This work was supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health NIDCD Grant #R01 DC010784. We are deeply grateful to the staff, research associates, school administrators, teachers, children, and families who participated. Key personnel included (in alphabetical order) Gary Carstensen, Cecilia Figueroa, Karen Guilmette, Trudy Kuo, Bjorg LeSueur, Annelise Pesch, and Jean Zimmer. Many students also contributed to this work, including (in alphabetical order) Genesis Arizmendi, Lauren Baron, Alexander Brown, Nora Schlesinger, Nisha Talanki, and Hui-Chun Yang.

All procedures described below were approved by the human research ethics review boards at the participating institutions.
1. Preparation and Seating
<ol>
	<li>To begin, seat the child in front of the computer and fit him with an adjustable headphone/microphone combination set. Use a headphone splitter to connect a set of headphones that the assistant will wear during the administration of the battery. 
	NOTE: Throughout the administration of the protocol, an assistant sits beside the child to monitor the child&#39;s attention to the tasks; to enter response data, as described below; and to ensure the child&#39;s fidelity to the CABC-WM protocol (e.g., to ensure that the child uses his dominant hand to respond, attends to the computer screen, etc.).</li>
</ol>
2. Initial Instructions to the Subject
<ol>
	<li>Instruct the child to use the touchscreen interface to select a pirate avatar that he will use throughout the game. 
	NOTE: Within the game, the child will traverse a virtual ocean to complete 13 working memory tasks, distributed across four islands (each island is completed on a different day to prevent fatigue). See Figure 1. Individual tasks are represented by icons (e.g., different icons of toys on Toy Island). Tasks are randomized across children; thus, the computer randomly selects the order of task presentation for each child.</li>
</ol>
3. Selection of the Avatar
<ol>
	<li>After selecting the pirate avatar, direct the child to select an island to complete. Instruct the child to select one of the picture icons on his selected island, which will start a task. 
	NOTE: Each island has 3-5 tasks (see Figure 1), each of which are represented by picture icons. Tasks are randomly presented by the CABC-WM so a particular picture icon is not necessarily associated with a particular task. For each task, an introduction screen appears first, which signals to the assistant what materials are needed (e.g., removing the keyboard, placing labels on the keyboard, etc.) for that specific task.
	<ol>
		<li>When the materials are arranged appropriately, ask the assistant to press the 9 key on the 10-key number pad to start the task. Once a child has completed a task (as described in the protocol below), the selected island reappears and the child selects the next task. The session continues until all tasks on the island have been completed. 
		NOTE: All tasks within the CABC-WM are narrated by a pirate who provides standardized verbal instructions for each task. Each task is categorized below according to each working memory component, including: 1) central executive, 2) phonological working memory, 3) visuospatial working memory, and 4) binding. Comprehensive descriptions of each task were provided above in the introduction of the manuscript.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Central Executive Tasks
<ol>
	<li>N-back Auditory
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard in front of the child, and place a green sticker on the C key and a red sticker on the M key. Press 9 on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. Ensure that the child indicates his response by selecting the respective labeled key on the keyboard. 
		NOTE: The red sticker represents different and the green sticker represents same; this is how the child indicates the same/difference response in this task. The CABC-WM narrator instructs the child to judge whether an auditory stimulus (i.e., atone) is the same or different from the preceding stimulus.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>N-back Visual
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard in front of the child, and place a green sticker on the C key and a red sticker on the M key. Press 9 on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child 
		NOTE: The red sticker represents &#39;different&#39; and the green sticker represents same; this is how the child indicates the same/difference response in this task. The CABC-WM narrator instructs the child to judge whether a visual stimulus (i.e., a &#39;game piece&#39;) is the same or different from the immediately preceding visual stimulus.</li>
		<li>Ensure that the child indicates his response by selecting the respective labeled key on the keyboard.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Number updating
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Direct the child to visually attend to two numbers presented on the computer screen and to the subsequent addition operations. Press 9 on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. 
		NOTE: The child is shown two numbers on the screen. The child is given, in sequence, a series of five addition operations that are applied to the numbers. After each operation, the child provides a verbal running total of the two numbers.</li>
		<li>After the child verbally provides the running total (e.g., 2, 3 or 2,4) for each trial, key the child&#39;s response on the 10-key number pad, which will automatically advance the task to the next trial.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Phonological Working Memory Tasks
<ol>
	<li>Digit Span
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. 
		NOTE: The CABC-WM narrator instructs the child to listen to sequences of digits that increase in length and to repeat as many digits as he can recall.</li>
		<li>Place the keyboard out of reach of the child (the assistant will key the child&#39;s responses). Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. After each trial, enter the digits that the child repeats into the 10-key number pad, regardless of the correctness of his response, on the keyboard. 
		NOTE: The CABC-WM scores the child&#39;s responses as correct if the repeated numbers are in the correct order. The assistant does not judge the accuracy of the child&#39;s response, but simply keys the child&#39;s response into the program for the computer to analyze and score.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Digit Span - Running 
	NOTE: The CABC-WM narrator instructs the child to listen to lists of numbers that range in spans from 7-10 digits in length, and then to repeat as many numbers (in forward order) at the end of the sequence.
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child (the assistant will key the child&#39;s responses). Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. After each trial, enter the digits that the child repeats into the 10-key number pad on the keyboard. 
		NOTE: The CABC-WM scores the child&#39;s responses as correct if the repeated numbers are in the correct order. The assistant does not judge the accuracy of the child&#39;s response, but simply keys the child&#39;s response into the program for the computer to analyze and score.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Nonword Repetition
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. 
		NOTE: The CABC-WM narrator instructs the child to repeat a series of nonwords (e.g., genfad and yitvadgoom) as accurately as possible.</li>
		<li>Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. After the child makes an attempt at repeating each nonword, press the &#39;C&#39; key to indicate an attempt was made and advance to the next trial. If the child does not make a reasonable attempt (e.g., child says, &#39;I don&#39;t know&#39; or does not respond), press the M key to indicate an attempt was not made and the next trial will begin.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Visuospatial Working Memory Tasks
