<p class='jove_content'>This work was supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (RO1 AA014925 awarded to Dr. Patricia H. Janak at University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA), Fonds de recherche du Quebec &#8211; Sant&#233; (NC) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NC, 387224-2010). The open-access publication of this article was made possible by sponsorship from Med Associates Inc. </p>

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</ol>

<p class="jove_content">全ての実験手順はコンコルディア大学動物実験倫理委員会によって承認され、動物ケアカナダ評議会からのガイドラインに従っている。 <span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 28px;">この記事のオープンアクセス出版物は、メッドアソシエーツ社からのスポンサーシップによって可能になりました</span>し、 </p>

<p class="jove_content">この手順の結果は、日常的にアルコールの配信に伴う個別の環境刺激がアルコールを求める行動を駆動する能力を獲得することができることを明らかにした。彼らはまた、アルコールの前可用性または不在に関連するコンテキスト刺激は離散アルコール予測手がかりに調整行動応答を誘導できることを示す。 </p><p class="jove_step">プロトコルの中の重要なステップ</p><p class="jove_content">現在のタスクのコンテキストは、ラットの外部にある刺激を組み込む。しかし、試験でのラットの内受容状態もリニューアル<sup>20</sup>に影響<sup>を</sup>与える可能性<sup>が</sup> 「コンテキスト」を構成することができる。これは、頭蓋内microinfusionsまたは全身注射のように、更新試験前に発生し、その内受容状態を変更する可能性のある手順をラットを慣らすことが重要である。また、microinfusionsまたは全身注射に対する慣れが絶滅し、PDTの両方の前に実施すべきであるessionsは、実験の特定の一相に関連付けなるのような手順を防止する。 </p><p class="jove_content">このようなCS期間、CS-US間隔、および試行間間隔（ITI）のような時間的なパラメータは、長いコンディショニングパラダイム<sup>21-26</sup>の多様な応答を条件付けに影響を及ぼすことが知られている。同様に、時間的なパラメータは、私たちの手順で更新効果の観察に影響を及ぼし得る。プロトコールに記載された以外の他のパラメータの任意のセットは、実験的に、より大きな調査でそれらを使用することが進む前に、パイロット研究で検証する必要があります。 </p><p class="jove_step">修正とトラブルシューティング</p><p class="jove_content">以前の研究では、ラットはホームケージに消費するエタノールの量はラット<sup>17,27</sup>購入されるサプライヤの関数として変化することを見出した。サプライヤーは、そのための研究のこの段階のための重要な検討事項である。同様に、ラット系統の選択は、共存する必要がありますエタノール消費<sup>28-31</sup>における系統差の多数の報告がありますので、慎重にnsidered。 </p><p class="jove_content">嫌悪条件付けパラダイムにおける以前の研究は、ラットの発達年齢はパブロフの条件付け恐怖反応<sup>32</sup>の更新の観察に影響を与えることが示されている。非常に若いラット（生後20日未満）で更新効果の欠如は、文脈情報<sup>33</sup>の障害エンコーディングに起因することが示唆されている。本手順で使用されるラットの発育年齢、したがって考慮されるべきである。 </p><p class="jove_content"> <sup>10％9,16、15％14、</sup>又は<sup>20〜15％</sup>エタノール溶液をホームケージエタノールアクセスおよび実験のPDT段階の間に使用されたときにパブロフの条件付けのアルコール探索行動の更新が観察されている。研究者は彼らの研究所では、この手順を確立する目的で、エタノールのこれらの濃度のいずれかを使用することができますIES。 </p><p class="jove_content">パブロフの弁別訓練の取得中にそれが配信されたすべてのエタノールが消費されていることを確認するために、各セッションの後に流体ポートを確認することが重要です。さらに10のためのコンディショニング室のラットを残して - 各セッションの後に15分のセッションの間に消費されなかったエタノールの消費を奨励するために、早期のPDTで行うことができる。 PDTが進行すると、ポートで消費されていないエタノールを残したラットの数は減少するはずである。 PDTラットの終わりまでには、（a）すべてのエタノールを消費していないおよび/または（b）CS +に応答しない場合、これらの被験者が試験からドロップされるべきである。ほとんどのラットは確実にCS-よりCS +に多くを応答します。しかし、一部のラットは、それによって差別の証拠を示さない、両方の合図に高いレベルで応答することができる。