pump, Stokes, and pump+Stokes light interactions." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig09.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 9"> 
Figure 9: Beam profiles. (A) Pump, (B) Stokes, and (C) pump and Stokes. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig09large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Optical system diagram with linear detector, angle β, and lens parameters f, l for spectral analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig10.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 10"> 
Figure 10: Assumed geometry for a dispersion grating and a photodiode array detector. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig10large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Spectroscopy graph and microscopy images: unbalanced vs balanced SRS contrast and signal analysis." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig11.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 11"> 
Figure 11. The effects of balanced detection. Effects on spectra (A, C) and chemical images (B, D). The composites shown in panels (B) and (D) are the final results of the experiments (i.e., after chemometric analysis of hyperspectral data. See protocol section 4 for details). Scale bars = 10 µm. Abbreviation: SRS = stimulated Raman scattering spectroscopy. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig11large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Spectroscopy 3D diagram, wavenumber cm⁻¹, molecular absorption analysis, spectral data visualization." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig12.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 12"> 
Figure 12: A representative SRS hypercube acquired with broadband SRS microscopy. The x-y plane stores the coordinates of the scanned positions, while each vector along z registers an SRS spectrum. Abbreviation: SRS = stimulated Raman scattering spectroscopy. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig12large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Microscopy image with spectral analysis graph, showcasing particle distribution and wavelength data." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig13.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 13"> 
Figure 13: Chemometric analysis of hyperspectral SRS data. (A) Composite of the concentration maps of the different constituents of the sample. (B) Characteristic spectra of the chemical species. In both panels, yellow: olive oil, blue: DMSO, cyan: PS, and orange: PMMA. Scale bar = 20 µm (A). Abbreviations: SRS = stimulated Raman scattering spectroscopy; PS = polystyrene; PMMA = polymethyl methacrylate. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63709/63709fig13large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Multiplex Chemical Imaging Based on Broadband Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy at JoVE.com

Multiplex Chemical Imaging Based on Broadband Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

We present a protocol to acquire chemical images with broadband stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy. Based on an SRS microscope that operates with differential multichannel-lock-in detection, the protocol describes the sample preparation, adjustment of the SRS apparatus, and chemometrics to disentangle different constituents of chemically heterogeneous samples.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy is a nonlinear optical technique for label-free chemical imaging. This analytical tool delivers chemical maps ...

multiplex-chemical-imaging-based-on-broadband-stimulated-raman

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

3.9K Views.  Politecnico di Milano. Ons protocol beschrijft hoe een gestimuleerde Raman Scattering Microscopie te bouwen, die het mogelijk maakt om het trillingsspectrum van de moleculen binnen microseconden te meten. En wanneer het wordt toegepast op beeldvorming, kan het hyperspectrale microscopie bieden om de chemische bestanddelen van de materie op een labelvrije en niet-invasieve manier te lokaliseren en te kwantificeren. Er zijn verschillende toepassingen van dit protocol, voornamelijk in de biologische en biomedische wet...

Video: Multiplex Chemical Imaging Based on Broadband Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Implementation of a Nonlinear Microscope Based on Stimulated Raman Scattering

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy uses near-infrared excitation light; therefore, it shares many multi-photon microscopic imaging properties. SRS imaging modality can be obtained using commercial laser-scanning microscopes by equipping with a non-descanned forward detector with proper bandpass filters and lock-in amplifier (LIA) detection scheme. A schematic layout of a typical SRS microscope includes the following: two pulsed laser beams, (i.e., the pump and probe directed in a scanning microscope), which must be overlapped in both space and time at the image plane, then focused by a microscope objective into the sample through two scanning mirrors (SMs), which raster the focal spot across an x-y plane. After interaction with the sample, transmitted output pulses are collected by an upper objective and measured by a forward detection system inserted in an inverted microscope. Pump pulses are removed by a stack of optical filters, whereas the probe pulses that are the result of the SRS process occurring in the focal volume of the specimen are measured by a photodiode (PD). The readout of the PD is demodulated by the LIA to extract the modulation depth. A two-dimensional (2D) image is obtained by synchronizing the forward detection unit with the microscope scanning unit. In this paper, the implementation of an SRS microscope is described and successfully demonstrated, as well as the reporting of label-free images of polystyrene beads with diameters of 3 &#181;m. It is worth noting that SRS microscopes are not commercially available, so in order to take advantage of these characteristics, the homemade construction is the only option. Since SRS microscopy is becoming popular in many fields, it is believed that this careful description of the SRS microscope implementation can be very useful for the scientific community.

In this manuscript, the implementation of a stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscope, obtained by the integration of an SRS experimental set-up with a laser scanning microscope, is described. The SRS microscope is based on two femtosecond (fs) laser sources, a Ti-Sapphire (Ti:Sa) and synchronized optical parametric oscillator (OPO).