NOTE: At the start of each task, the CABC-WM narrator provides instructions to the child.
<ol>
	<li>Location Span
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. Monitor the child&#39;s attention to the task which requires him to recall a series of locations on the computer screen and while he responds by touching the screen to make his selections.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Location Span - Running
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child.</li>
		<li>Monitor the child&#39;s attention to the task while he recalls, in forward order, as many locations presented from the end of a sequence of unpredictable length. After the child touches the screen to respond, ensure that the child selects the NEXT button, a circle in the lower-right corner of the screen that is labeled NEXT, to advance the CABC-WM to the next trial.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visual Span
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child. Monitor the child&#39;s attention to the task while, when prompted, he uses the touchscreen to select the order of presented polygons in spans of 2-6 lengths.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visual Span - Running
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child.</li>
		<li>Monitor the child&#39;s attention to the task while, when prompted, he uses the touchscreen to select the order of polygons that he can recall in forward order, as many polygons as possible from an unpredictable span length. After the child touches the screen to respond, ensure that the child selects the &#39;NEXT&#39; button, a circle in the lower-right corner of the screen that is labeled &#39;NEXT&#39;, to advance the CABC-WM to the next trial.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
7. Binding Tasks
<ol>
	<li>Phonological Binding Span
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child.</li>
		<li>Listen for the child&#39;s verbal response when he is asked for the nonword that was paired with the non-speech sound. If the child makes a reasonable attempt, press the C key to indicate that an attempt was made and to advance the task to the next trial. If the child does not make a reasonable attempt (e.g., the child says &#39;I don&#39;t know&#39; or does not respond), press the &#39;M&#39; key to indicate that an attempt was not made and to allow the next trial to begin.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visual Binding Span
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child.</li>
		<li>After the child is presented with polygons in their respective locations on the screen (increasing in span length from 1 to 6 polygons at a time for each trial), monitor the child while he uses the touchscreen to move the polygons into the grid locations he recalls. After the child finishes his selections, ensure that the child selects the &#39;NEXT&#39; button, a circle in the lower-right corner of the screen that is labeled &#39;NEXT&#39;, to advance the CABC-WM to the next trial.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cross-Modal Binding
	<ol>
		<li>Read the instruction screen that appears after the child selects the task icon on the selected island of the session. Place the keyboard out of reach of the child. Press &#39;9&#39; on the 10-key number pad to start the task for the child.</li>
		<li>As the child is presented with a polygon to label after learning the polygon-nonword pairings in spans of 1-6 pairings, monitor the child&#8217;s responses. If the child makes a reasonable attempt, press the &#39;C &#39;key to indicate that an attempt was made and to advance the task to the next trial. If the child does not make a reasonable attempt (e.g., the child says &#39;I don&#8217;t know&#39; or does not respond), press the &#39;M&#39; key to indicate that an attempt was not made and to allow the next trial to begin</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+strategies+in+immediate+memory.">Behavioral strategies in immediate memory.</a> J Verb Learn Verb Be. 8 (4), 524-528 (1969).</li><li>Hockey, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rate+of+presentation+in+running+memory+and+direct+manipulation+of+input+processing+strategies.">Rate of presentation in running memory and direct manipulation of input processing strategies.</a> Q J Exp Psychol. 25 (1), 104-111 (1973).</li><li>Green, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+internal+consistency+coefficients+for+estimating+reliability+of+experimental+task+scores.">Use of internal consistency coefficients for estimating reliability of experimental task scores.</a> Psychon B R. , 1-14 (2015).</li><li>Raju, N. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The CABC-WM was developed to comprehensively assess working memory in children based on prominent theories of working memory. Multiple tasks assess central executive, phonological working memory, visuospatial working memory, and binding functions.
Presently, the CABC-WM is undergoing additional refinement and testing. On occasion, the research assistant may encounter technical problems with the CABC-WM interface due to programming glitches or computer errors. The research team provides all assistants with a troubleshooting manual to address known problems (e.g., the program may get stuck on a screen and need manual advancement), as well as extensive training regarding adherence to the troubleshooting protocol. Due to the duration of research sessions, child participants may become bored or frustrated with the program. Research assistants are trained to accommodate the child with breaks as necessary to maintain motivation and attention to the tasks. On rare occasions, the computer program has been known to require a reboot to continue. In those instances, if administration was interrupted mid-task, the task is not readministered, and that data is lost. The research team is diligently working to minimize these occurrences.
For now, the entire research battery should be administered, because children&#39;s performances on individual tasks presented outside the game environment have not been assessed. We are conducting studies to reduce the number of items in the battery, to assess the validity, and to determine how older elementary children perform on these measures. The research version of the CABC-WM requires five 30 to 45 min sessions to complete. This provides a comprehensive assessment of working memory for young elementary school children that may be of interest to researchers, but in its current form, the battery is not practical for practitioners. The validity of working memory models and task reliability have been reported for second graders in the U.S. The next steps are to test the battery in an expanded age range of children, to reduce the number of tasks in the battery, and to test concurrent validity.
There are only two known assessments specifically designed to measure working memory that are currently available for children11,12. The CABC-WM represents a more comprehensive alternative to these measures, administered in a child-friendly context (e.g., a computer game) to increase motivation. Results suggest that CABC-WM tasks are reliable when administered to second graders with typical development.
Findings from the initial sample of second-grade children are being used to refine the CABC-WM battery. The next steps are to assess the reliability and validity of the battery in a wider age range of children. The long-term goals of this research are to help educators and families understand the individual working memory strengths and weaknesses of children to support differentiated instruction and to help each child understand their working memory profile to empower their self-advocacy and use of strategies to increase academic achievement.