高いPDT中に、CS +とCS-の両方に対応し、SHOWラットは研究から削除されません。私たちの経験では、これらの被験者は著しい差別​​を示しているPDT中にCS-に応答するそれらの高レベルが流体ポートにおけるエタノールの存在によって駆動されていることを示唆し、エタノールの非存在下での最初の絶滅セッション中。これらの被験体はまた、堅牢な更新の効果を示す傾向がある。 </p><p class="jove_step">手順の制限</p><p class="jove_content">更新テストをエタノール非存在下で実施されるので、CS +によって誘発馴化ポートエントリが次第に試験セッションにわたって減少する。したがって、実験的に誘導された変化を評価することができ、それに対してテストで生成された行動の全体的な量は、かなり低い。応答このタスクにテストセッションの最後に対して、開始時に高くなる傾向があるので、トライアル·バイ·トライアルごとに応答馴化上の実験操作の効果を調べることが重要です。 </p><p class="jove_content">流体レセプタクルにエントリは、このタスクの主な依存尺度を提供する。しかし、誤ったポートのエントリは、レジかもしれません動物がそのウィスカーと流体ポートの開口部を横切って赤外線ビームを破る流体容器に十分に近い場合stered。不定期ながら、誤った応答が前のセッションでの被験者の行動と比較して、総ポートエントリの劇的な増加として明らかである。動物をビデオテープに録画することは誤応答の検出を容易にし、トレーニングとテストを通して、ラットが示す行動のより洗練された分析を可能にするであろう。 </p><p class="jove_step">既存/代替方法に関する技術の意義</p><p class="jove_content">薬物探索行動の文脈によって誘発される更新は、主に一次従属変数は、レバーを押し<sup>8,34</sup>または鼻<sup>12を</sup>突くようなオペラント反応、であるインストゥルメンタルコンディショニングタスクを使用して研究されている。現在の手順では、薬物探索応答はのプレゼンテーションによって誘発される流体ポートに「エアコンのアプローチは &#39;CS +。この応答は、おそらく環境刺激およびヒトにおける乱用薬物の薬理学的効果との間の関連付けの形成を媒介する学習過程でパブロフの学習を通じて獲得される。 </p><p class="jove_step">将来の応用</p><p class="jove_content">このタスクは、optogeneticsと神経化学はパブロフ付きアルコール探索行動<sup>16</sup>の文脈によって誘発される更新に関与する神経機構を研究するために、神経薬と組み合わせて使用することができる。また、パブロフ付きアルコール探索行動の獲得と絶滅を規制する行動および神経機構を調査することができる。最後に、このタスクは、人間のaddi内のキュー暴露療法後に薬の予測合図に反応性の環境のコンテキストを関連付け、薬物の影響を減少させることを目的とトランスレーショナルリサーチのための重要な方向性を更新できない場合があり、絶滅の操作を探索するために使用することができますカラット。 </p>

<p class="jove_content">冷静に残ったアルコール乱用障害を患っている個体が直面するかなりの挑戦である。禁欲は、パブロフの条件を通じて、酩酊<sup>1,2</sup>に関連付けられているになることが日常的にアルコール使用に伴う環境刺激の、行動心理的、生理的な影響への脆弱性の時間です。アルコール予測合図への曝露は、再発<sup>3,4を</sup>容易にアルコール探索行動を促進することができるような、アルコールへの渇望のようなコンディショニング応答を惹起することができる。 </p><p class="jove_content">アルコール消費につながる行動のステレオタイプの配列は、刺激の特定の種類が日常的アルコール摂取の薬理作用の直前に経験されることがあります。例えば、アルコールの姿、香りと味が確実に中毒に先行アルコールの感覚特性である。 「離散」または「PROXIMAと呼ばれるそのような合図に加えて、l &#39;の合図、薬を定期的に使用される環境のコンテキストはまた渇望<sup>5,6を</sup>引き起こすことができます。薬物は、以前に使用されてきた物理ロケーションへの曝露は、したがって再発<sup>7</sup>の臨界トリガすることができる。 </p><p class="jove_content">動物モデルは、薬物探索行動<sup>8-13</sup>に対する薬物関連するコンテキストの影響を媒介する神経機構を研究するために開発されてきた。明細書に記載の手順では、アルコール消費に関連したコンテキストは、離散、アルコール予測パブロフの合図によって誘発されるアルコールを求める行動を調節することができる方法を検討することができます。 </p><p class="jove_content">パブロフの弁別訓練は、ラットが行動2聴覚条件刺激、アルコールと対になっているCS +、およびでないCS-を区別するために訓練されている特定の環境のコンテキスト内で行われる。消去セッションは、その後CSに応答する別のコンテキストで行われており、+が源泉徴収されているアルコールの結果として減少する。その後、アルコールに関連する、パブロフの訓練コンテキストへの再曝露はCS-への対応に変化がないと、CS +によって誘発されたアルコール探索行動の選択的増加をトリガします。私たちは一貫して<sup>9,14-16を</sup>複製して、この結果は、薬物コンテキストは、薬物送達<sup>10,13</sup>に関連したオペラント反応の再生を刺激することが見出されているいるインストゥルメンタルコンディショニングプロシージャからの調査結果を拡張します。 </p>