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy uses near-infrared excitation light; therefore, it shares many multi-photon microscopic imaging properties. ...

Direct Comparison of Hyperspectral Stimulated Raman Scattering and Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy for Chemical Imaging

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy are the most widely used coherent Raman scattering imaging technologies. Hyperspectral SRS and CARS imaging offer Raman spectral information at every pixel, which enables better separation of different chemical compositions. Although both techniques require two excitation lasers, their signal detection schemes and spectral properties are quite different. The goal of this protocol is to perform both hyperspectral SRS and CARS imaging on a single platform and compare the two microscopy techniques for imaging different biological samples. The spectral focusing method is employed to acquire spectral information using femtosecond lasers. By using standard chemical samples, the sensitivity, spatial resolution, and spectral resolution of SRS and CARS in the same excitation conditions (i.e., power at the sample, pixel dwell time, objective lens, pulse energy) are compared. The imaging contrasts of CARS and SRS for biological samples are juxtaposed and compared. The direct comparison of CARS and SRS performances would allow for optimal selection of the modality for chemical imaging.

This paper directly compares the resolution, sensitivity, and imaging contrasts of stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) integrated into the same microscope platform. The results show that CARS has a better spatial resolution, SRS gives better contrasts and spectral resolution, and both methods have similar sensitivity.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy are the most widely used coherent Raman scattering imaging ...

Chemistry

Differential Imaging of Biological Structures with Doubly-resonant Coherent Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (CARS)

Coherent Raman imaging techniques have seen a dramatic increase in activity over the past decade due to their promise to enable label-free optical imaging with high molecular specificity 1. The sensitivity of these techniques, however, is many orders of magnitude weaker than fluorescence, requiring milli-molar molecular concentrations 1,2. Here, we describe a technique that can enable the detection of weak or low concentrations of Raman-active molecules by amplifying their signal with that obtained from strong or abundant Raman scatterers. The interaction of short pulsed lasers in a biological sample generates a variety of coherent Raman scattering signals, each of which carry unique chemical information about the sample. Typically, only one of these signals, e.g. Coherent Anti-stokes Raman scattering (CARS), is used to generate an image while the others are discarded. However, when these other signals, including 3-color CARS and four-wave mixing (FWM), are collected and compared to the CARS signal, otherwise difficult to detect information can be extracted 3. For example, doubly-resonant CARS (DR-CARS) is the result of the constructive interference between two resonant signals 4. We demonstrate how tuning of the three lasers required to produce DR-CARS signals to the 2845 cm-1 CH stretch vibration in lipids and the 2120 cm-1 CD stretching vibration of a deuterated molecule (e.g. deuterated sugars, fatty acids, etc.) can be utilized to probe both Raman resonances simultaneously. Under these conditions, in addition to CARS signals from each resonance, a combined DR-CARS signal probing both is also generated. We demonstrate how detecting the difference between the DR-CARS signal and the amplifying signal from an abundant molecule's vibration can be used to enhance the sensitivity for the weaker signal. We further demonstrate that this approach even extends to applications where both signals are generated from different molecules, such that e.g. using the strong Raman signal of a solvent can enhance the weak Raman signal of a dilute solute.

Differential Imaging of Biological Structures with Doubly-resonant Coherent Anti-stokes Raman Scattering CARS

A combination of three single wavelength short-pulsed lasers is used to generate coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) and doubly-resonant CARS (DR-CARS). The difference between these signals provides enhanced sensitivity for otherwise difficult to detect coherent Raman signals, enabling imaging of weak Raman scatterers.

Coherent Raman imaging techniques have seen a dramatic increase in activity over the past decade due to their promise to enable label-free optical imaging ...

Biology

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy enables label-free imaging of the biological tissues in its natural microenvironment based on intrinsic molecular vibration, thus providing a perfect tool for in vivo study of biological processes at subcellular resolution. By integrating two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) imaging into the SRS microscope, the dual-modal in vivo imaging of tissues can acquire critical biochemical and biophysical information from multiple perspectives which helps understand the dynamic processes involved in cellular metabolism, immune response and tissue remodeling, etc. In this video protocol, the setup of a TPEF-SRS microscope system as well as the in vivo imaging method of the animal spinal cord is introduced. The spinal cord, as part of the central nervous system, plays a critical role in the communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system. Myelin sheath, abundant in phospholipids, surrounds and insulates the axon to permit saltatory conduction of action potentials. In vivo imaging of myelin sheaths in the spinal cord is important to study the progression of neurodegenerative diseases and spinal cord injury. The protocol also describes animal preparation and in vivo TPEF-SRS imaging methods to acquire high-resolution biological images.