Working memory is the limited capacity system that enables an individual to mentally hold and manipulate incoming information while completing cognitive tasks5,6. Individual differences in working memory impact cognitive, scholastic, and professional performance in adults7,8 and children9,10. Despite the connection between working memory and learning, few diagnostic tools are available to comprehensively assess working memory in children11,12.
The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) was designed to assess working memory at its most elemental level, as envisioned by multiple prominent working memory models, including those proposed by Baddeley and colleagues5,13,14 and Cowan and colleagues15,16,17. Baddeley14 proposes four separate working memory components: a central executive/attention controller that focuses, switches, and divides attention and links long-term and working memory; a visuospatial sketchpad that holds visual and spatial information; a phonological loop that holds speech-based and other acoustic information; and an episodic buffer that forms an interface among working memory components and binds information from subsystems and long-term memory. On the other hand, Cowan posits that working memory may be part of a larger, more unitary construct primarily guided by the focus of attention, in addition to central executive and phonological storage and rehearsal subsystems15,16,17. The CABC-WM includes 13 working memory tasks that measure the central executive (or focus of attention), visuospatial, phonological, and binding subsystems of working memory. We aimed for three measures of each construct to support the use of latent variables. Several of the tasks included in the CABC-WM were modeled after tasks originally designed for adults, who typically have a higher tolerance than children for complex tasks. We adapted the tasks to make them motivating for children by presenting them in a pirate-themed computer game with visually-appealing graphics, virtual rewards, and a touch-screen interface. We also limited the number of tasks presented in a single research session and the number of trials in each task to decrease the likelihood of fatigue. Finally, to increase the reliability of the battery, tasks were designed to be easy to administer and score. All tasks included standardized instructions presented by the computer as part of each game. Most of the tasks have automated scoring that reduces the opportunity for human error during data processing. Details of the tasks can be found in Table 1 and are described below.
Central Executive Tasks
N-back auditory, N-back visual, and number updating tasks assess central executive function. The N-back task is an updating task that presents a sequence of stimuli, after which subjects are asked to judge whether a stimulus is the same or different from the preceding stimulus. The N-back auditory task is presented in the context of a robot band playing different instruments with differing tones. Children listen to the tones in sequence. After each tone is heard the child decides whether the new tone is the same or different from the preceding tone and responds by pushing labeled same/different keys on the keyboard. Pilot data showed that a 1-back task was doable by elementary-age children. The N-back Visual task is presented in the context of robots playing a game with patterned game pieces. Each game piece is a black square with different patterns of white dots. Children see a series of individual game pieces. After each piece is shown, they decide whether the pattern is the same or different from the preceding piece and show their response by pushing labeled same/different keys on the keyboard. Again, pilot data showed that only a 1-back task was at the appropriate level for young children completing this battery. The number updating task assesses a child&#39;s ability to maintain information in working memory and to update it when additional information is provided. This task is presented in the context of a toy factory where the child&#39;s task is to keep track of the running total of yoyos and teddy bears manufactured. Initially, children are shown two digits to remember, one digit for the number of yoyos and the other for the number of teddy bears. The children are then shown an addition operation (e.g., +1, +2, etc.) for one of the digits, which they use to update the digit total. Children are given five operations in sequence before the numbers are reset and they begin again.
Phonological Working Memory
&#39;Phonological working memory&#39; is responsible for mentally holding and manipulating acoustic and speech-based information. Phonological working memory is assessed using &#39;digit span&#39;, &#39;digit span-running&#39;, and &#39;nonword repetition&#39; tasks. The &#39;digit span&#39; task requires children to repeat lists that vary in length from 2-8 digits. This task is presented to children in the context of playing a copycat game with a robot. The child repeats what the robot says, trying to remember as many digits in the sequence as possible. The &#39;digit span-running&#39; task is presented in the context of playing a copycat game with sea monsters who read lists of numbers 7-10 digits in length; however, children do not know how many digits will be presented in a list. When the list is completed, the child is prompted to recall as many digits as possible, in forward order, from the end of the list. In the &#39;nonword repetition&#39; task, children repeat novel words (e.g., &#39;genfad&#39; and &#39;yitvodgoom&#39;), which help the pirate build a candy bridge over a river.
Visuospatial Working Memory
&#39;Visuospatial working memory&#39; is the component of working memory that mentally holds and manipulates visual and spatial information. Visuospatial working memory is assessed with &#39;location span&#39;, &#39;location span-running&#39;, &#39;visual span&#39;, and &#39;visual span-running&#39; tasks. The location span task requires children to remember the endpoint location of a series of arrows that direct a pirate to buried treasure. The locations are displayed in an array of eight dots radiating from the center of the screen at equidistant angles. After children see the series, they point to as many locations as they can remember in sequence. The &#39;location span-running&#39; task is the same as the location span task except that children do not know how many locations will be presented. The &#39;visual span&#39; task is similar to the &#39;location span&#39; task. Children see a series of 1-6 individual black polygons (i.e., &#39;gems&#39; in the context of the game) appear on the screen, one at a time. After seeing each series, six polygons appear in a line on the screen. Children select the order in which they appeared, using the touchscreen. The &#39;visual span-running&#39; task is similar to the visual span task except that children do not know how many polygons will appear. At the end of the sequence, children recall the polygons in forward order. The span lengths vary from 3 to 6 polygons.
Binding Tasks
&#39;Binding tasks&#39; refer to the component of working memory that forms a temporary interface among the various working memory components (e.g., phonological and visuospatial) and binds information within and across these subsystems and long-term memory. Binding tasks include &#39;phonological binding span&#39;, &#39;visual binding span&#39;, and &#39;cross-modal binding&#39;. The &#39;phonological binding span&#39; task requires children to learn pairings of non-speech sounds (e.g., beeps and tones) with single-syllable nonwords (e.g., vope and meck). This task is presented in the context of robots speaking a special &#39;robot language&#39; to order candy at a candy store. Children start by hearing one sound with one nonword in a sequence, but the task increases in difficulty until they hear up to four sound-nonword pairings in a sequence. The &#39;visual binding span&#39; task requires children to remember two paired pieces of visual information, such as where individual polygons are located in a 4 x 4 grid. Span length increases from 1 to 6 polygons. After the last polygon in each trial has been displayed, an identical, blank 4 x 4 grid appears on the screen next to a field of the six optional polygons. Children use the touchscreen to select and drag the polygons to their proper location within the grid. Children are allowed to move polygons around the grid until they are satisfied with their selection. &#39;Cross-modal binding&#39; requires the binding of auditory nonwords (e.g., koov and geem) with black polygon shapes. This task is presented in the context of learning the name of game pieces. As each individual polygon is shown in the center of the screen, children hear a 1-syllable nonword paired with that polygon. Each trial varies in the number of pairs presented, ranging from 1 to 6. After the last pair is presented, a selection screen showing the field of six polygons appears. Children hear each nonword, one at a time, and use the touchscreen to indicate the polygon that goes with that nonword. The nonwords are not replayed in the order in which they were presented.
CABC-WM Administration and Results
The protocol for administering the CABC-WM is described below. Following this, results of the CABC-WM measures and reported task reliability are provided for a sample of typically-developing children. The presented CABC-WM battery is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen monitor using a pirate-themed context for the games. The child sits directly in front of the touch screen. A research assistant sits beside the child to monitor the child&#39;s attention or need for breaks. The assistant also records data for the tasks that are not automatically recorded by the computer program (see below). At the conclusion of each task, the CABC-WM prompts the child to select the next task. After the last task has been completed in the research session, the CABC-WM concludes by allowing the child to purchase items for his pirate avatar in a virtual store.
All tasks begin with a set of training trials that the child is required to pass before proceeding to the test trials. If a child cannot pass the training trials after five attempts, the task is discontinued. Please see Table 1 for individual task details including: stimuli used, conditions, number of training trials and task trials, average task length, and dependent variables.