<table><tbody><tr><td>Heavy-duty utility cart</td><td>Rubbermaid</td><td>#4520-88</td><td>Used to transport rats in their home cage from the colony room to the behavior room or other facilities</td></tr><tr><td>Rats, Long-Evans</td><td>Harlan</td><td></td><td>Rats weighed 220-240 g on arrival</td></tr><tr><td>Ohaus scale</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#S402421</td><td>For weighing rats; tare the bottom of a plastic container first, then put the rat in it to weigh it</td></tr><tr><td>Beta-chips, aspen</td><td>Harlan</td><td>#7090A</td><td>Bedding for home cage</td></tr><tr><td>Nylabone</td><td>Bio-Serv</td><td>#K3580</td><td>Enrichment provided in the home cage</td></tr><tr><td>Autoclavable rodent chow</td><td>Agribrands, Charles River</td><td>#5075</td><td>For feeding rats</td></tr><tr><td>Wire bar cage lid</td><td>Ancare</td><td>#R20SS2B</td><td>Custom made with two slots for&amp;nbsp; bottles</td></tr><tr><td>Cage bottom</td><td>Ancare</td><td>#R20PC</td><td>To house rats</td></tr><tr><td>Stoppers</td><td>Ancare</td><td>#8.5</td><td>Rubber stoppers to occlude opening in water bottles &amp;amp; graduated cylinders; goes with ball point sipper tubes&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Ball point tubes, 1.5&quot; length</td><td>Ancare</td><td>#TD-99</td><td>Inserted in stoppers, enables rats to drink from water bottles and graduated cylinders</td></tr><tr><td>Water bottles</td><td>Ancare</td><td>#FSPC8HT</td><td>473 ml (16 oz) capacity, needs to be occluded with stopper</td></tr><tr><td>Graduated cylinders, 100 ml</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#0300741</td><td>To contain ethanol during alcohol exposure in the home cage; spouted end needs to be cut off to enable occlusion with stoppers</td></tr><tr><td>Mettler scale</td><td>Mettler Toledo</td><td>#MS6001S</td><td>For weighing water bottles and ethanol cylinders</td></tr><tr><td>Polyethylene tubing, 1/32&quot; inner diameter,&amp;nbsp; 1/32&quot; wall thickness, 3/32&quot; outside diameter</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#14-169-1A</td><td>To connect 20 ml ethanol syringe to fluid port</td></tr><tr><td>Needle, 18 g, 1.5&quot; length</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#B305199</td><td>To connect polyethylene tubing to ethanol syringes; needs to be filed</td></tr><tr><td>Syringes, 20 ml, Luer-Lok non-sterile</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#1482316J</td><td>To contain ethanol on the fluid pumps; needs to be connected to the polyethylene tubing by a 18 G 1 1/2 needle</td></tr><tr><td>Syringes, 