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy allows label-free imaging of biomolecules based on their intrinsic vibration of specific chemical bonds. In this protocol, the instrumental setup of an integrated SRS and two-photon fluorescence microscope is described to visualize cellular structures in the spinal cord of live mice.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy enables label-free imaging of the biological tissues in its natural microenvironment based on intrinsic ...

Bioengineering

Real-Time, Two-Color Stimulated Raman Scattering Imaging of Mouse Brain for Tissue Diagnosis

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy has emerged as a powerful optical imaging technique for tissue diagnosis. In recent years, two-color SRS has been shown to be able to provide hematoxylin and eosin (H&amp;E)-equivalent images that allow fast and reliable diagnosis of brain cancer. Such capability has enabled exciting intraoperative cancer diagnosis applications. Two-color SRS imaging of tissue can be done with either a picosecond or femtosecond laser source. Femtosecond lasers have the advantage of enabling flexible imaging modes, including fast hyperspectral imaging and real-time, two-color SRS imaging. A spectral-focusing approach with chirped laser pulses is typically used with femtosecond lasers to achieve high spectral resolution. 
Two-color SRS acquisition can be realized with orthogonal modulation and lock-in detection. The complexity of pulse chirping, modulation, and characterization is a bottleneck for the widespread adoption of this method. This article provides a detailed protocol to demonstrate the implementation and optimization of spectral-focusing SRS and real-time, two-color imaging of mouse brain tissue in the epi-mode. This protocol can be used for a broad range of SRS imaging applications that leverage the high speed and spectroscopic imaging capability of SRS.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy is a powerful, nondestructive, and label-free imaging technique. One emerging application is stimulated Raman histology, where two-color SRS imaging at the protein and lipid Raman transitions are used to generate pseudo-hematoxylin and eosin images. Here, we demonstrate a protocol for real-time, two-color SRS imaging for tissue diagnosis.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy has emerged as a powerful optical imaging technique for tissue diagnosis. In recent years, two-color SRS has ...

Highly-Multiplexed Tissue Imaging with Raman Dyes

Visualizing a vast scope of specific biomarkers in tissues plays a vital role in exploring the intricate organizations of complex biological systems. Hence, highly multiplexed imaging technologies have been increasingly appreciated. Here, we describe an emerging platform of highly-multiplexed vibrational imaging of specific proteins with comparable sensitivity to standard immunofluorescence via electronic pre-resonance stimulated Raman scattering (epr-SRS) imaging of rainbow-like Raman dyes. This method circumvents the limit of spectrally-resolvable channels in conventional immunofluorescence and provides a one-shot optical approach to interrogate multiple markers in tissues with subcellular resolution. It is generally compatible with standard tissue preparations, including paraformaldehyde-fixed tissues, frozen tissues, and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) human tissues. We envisage this platform will provide a more comprehensive picture of protein interactions of biological specimens, particularly for thick intact tissues. This protocol provides the workflow from antibody preparation to tissue sample staining, to SRS microscope assembly, to epr-SRS tissue imaging.

Electronic pre-resonance stimulated Raman scattering (epr-SRS) imaging of rainbow-like Raman dyes is a new platform for highly multiplexed epitope-based protein imaging. Here, we present a practical guide including antibody preparation, tissue sample staining, SRS microscope assembly, and epr-SRS tissue imaging.

Visualizing a vast scope of specific biomarkers in tissues plays a vital role in exploring the intricate organizations of complex biological systems. ...

Biomolecular Imaging of Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles using Multimodal Nonlinear Optical Microscopy

Probing gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in living systems is essential to reveal the interaction between AuNPs and biological tissues. Moreover, by integrating nonlinear optical signals such as stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF), and transient absorption (TA) into an imaging platform, it can be used to reveal biomolecular contrast of cellular structures and AuNPs in a multimodal manner. This article presents a multimodal nonlinear optical microscopy and applies it to perform chemically specific imaging of AuNPs in cancer cells. This imaging platform provides a novel approach for developing more efficient functionalized AuNPs and determining whether they are within vasculatures surrounding the tumor, pericellular, or cellular spaces.

This article presents the integration of a spectral-focusing module and a dual-output pulse laser, enabling rapid hyperspectral imaging of gold nanoparticles and cancer cells. This work aims to demonstrate the details of multimodal nonlinear optical techniques on a standard laser scanning microscope.

Probing gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in living systems is essential to reveal the interaction between AuNPs and biological tissues. Moreover, by integrating ...