<table><tbody><tr><td>21.5 inch touchscreen computer with standard keyboard and 10-key number pad and mouse</td><td>Toshiba</td><td>DZ125-S2101</td><td>This desktop touchscreen PC is used to administer the Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM).&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Binaural headphones with microphone - child</td><td>Sennheiser</td><td>PC-150</td><td>This mic/headphone combination set deliver audio content and record verbal responses from participants while completing the CABC-WM</td></tr><tr><td>Headphones - adult</td><td>Sennheiser</td><td>HD 280 PRO</td><td>These headphones are worn by the assistant to monitor administration of the CABC-WM</td></tr><tr><td>Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM)</td><td>in-house</td><td>Reference: Gray, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T.P., Green, S., &amp;amp; Cowan, N. (n.d.). Comprehensive assessment battery for children - Working memory. Unpublished measure under development.</td><td>This program has been designed using Adobe Flash by our research team. We are refining and developing the program as described in the manuscript for consumer use.&amp;nbsp; It is not yet available to the public, although it is a primary goal to prepare the CABC-WM for practitioner use.</td></tr></tbody></table>

assessing working memory in children: the comprehensive assessment battery for children &#8211; working memory (cabc-wm)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

The CABC-WM was administered to 168 children with typical development who were enrolled in or had just completed second grade (mean age = 7; SD = 4.99 months). Children also met the following inclusionary criteria: a) had no history of neuropsychiatric disorders (e.g., ADHD or autism spectrum disorder), b) had no history of receiving special education services, c) spoke monolingual English, d) had not repeated a grade, e) had a standard score &#62;30th percentile on the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation -2 (GFTA)18, f) had a standard score &#62;87 on the core language composite of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition (CELF-4)19, g) had a 2nd grade composite standard score &#62;95 on the Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (TOWRE-2)20, and h) had a standard score &#62;74 on the Nonverbal Index of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC)21. Table 2 presents the pass rates, means, standard deviations, and range of scores across each task. Some children did not complete all tasks. In some cases, this was due to equipment failure (about 4%) or because the child was unable to pass the training phase of a task. For children who successfully passed the training phase, we observed no floor or ceiling effects, suggesting that the tasks were developmentally appropriate for capturing a range of performances across children. Based on training success, the most difficult tasks to pass were &#39;digit span-running&#39; and &#39;visual span-running&#39;, with pass rates of 70.7% and 80.4%, respectively. All other tasks were passed by at least 90% of the children.
Tasks of the CABC-WM have been used to test the fit of prominent models of working memory22. Based on confirmatory factor analyses, the tasks of the CABC-WM were used to define a final model of working memory that can best be described as a combination of Cowan&#39;s three-factor embedded processes model15,16 of central executive, focus of attention, and phonological storage and rehearsal with Baddeley and Hitch&#39;s three-factor model5 of central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, and phonological loop (see Figure 2). The first identified factor in the combined model, the central executive, included the n-back tasks and the updating task. The second factor was the focus of attention/visuospatial sketchpad. Tasks loading onto this factor included traditional visually based tasks, such as visual span and location span, but also included running tasks which, as described above, are those tasks that have an unpredictable list length that does not allow for rehearsal23,24. The third identified factor, the phonological storage and rehearsal/phonological loop, included those tasks involving speech and auditory stimuli, such as digit span, phonological binding, and non-word repetition. See Gray et al.22 for a complete review. These representative results confirm the utility of the tasks of the CABC-WM for measuring discrete components of working memory in the current sample of children.
Reliability
The reliability of the CABC-WM22 tasks were assessed by calculating split-half and split-third coefficients (which are special cases of the more general K-split coefficient25,26,27). A complete description of how we split items may be obtained from the first author. Reliability for each task is shown in Table 3. Most reliabilities were moderate to high in value, providing evidence that the majority of the individual tasks in the CABC-WM are reliable. The binding tasks showed lower reliabilities, which warrants further investigation.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55121/55121fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Distribution of Working Memory Tasks Across the Islands of the CABC-WM. Island order and task order were randomized for each child. Tasks were distributed across islands to counterbalance presentation and to standardize the amount of time required for island completion. (Abbreviations: VSS: Visuospatial working memory; PL: Phonological working memory; CE: Central Executive; BT: Binding Tasks
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55121/55121fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Combined Model of Working Memory with Standardized Coefficients. This figure shows the factors and factor loadings for tasks of the CABC-WM. Standardized coefficients are presented in the figure. See Gray et al.22 for further details. (*Reprinted with permission from Gray et al.)22.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Task Name</td>
			<td>Stimuli Used</td>
			<td>Conditions or Trial Types</td>
			<td>Number of Training Blocks and Trials (in parentheses)</td>
			<td>Criterion for Passing Training</td>
			<td>Number of Trials</td>