60 ml, Luer-Lok non-sterile</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#14-820-11</td><td>To flush polyethylene tubing after PDT sessions</td></tr><tr><td>Single speed syringe pump, 3.33 rpm</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-018MD</td><td>To hold 20 ml ethanol syringes and deliver ethanol</td></tr><tr><td>Fluid port</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-254-CB</td><td>To enable ethanol delivery during PDT sessions; connected to ethanol syringes with polyethylene tubing</td></tr><tr><td>Port entry infrared detector</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-215M</td><td>Fixed on both sides of&amp;nbsp; fluid port; need 2 per fluid port</td></tr><tr><td>Houselight, 28 V, 100 mA</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-135M</td><td>Provides general lighting in conditioning chamber</td></tr><tr><td>Clicker module</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-225SM</td><td>Auditory stimulus for conditioning chamber</td></tr><tr><td>White noise generator with speaker</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#PHM-100</td><td>Auditory stimulus for conditioning chamber</td></tr><tr><td>Bar floor</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-009A-GF</td><td>To go with modular test chamber</td></tr><tr><td>Bench coat, absorbent</td><td>VWR</td><td>#89126-790</td><td>Absorbent paper to put in metal tray, needs to be cut to fit the metal tray</td></tr><tr><td>Polycarbonate sheet, 1/8&quot; thick, 12-5/8&quot; x 10&quot;</td><td>Johnston Plastics</td><td>#30102515</td><td>To make smooth transparent floor insert used for context 1. Needs to be cut in 11.5&quot; x 12.25&quot; pieces</td></tr><tr><td>Aluminium sheet perforated, 0.063&quot; thick, 48&quot; x 96&quot;, 0.250&quot; holes x 0.375&quot; centers</td><td>Anica Steel</td><td></td><td>To make perforated floor insert used for context 2. Needs to be cut in 11.5&quot; x 12.25&quot; pieces</td></tr><tr><td>Black cardboard, 0.053&quot; thick, 28&quot; x 44&quot;</td><td>Omer DeSerres</td><td>#P1909</td><td>To construct panels covering the ceiling, door and back wall of the conditioning chamber in context 1. Needs to be cut to size. Each chamber needs three panels measuring approximately 11.5&quot; x 13.25&quot;. The panels can be joined by the narrower side using duct tape.</td></tr><tr><td>All-purpose strength duct tape, 1.88&quot; x 45 yd.</td><td>Duck Tape</td><td></td><td>Adhesive material to connect the black cardboard panels used to cover the back wall, ceiling and door in context 1.