Implementation of a Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) System on a Ti:Sapphire and OPO Laser Based Standard Laser Scanning Microscope

Laser scanning microscopes combining a femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser and an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) to duplicate the laser line have become available for biologists. These systems are primarily designed for multi-channel two-photon fluorescence microscopy. However, without any modification, complementary non-linear optical microscopy such as second-harmonic generation (SHG) or third harmonic generation (THG) can also be performed with this set-up, allowing label-free imaging of structured molecules or aqueous medium-lipid interfaces. These techniques are well suited for in-vivo observation, but are limited in chemical specificity. Chemically selective imaging can be obtained from inherent vibration signals based on Raman scattering. Confocal Raman microscopy provides 3D spatial resolution, but it requires high average power and long acquisition time. To overcome these difficulties, recent advances in laser technology have permitted the development of nonlinear optical vibrational microscopy, in particular coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS). CARS microscopy has therefore emerged as a powerful tool for biological and live cell imaging, by chemically mapping lipids (via C-H stretch vibration), water (via O-H stretch vibrations), proteins or DNA. In this work, we describe the implementation of the CARS technique on a standard OPO-coupled multiphoton laser scanning microscope. It is based on the in-time synchronization of the two laser lines by adjusting the length of one of the laser beam path. We present a step-by-step implementation of this technique on an existing multiphoton system. A basic background in experimental optics is helpful and the presented system does not require expensive supplementary equipment. We also illustrate CARS imaging obtained on myelin sheaths of sciatic nerve of rodent, and we show that this imaging can be performed simultaneously with other nonlinear optical imaging, such as standard two-photon fluorescence technique and second-harmonic generation.

Implementation of a Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering CARS System on a Ti:Sapphire and OPO Laser Based Standard Laser Scanning Microscope

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy based on inherent vibration of molecule bonds permits label-free chemically selective live cell imaging. This work presents the implementation of a complementary microscopy technique on a standard multiphoton laser scanning microscope based on a femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser and an OPO laser.

Laser scanning microscopes combining a femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser and an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) to duplicate the laser line have become ...

Label-Free Imaging of Lipid Storage Dynamics in Caenorhabditis elegans using Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Lipid metabolism is a fundamental physiological process necessary for cellular and organism health. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism often elicits obesity and many associated diseases including cardiovascular disorders, type II diabetes, and cancer. To advance the current understanding of lipid metabolic regulation, quantitative methods to precisely measure in vivo lipid storage levels in time and space have become increasingly important and useful. Traditional approaches to analyze lipid storage are semi-quantitative for microscopic assessment or lacking spatio-temporal information for biochemical measurement. Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy is a label-free chemical imaging technology that enables rapid and quantitative detection of lipids in live cells with a subcellular resolution. As the contrast is exploited from intrinsic molecular vibrations, SRS microscopy also permits four-dimensional tracking of lipids in live animals. In the last decade, SRS microscopy has been widely used for small molecule imaging in biomedical research and overcome the major limitations of conventional fluorescent staining and lipid extraction methods. In the laboratory, we have combined SRS microscopy with the genetic and biochemical tools available to the powerful model organism, Caenorhabditis elegans, to investigate the distribution and heterogeneity of lipid droplets across different cells and tissues and ultimately to discover novel conserved signaling pathways that modulate lipid metabolism. Here, we present the working principles and the detailed setup of the SRS microscope and provide methods for its use in quantifying lipid storage at distinct developmental timepoints of wild-type and insulin signaling deficient mutant C. elegans.

Label-Free Imaging of Lipid Storage Dynamics in Caenorhabditis elegans using Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy allows selective, label-free imaging of specific chemical moieties and it has been effectively employed to image lipid molecules in vivo. Here, we provide a brief introduction to the principle of SRS microscopy and describe methods for its use in imaging lipid storage in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Lipid metabolism is a fundamental physiological process necessary for cellular and organism health. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism often elicits ...

Rapid Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing by Stimulated Raman Scattering Imaging of Deuterium Incorporation in a Single Bacterium

To slow and prevent the spread of antimicrobial resistant infections, rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) is in urgent need to &#65279;quantitatively determine the &#65279;antimicrobial effects on pathogens. &#65279;It typically takes days to complete the AST by conventional methods based on the long-time culture, and they do not work directly for clinical samples. Here, we report a rapid AST &#65279;method enabled by stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) imaging of deuterium oxide (D2O) metabolic incorporation. Metabolic incorporation of D2O into biomass and the metabolic activity inhibition upon exposure to antibiotics at the single bacterium level are monitored by SRS imaging. The&#65279; single-cell metabolism inactivation concentration (SC-MIC) of bacteria upon exposure to antibiotics can be obtained after a total of 2.5 h of sample preparation and detection. Furthermore, this rapid AST method is directly applicable to bacterial samples in complex biological environments, such as urine or whole blood. SRS metabolic imaging of deuterium incorporation is transformative for rapid single-cell phenotypic AST in the clinic.

This protocol presents rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) assay within 2.5 h by single-cell-stimulated Raman scattering imaging of D2O metabolism. This method applies to bacteria in the urine or whole blood environment, which is transformative for rapid single-cell phenotypic AST in the clinic.

Multiplex Chemical Imaging Based on Broadband Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

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