			<td>Task Length (minutes)</td>
			<td>Dependent Variable(s)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="8">Central Executive Tasks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-back Auditory (Updating)</td>
			<td>&#8226; Tones 
			&#8226; Image of robot band</td>
			<td>&#8226; Same 
			&#8226; Different</td>
			<td>1 training block: 
			&#8226; Same (3) 
			&#8226; Different (3)</td>
			<td>4/6</td>
			<td>54 (3 blocks each with 9 Same, 9 Different)</td>
			<td>6.5</td>
			<td>Mean accuracy for same and different trials combined</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-back Visual (Updating)</td>
			<td>&#8226; Images of black squares with white dots</td>
			<td>&#8226; Same 
			&#8226; Different</td>
			<td>1 training block: 
			&#8226; Same (3) 
			&#8226; Different (3)</td>
			<td>4/6</td>
			<td>54 (3 blocks each with 9 Same, 9 Different)</td>
			<td>7.5</td>
			<td>Mean accuracy for same and different trials combined</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Number Updating (Updating)</td>
			<td>&#8226; Visual presentation of numbers and operations</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>2 training blocks: 
			&#8226; Each block (5)</td>
			<td>5/5 each block</td>
			<td>15 (3 blocks each with 5 trials)</td>
			<td>7.2</td>
			<td>Mean accuracy for all trials</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="8">Phonological Working Memory Tasks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digit Span</td>
			<td>&#8226; Auditory recordings of digits 1-9 (except 7 because it is 2 syllables)</td>
			<td>Span length (2-8 digits)</td>
			<td>1 training block: 
			&#8226; 2 trials</td>
			<td>2/2</td>
			<td>14 (2 trials at each span length from 2-8 digits)</td>
			<td>4.5</td>
			<td>Number of trials correct at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digit Span &#8211; Running</td>
			<td>&#8226; Auditory recordings of digits 1-9 (except 7 because it is 2 syllables)</td>
			<td>Span length (7-10 digits)</td>
			<td>3 training blocks: 
			&#8226; 3 trials</td>
			<td>At least 1 correct for each of 3 blocks</td>
			<td>12 (3 trials at each span length from 7-10)</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>Average number of digits recalled in the correct order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nonword Repetition</td>
			<td>&#8226; Auditory recordings of nonwords</td>
			<td>Word length (2-5 syllable nonwords)</td>
			<td>1 training block: 
			&#8226; 3 2-syllable nonwords)</td>
			<td>3 attempted</td>
			<td>16 nonwords (4 at 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-syllable lengths)</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>Number of nonwords repeated with correct consonants at each syllable length x syllable length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="8">Visuospatial Working Memory Tasks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Location Span</td>
			<td>&#8226; An arrow pointing toward a location arranged in a circular pattern</td>
			<td>Span length (2-6 locations)</td>
			<td>3 training blocks: 
			&#8226; 1 location (1) 
			&#8226; 2 locations (2)</td>
			<td>At least 1 at 1 location and 1 at 2 locations</td>
			<td>12 (2 trials at each span length from 2-6 locations)</td>
			<td>4.5</td>
			<td>Number of trials correct at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Location Span Running</td>
			<td>&#8226; An arrow pointing toward a location arranged in a circular pattern</td>
			<td>Span length (5-8 arrows)</td>
			<td>3 training blocks: 
			&#8226; 6 locations (1) 
			&#8226; 7 locations (1) 
			&#8226; 8 locations (1)</td>
			<td>1/1 correct at each length</td>
			<td>12 (3 trials at each span length from 5-8 locations)</td>
			<td>7.5</td>
			<td>Average number of locations correctly identified across all trials</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual Span</td>
			<td>&#8226; Black polygons</td>
			<td>Span length (1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>1 training block 
			&#8226; 1 polygon (1) 
			&#8226; 2 polygons (2)</td>
			<td>3/3</td>
			<td>12 (2 trials at each span length from 1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>6.5</td>
			<td>Correct number of trials at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual Span - Running</td>
			<td>&#8226; Black polygons</td>
			<td>Span length (3-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>1 training block 
			&#8226; 3 polygons (1) 
			&#8226; 4 polygons (1)</td>
			<td>1 correct at each length</td>
			<td>12 (3 trials at each span length from 3-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>7</td>
			<td>Average number of polygons correctly identified in order across all trials</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="8">Binding Tasks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phonological Binding Span</td>
			<td>&#8226; Auditory non-speech sounds (e.g. mechanical noises) 
			&#8226; Auditory recordings of nonwords</td>
			<td>Span length (1-4)</td>
			<td>1 training block 
			&#8226; 1 sound-nonword pair (1) 
			&#8226; 2 sound-nonword pairs (1)</td>
			<td>2/2 attempted</td>
			<td>20 sound/nonword pairings (2 trials each of 1-4 pairs per trial)</td>
			<td>5.2</td>
			<td>Correct number of trials at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual-Spatial Binding Span</td>
			<td>&#8226; Image of a grid 
			&#8226; Black polygons</td>
			<td>Span length (1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>1 training block 
			&#8226; 1 polygon (1) 
			&#8226; 2 polygons (1)</td>
			<td>2/2</td>
			<td>12 (2 trials at each span length from 1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>5.2</td>
			<td>Correct number of trials at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cross-Modal Binding</td>
			<td>&#8226; Black polygons 
			&#8226; Auditory recordings of nonwords</td>
			<td>Span length (1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>1 training block 
			&#8226; 1 nonword-polygon pair(1) 
			&#8226; 2 nonword-polygons (2)</td>
			<td>2/2</td>
			<td>12 (2 trials at each span length from 1-6 polygons)</td>
			<td>6.5</td>