</td></tr><tr><td>Modular test chamber</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-009A</td><td>Conditioning chamber</td></tr><tr><td>Sound attenuating cubicles</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#ENV-200R3AM</td><td>Comes with installed 28 V DC fan (#ENV-025F)</td></tr><tr><td>Petri dish</td><td>Fisher</td><td>#08748B</td><td>Bottom only, to contain the sprayed solution that provides the odor stimulus; needs to be centered in the metal tray in conditioning chambers</td></tr><tr><td>PCI interface package</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#DIG-700P2-R2</td><td>Connects tabletop interface cabinet to computer; includes 1 interface card, 1 Decode card, 1 ribbon cable and 1 28 V DC power cable</td></tr><tr><td>Large tabletop cabinet and power supply</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#SG-6510D</td><td>Used to contain the 12 cards included in the SmartCrtrl 8 Input, 16 Output package</td></tr><tr><td>SmartCtrl 8 Input, 16 Output package</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#DIG-716P2</td><td>Used to connect and control the devices in the conditioning chamber. The package includes all the cables, the interface module and the connection panel.</td></tr><tr><td>Med PC IV software</td><td>Med Associates Inc.</td><td>#SOF-735</td><td>Software to run programs. Needs to be installed on the computer.</td></tr><tr><td>Monitor LG, 19&quot; LCD</td><td>Concordia computer store</td><td>#W1942TQ-BF</td><td>Computer monitor; to go with computer running Med PC IV</td></tr><tr><td>HP Z200 tower workstation</td><td>Concordia computer store</td><td>#BZ788US#ABA</td><td>Computer on which Med PC IV is run</td></tr><tr><td>Benzaldehyde, &amp;ge;99%</td><td>Les produits chimiques OMEGA Chemical Company Inc.</td><td>#B37-50</td><td>Dilute in tap water for almond context odor</td></tr><tr><td>Lemon oil, cold pressed, California</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>#W262528-1KG-K</td><td>Dilute in tap water for lemon context odor</td></tr><tr><td>Ethyl alcohol, 95%</td><td>Commercial Alcohols</td><td></td><td>Dilute in tap water to desired concentration</td></tr></tbody></table>

a procedure to observe context-induced renewal of pavlovian-conditioned alcohol-seeking behavior in rats