			<td>Correct number of trials at each span length x span length, then sum products</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Task Details for Working Memory Tasks Included in the CABC-WM. The table presents the stimuli used for each task, conditions tested, number of training trials, criteria for passing the training phase, number of task trials, average task length, and dependent variables for each task.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Type of task</td>
			<td>Pass Rate 
			(%)a</td>
			<td>N</td>
			<td>Mean</td>
			<td>SD</td>
			<td>Minimum</td>
			<td>Maximum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Number updating (accuracy)</td>
			<td>91</td>
			<td>155</td>
			<td>0.8</td>
			<td>0.28</td>
			<td>0.14</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-Back Visual (accuracy)</td>
			<td>94.8</td>
			<td>147</td>
			<td>0.77</td>
			<td>0.17</td>
			<td>0.3</td>
			<td>0.96</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-Back Auditory (accuracy)</td>
			<td>98.7</td>
			<td>151</td>
			<td>0.84</td>
			<td>0.14</td>
			<td>0.43</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Location span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>151</td>
			<td>10.59</td>
			<td>5.99</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>30</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Location span running (mean)</td>
			<td>93.4</td>
			<td>152</td>
			<td>1.31</td>
			<td>0.66</td>
			<td>0.08</td>
			<td>3.25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>90.1</td>
			<td>150</td>
			<td>6.75</td>
			<td>5.74</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>27</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual span running (mean)</td>
			<td>80.4</td>
			<td>127</td>
			<td>0.87</td>
			<td>0.66</td>
			<td>0.08</td>
			<td>2.58</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digit span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>150</td>
			<td>19.4</td>
			<td>6.91</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>42</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digit span running (mean)</td>
			<td>70.7</td>
			<td>150</td>
			<td>1.88</td>
			<td>1.24</td>
			<td>0.13</td>
			<td>4.58</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nonword Repetition (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>153</td>
			<td>11.42</td>
			<td>6.3</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>42</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cross-Modal binding (mean)</td>
			<td>99.3</td>
			<td>153</td>
			<td>4.35</td>
			<td>2.64</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>13</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phonological binding span</td>
			<td>99.3</td>
			<td>149</td>
			<td>12.04</td>
			<td>6.89</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>35</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(weighted sum)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visual binding (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>93.4</td>
			<td>145</td>
			<td>4.77</td>
			<td>3.17</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>16</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="7">The percentages exclude data that were excluded because of equipment failure which occurred at a rate of 4.04% or participant issues which included withdrawal from the study or participant declining to complete an activity.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Table 2: Performance on Each CABC-WM Task in Typically Developing Children in the 2nd Grade. The average pass rate is presented for each task. The means reported are raw scores for each task. The percentages exclude data that were discarded because of equipment failure, which occurred at a rate of 4.04%, or participant issues, which included withdrawal from the study or a participant declining to complete an activity.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Type of task</td>
			<td>N</td>
			<td>Reliability</td>
			<td>95% CI of Reliability</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Number updating (accuracy)</td>
			<td>139</td>
			<td>0.95</td>
			<td>[.93, .96]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Number Back Visual (accuracy)</td>
			<td>148</td>
			<td>0.86</td>
			<td>[.81, .90]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Number Back Auditory (accuracy)</td>
			<td>151</td>
			<td>0.82</td>
			<td>[.75, .87]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Location span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>158</td>
			<td>0.7</td>
			<td>[.59, .78]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Location span run (mean)</td>
			<td>146</td>
			<td>0.93</td>
			<td>[.91, .95]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Visual span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>140</td>
			<td>0.73</td>
			<td>[.62, .81]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Visual span run (mean)</td>
			<td>99</td>
			<td>0.84</td>
			<td>[.78, .89]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Digit span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>159</td>
			<td>0.67</td>
			<td>[.55, .76]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Digit span run (mean)</td>
			<td>109</td>
			<td>0.85</td>
			<td>[.79, .89]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Non-Word Rep (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>153</td>
			<td>0.6</td>
			<td>[.45, .71]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Cross-Modal bind (mean)</td>
			<td>153</td>
			<td>0.38</td>
			<td>[.15, .55]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Phonological bind span (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>149</td>
			<td>0.53</td>
			<td>[.35, .66]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Visual bind (weighted sum)</td>
			<td>145</td>
			<td>0.51</td>
			<td>[.32, .65]</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Table 3: Reliability of CABC-WM Tasks. The reliabilities reported are derived from split-half and split-third coefficients, which are special cases of the more general K-split coefficient25,26,27. Most reliabilities were moderate to high in value.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children â€“ Working Memory CABC-WM at JoVE.com

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

assessing-working-memory-children-comprehensive-assessment-battery

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

29.5K Views.  MGH Institute of Health Professions.  Het werkgeheugen voorspelt een aanzienlijke hoeveelheid variantie voor een aantal cognitieve taken, waaronder spreken, lezen en schrijven. Er zijn echter weinig gereedschappen beschikbaar om het werkgeheugen bij kinderen te beoordelen. Wij presenteren een innovatieve, computergebaseerde batterij die de verschillende componenten van het werkgeheugen bij kinderen met een leeftijd van school leert. 

Video: Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children – Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

Universal Screening for Prevention of Reading, Writing, and Math Disabilities in Spanish

The purpose of this study was to describe a Spanish protocol that includes reading, writing, and math Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs) aimed at early detection of students at risk of presenting learning disabilities (LD). Early identification of LD is a critical component of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. In early grades, the screening of foundational skills mentioned above can provide a data-based guideline for identifying students requiring a more intensive response-based intervention before starting elementary school. We designed different CBMs based on indicators of basic early reading, writing, and math skills [Indicadores de Progreso de Aprendizaje en Lectura, Escritura y Matem&#225;ticas, IPAL, IPAE, and IPAM respectively]&#160;that aim to fulfill the twofold objective of universal screening and evaluation of the Spanish students&#8217; progress. For reading, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, concepts about print, and riddles in kindergarten. In first and second grades, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, nonsense words fluency, maze sentences, and oral reading fluency. In addition, it includes phonemic segmentation for first grade and prosody for second grade. For writing, IPAE includes copying letters, writing allographs, dictated letters, dictated words with arbitrary spelling, dictated words with rule-based spelling, dictated nonsense words, dictated sentences, writing sentences, and writing a story for first-third grades. Finally, for math, IPAM includes number comparison, missing number, number identification, quantity array, and counting aloud for kindergarten, and number comparison, multi-digit computation, missing number, single-digit computation, and place value for first-third grades.

This work presents a protocol to administrate Spanish Curriculum-Based Measures for the early detection of reading, math, and writing difficulties. These tools could help practitioners and applied researchers working in the context of the Response to Intervention model.

The purpose of this study was to describe a Spanish protocol that includes reading, writing, and math Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs) aimed at early ...

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations for their chronological age in the areas of reading, writing, and/or mathematics. Each of the disorders making up the LDs involve different deficits; however, some commonalities can be found within that heterogeneity, such in terms of learning self-regulation and metacognition. Unlike in early ages and later educational levels, there are hardly any evidence-based evaluation protocols for adults with LDs. LDs influence academic performance but also have serious consequences in professional, social, and family contexts. In response to this, the current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs. The assessment is carried out through analysis of the on-line learning process using a variety methods, techniques, and sensors (e.g., eye tracking, facial expressions of emotion, physiological responses, concurrent verbalizations, log files, screen recordings of human-machine interactions) and off-line methods (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, and self-report measures). This theoretically-driven and empirically-based guideline aims to provide an accurate assessment of LDs in adulthood in order to design effective prevention and intervention proposals.

The current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs.

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations ...

Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. Also, individual characteristics as predictors of training outcome are still being investigated. In this article, we show the attempt to address this issue by examining not only the impact of working memory (WM) training on cognitive effectiveness in older adults but also the influence of the initial WM capacity (WMC) on the training&#39;s outcome. We describe in detail how to perform 5 weeks of an adaptive dual n-back training with an active control group (memory quiz). We are focusing here on technical aspects of the training as well as on the initial assessment of participants&#39; WMC. The evaluation of pre and post training performance of other cognitive dimensions was based on the results of tests of memory updating, inhibition, attention shifting, short-term memory (STM) and reasoning. We have found that the initial level of WMC predicts the efficiency of the n-back training intervention. We have also noticed the post training improvement in almost all aspects of cognitive functioning we measured, but those effects were mostly intervention independent.

A cognitive training intervention in elderly population together with the assessment of the pre training cognitive abilities is presented. We show two versions of training - experimental and active control - and demonstrate their effects on the array of cognitive tests.

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. ...

Multimedia Battery for Assessment of Cognitive and Basic Skills in Mathematics (BM-PROMA)

Learning mathematics is a complex process that requires the development of multiple domain-general and domain-specific skills. It is therefore not unexpected that many children struggle to stay at grade level, and this becomes especially difficult when several abilities from both domains are impaired, as in the case of mathematical learning disabilities (MLD). Surprisingly, although MLD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders affecting schoolchildren, most of the diagnostic instruments available do not include assessment of domain-general and domain-specific skills. Furthermore, very few are computerized. To the best of our knowledge, there is no tool with these features for Spanish-speaking children. The purpose of this study was to describe the protocol for the diagnosis of Spanish MLD children using the BM-PROMA multimedia battery. BM-PROMA facilitates the evaluation of both skill domains, and the 12&#160;tasks included for this purpose are empirically evidence-based. The strong internal consistency of BM-PROMA and its multidimensional internal structure are demonstrated. BM-PROMA proves to be an appropriate tool for diagnosing children with MLD during primary education. It provides a broad cognitive profile for the child, which will be relevant not only for diagnosis but also for individualized instructional planning.

Multimedia Battery for Assessment of Cognitive and Basic Skills in Mathematics BM-PROMA

BM-PROMA is a valid and reliable multimedia diagnostic tool that can provide a complete cognitive profile of children with mathematical learning disabilities.

Learning mathematics is a complex process that requires the development of multiple domain-general and domain-specific skills. It is therefore not ...

Computerized Dyslexia Assessment for Spanish-Speaking Children Using SICOLE-R

Advancing Dyslexia Assessment in Children Through Computerized Testing

The acquisition of reading skills is an intricate process that demands the cultivation of various domain-general and domain-specific abilities. Consequently, it is unsurprising that many children grapple with maintaining proficiency at the grade level, particularly when confronted with challenges spanning multiple abilities across both domains, as observed in individuals with reading difficulties. Strikingly, despite reading difficulties being among the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders affecting school-aged children, the majority of available diagnostic tools lack a comprehensive framework for assessing the full spectrum of cognitive skills linked to dyslexia, with minimal computerized options. Notably, there are currently limited tools with these features available for Spanish-speaking children. The aim of this study was to delineate the protocol for diagnosing Spanish-speaking children with reading difficulties using the Sicole-R multimedia battery. This tool for elementary grades focuses on evaluating cognitive skills that are associated with dyslexia as prescribed by the scientific literature. Specifically, it concentrates on assessing a range of cognitive abilities that studies have demonstrated to be linked to dyslexia. This focus is based on the observation that individuals with dyslexia typically exhibit deficits in several of the cognitive areas evaluated by this digital tool. The robust internal consistency and multidimensional internal structure of the battery were demonstrated. This multimedia battery has proven to be a fitting tool for diagnosing children with reading difficulties in primary education, offering a comprehensive cognitive profile that is valuable not only for diagnostic purposes but also for tailoring individualized instructional plans.