<p class="jove_content">乱用薬物が消費されている環境のコンテキストは、渇望、禁欲薬物使用者に薬物探索行動と迅速な再発を容易にすることができる、主観パブロフ付き応答をトリガすることができます。私たちは、ラットにおいて、アルコール探索行動のコンテキストの影響を仲介する行動および神経プロセスを研究するための手順を開発した。味とホームケージ15％エタノールの薬理作用に順化の後、オスLong-Evansラットは、コンディショニング室でパブロフの弁別訓練（PDT）を受け取る。各毎日（月〜金）のPDTセッションでは、16試験は二つの異なる10秒の聴覚条件刺激のそれぞれが発生する。つの刺激の間、CS +は、15％エタノール0.2mlを経口消費のための流体ポートに送達される。第2の刺激、CS-は、エタノールとペアにされていません。セッション間で、CS-中のエントリに対し、CS +上昇中の流体ポートにエントリが、prediことを示す、より低いレベルで安定CS +とエタノールctive関連付けが取得される。 PDTの間、各チャンバは、視覚的な嗅覚と触覚文脈刺激の具体的な構成を備えています。 PDTの後、吸光訓練は現在文脈刺激の別の構成を備えている同一のチャンバ内で行われる。 CS +とCS-は以前のように提示されているが、エタノールはCS +の間のポートエントリの緩やかな減少を引き起こす、源泉徴収されている。試験では、ラットをPDTコンテキストに戻されており、以前とCS +とCS-を提示するが、エタノールなしで。この操作はCS-中に応答を変えることなく、アルコール予測CS +中に行われたポートのエントリ数の堅牢かつ選択的増加をトリガします。文脈によって誘発される更新と呼ばれるこの効果は、パブロフのアルコール合図に応答して、アルコール探索行動を刺激するために、アルコール消費に関連付けられたコンテキストの強力な能力を示している。 </p>

<p class="jove_content">ホームケージでの断続的なエタノールへのアクセス： - 12セッション（ <strong>図1）</strong>エタノール消費量（g / kg体重）とホームケージでの断続的なエタノールへのアクセスのセッション間でエタノールの嗜好の増加は、典型的には8で安定レベルに達する。 <strong>図1</strong>に示したデータセットでは、安定したエタノール消費は、ホームケージエタノールへのアクセスの最後の二つのセッションにわたって平均1.33の範囲であった-個別のラット6.44 g / kg体重を。 g / kg体重消費が頭打ち一旦実験のホームケージエタノール消費相が停止することができ、かつラットはセッション数のために、飲料のこの安定したレベルに維持される。 </p><p class="jove_content">このフェーズからのデータを分析するには、エタノール消費量（g / kg体重）とエタノールの好みのセッションの被験者内要因渡っ分散分析（ANOVA）の独立した反復測定分析を行う。 </p><p class="jove_content">文脈によって誘導される更新手順の概略：それぞれの相実験手順（PDT、絶滅、リニューアルテスト）は、 <strong>図2</strong>に示されている。詳細については、図のキャプションを参照してください。 </p><p class="jove_content">レスポンス対策やデータ分析は：以下のすべての行動の段階では、CS +とCS-中に行われたポートのエントリの応答は、事前に、CSベースライン入港応答を参照して、正規化されている。正規化されたCS対策を作成するには、事前のCSベースライン間隔の間に作られたポートのエントリ数CS +とCS-のプレゼンテーション中に行われたポートのエントリ数から（CS発症の直前に10秒）を差し引く。行動の指標は、ベースラインレベルを超えて上昇し、CSのプレゼンテーション、によって特異的に誘発されるように正規化されたCS +と規格化CS-対策が機能します。 </p><p class="jove_content">独立した反復測定ANOVAは、PDTと吸光フェーズのセッションとCS型（CS-対CS +）の繰り返しの被験者内因子を実施する。相間での比較のために（PDTは、絶滅、更新らテスト）、使用データは、PDTと消光と反復測定分散分析において更新テストデータの一つのセッションの最後の2セッション間で平均した。有意な主効果と交互作用をフォローアップするためには、多重比較のために補正されている独立した、または対のサンプルのための<em>事後</em> t検定を使用しています。有意性についての基準は、α= 0.05に設定されている。 </p><p class="jove_content"> PDT：PDTセッション間CS +増加にポートエントリー応答は、CS-ポートエントリー応答は全体的に、低く安定したままである。 CS-に入港応答はPDTのトレーニングの初期のセッションでわずかに増加することに注意してください。しかしながら、CS-に応答して行わポートエントリはCS +に応答して作られたものよりもはるかに低いレベルで安定する。成功した差別は、CS-（ <strong>図3）</strong>と比較して、CS +の間のポートエントリの統計学的に有意な上昇によって証明される。この結果は、パブロフ付きアルコール探索行動があることしたことを示すCS- CS +に設立さではなく、専用。 </p><p class="jove_content">絶滅：CS +にポートエントリ応答が次第に消去セッション全体で下落。 CS-に入港応答は消去セッション全体で低く、安定した状態を保つ。理想的には、CS +とCS-のポートエントリの間に統計的に有意な差がないことによって証明されるように、絶滅の訓練の終わりまでに廃止され、応答が判別。しかし、それも絶滅の訓練の終了時に、残る応答差別ある程度のは珍しいことではありません。この場合には、絶滅のトレーニング、絶滅の開始時にCS +ポートエントリ応答よりも統計的に低くなっているだけでなく、PDTの終了時の終わりにCS +への入港応答を確認することが重要である（ <strong>図3）</strong> 。結果のこのパターンは、パブロフ付きアルコール探索行動が大幅に消滅したことを示しています。 </p><p class="jove_content">コンテキストによって誘発される更新テスト：ポート絶滅のトレーニングの最後に観察されたCS +ポートのエントリを基準に文脈によって誘発される更新試験におけるCS +の増加へのエントリー応答、。 