Author Spotlight: Validation of SICOLE-R for Assessing Cognitive and Reading Skills in Spanish-Speaking Children and Its Role in Personalized Education

The Multimedia Battery for Assessment of General-Domain and Specific-Domain Skills in Reading is a reliable and valid multimedia battery designed to assess cognitive and basic reading skills. It enables the generation of a comprehensive cognitive and reading performance profile, which is particularly beneficial for children with dyslexia.

The acquisition of reading skills is an intricate process that demands the cultivation of various domain-general and domain-specific abilities. ...

A Tablet-Based Curriculum-Based Measurement Protocol for Kindergarten Writing

Kindergarten writing involves acquiring fundamental skills, such as letter formation, phonemic awareness, and the gradual use of written language to express ideas. In this context, tablet-based curriculum assessments present new opportunities for teaching and evaluating these early writing abilities. To the best of our knowledge, there is currently no tool with these features available for Spanish-speaking children. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to present a tablet-based protocol for screening at-risk young writers. This tablet-based protocol is specifically designed for kindergarten-level education and serves as a curriculum-based assessment tool that focuses on evaluating early writing skills in young learners. This user-friendly application incorporates interactive tasks and exercises, including assessments of phonological awareness, name writing, alphabet letter copying fluency, and oral narrative skills. These comprehensive evaluations cover various aspects of writing. This application is meticulously aligned with kindergarten curriculum objectives, ensuring that assessments adhere to educational standards. By providing educators with a digital platform to assess and enhance students' writing skills, this tool empowers them to make data-driven decisions for effective instruction during the early stages of writing development. Moreover, it functions as a curriculum-based measurement (CBM), offers valuable support for identifying potential writing challenges in young learners and continuously monitoring their progress. This feature enables early intervention and tailored instruction to optimize writing skill development.

This protocol presents the step-by-step method for using a writing-based, valid, and reliable application designed for kindergarten-level education. It operates as a curriculum-based assessment tool, specifically focusing on evaluating early writing skills in young learners.

Kindergarten writing involves acquiring fundamental skills, such as letter formation, phonemic awareness, and the gradual use of written language to ...

Using Brain Activation (nir-HEG/Q-EEG) and Execution Measures (CPTs) in a ADHD Assessment Protocol

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a problem that impacts academic performance and has serious consequences that result in difficulties in scholastic, social and familial contexts. One of the most common problems in the identification of this disorder relates to the apparent over diagnosis of the disorder due to the absence of global protocols for assessment. The research group of School Learning, Difficulties and Academic Performance (ADIR) from the University of Oviedo, has developed a complete protocol that suggests the existence of certain patterns of cortical activation and executive control for identifying ADHD more objectively. This protocol takes into consideration some of the hypothetical determinants of ADHD, including the relationship between activation of selected areas of the brain, and differences in performance on various aspects of executive functioning such as omissions, commissions or response times, using innovative tools of Continuous Performance Testing (based on Virtual Reality CPT and Traditional CPT) and brain activation measures (two different tools, based on Hemoencephalography- nirHEG; and Quantified Electroencephalography --Q-EEG, respectively). This model of assessment aims to provide an effective assessment of ADHD symptomatology in order to design an accurate intervention and make appropriate recommendations for parents and teachers.

Using Brain Activation nir-HEG/Q-EEG and Execution Measures CPTs in a ADHD Assessment Protocol

This work presents a new protocol for the assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) by providing a more objective diagnostic procedure for this developmental disorder based on the use of innovative tools. It also analyzes the relationship between activation measures and executive function measures.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a problem that impacts academic performance and has serious consequences that result in difficulties in ...

Neuroscience

A Metric Test for Assessing Spatial Working Memory in Adult Rats Following Traumatic Brain Injury

Impairments to sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are common side effects after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Due to the ethical limitations of human studies, animal models provide suitable alternatives to test treatment methods, and to study the mechanisms and related complications of the condition. Experimental rodent models have historically been the most widely used due to their accessibility, low cost, reproducibility, and validated approaches. A metric test, which tests the ability to recall the placement of two objects at various distances and angles from one another, is a technique to study impairment in spatial working memory (SWM) after TBI. The significant advantages of metric tasks include the possibility of dynamic observation, low cost, reproducibility, relative ease of implementation, and low stress environment. Here, we present a metric test protocol to measure impairment of SWM in adult rats after TBI. This test provides a feasible way to evaluate physiology and pathophysiology of brain function more effectively.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is commonly associated with memory impairment. Here, we present a protocol to assess spatial working memory after TBI via a metric task. A metric test is a useful tool to study spatial working memory impairment after TBI.

Impairments to sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are common side effects after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Due to the ethical limitations of ...

Measuring Verbal Working Memory Span

Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes more than just a handful of items? Why is it possible to remember a phone number that one just heard, but not two or three phone numbers at once? Why is it difficult to remember names when several new people are introduced at the same time?
The answer has to do with the fact that over short-durations people rely on a specialized memory system called working memory. Unlike long-term memory, working memory has a very limited capacity. It is there so that information can be kept in mind, studied, manipulated, and then transferred to other memory and cognitive systems. But in order to serve in this active role, it needs to be selective, admitting only limited amounts of information at a time.
Experimental psychologists tend to think that people possess independent working memory systems for different kinds of information, with a major division between verbal and visual information. Each of these systems has an independent capacity limit.
To measure a person&#8217;s verbal working memory capacity limit&#8212;often called, his or her memory span&#8212;experimental psychologists often use a verbal list paradigm.
This video will demonstrate the measurement of verbal working memory span using a verbal list paradigm.

Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children – Working Memory (CABC-WM)

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