CS-ポート·エントリが変更されないまま、この増加は、CS +に選択的である。また、CS +へのポートのエントリは、コンテキストによって誘発される更新試験でCS-にポートエントリ（ <strong>図4）</strong>と比較して統計的に上昇している。 CS +ポート絶滅とテストの間のエントリだけでなく、テスト内で、CS +とCS-ポートエントリの比較の比較の統計的確認は、テストでのアルコール関連するコンテキストによって誘導されたパブロフ付きアルコール探索行動の選択的更新を示しています。 </p><p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.within-page="always"><img alt="図1" fo:content-width="4in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51898/51898fig1highres.jpg" width="400" /><br />平均<strong>。ホームケージでの断続的なエタノールのアクセスによって誘導されたエタノール消費や好みの1エスカレーション図</strong> ＆＃177;ホームケージでの断続的なエタノールへのアクセスの12セッション間で<strong>SEM（A）</strong>エタノール消費量（g / kg体重）と<strong>（B）</strong>エタノールの好み。両方の手段は、典型的には、セッション間で増加し、その後安定する。個別のラット6.44 g / kg体重 - 安定エタノール消費は1.33の範囲であったホームケージエタノールへのアクセスの最後の2セッション間で平均した。これらのデータは、15％（v / v）エタノールを飲んオスLong-Evansラットを使用して得た。 </p><p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.within-page="always"><img alt="図2" fo:content-width="4in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51898/51898fig2highres.jpg" width="400" /><br /> <strong>。図2実験手順の概略</strong>手順は、次の3つのフェーズで構成されています。パブロフの弁別訓練（PDT）、絶滅、コンテキストによって誘発される更新テスト。各PDTセッション中、ラットは、エタノールと16試験の配信を知らせる1聴覚条件刺激（CS +）の16試験を受けるエタノールの配信に関連付けられていない第2の聴覚刺激（CS-）。 PDTセッションは、視覚、嗅覚の具体的な構成、および触覚刺激からなる、コンテキストAで行われる。視覚、嗅覚、および触覚刺激の異なるセットで構成コンテキストBで行われる消去セッション、、中に、CS +とCS-が提示されているが、エタノールが源泉徴収されている。文脈によって誘発される更新試験では、ラットをコンテキストAに戻り、CS +とCS-エタノールなしで提示されている。 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/51898/51898fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版をご覧になるにはこちらをクリックしてください。</a> </p><p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.within-page="always"><img alt="図3" fo:content-width="4in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51898/51898fig3highres.jpg" width="400" /><br /> <strong>図3の取得と差別パブロフ付きエタノール応答。</strong>平均±SEM正規化されたポートエントリm <strong>の絶滅</strong>コンテキストAおよび絶滅（セッション19から26） -  PDT全体でCS +とCS-の間に（18セッション1）ADEコンテキストBにこれらのデータは、10％で訓練を受けた、雄のLong-Evansラットを用いて得た（V / V） PDTの間、CS +に関連して提示された無条件刺激（US）エタノール。 * P &lt;0.05、CS-対CS +。図は、もともとChaudhri、Sahuque＆ヤナーク（2008）で発表した。エルゼビアから許可を得て使用。 </p><p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.within-page="always"><img alt="図4" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51898/51898fig4highres.jpg" width="500" /><br /> <strong>パブロフ付きエタノール応答を図4。文脈によって誘発されるリニューアル。</strong>コンテキストA.データにコンテキストAにおけるPDTセッションでCS +とCS-中に行われた±SEM正規化されたポートのエントリ、コンテキストBでの消去セッション、および更新テストの平均であるPDTと絶滅のための最後の二つのセッションで平均化;更新試験は、単一のセッションです。これらのデータは、PDTの間にCS +に関連して提示された無条件刺激（US）10％（v / v）エタノールで訓練オスLong-Evansラットを使用して得た。 *はp &lt;0.05; ** P &lt;0.001、CS-対CS +。 #P &lt;0.05、CS +の絶滅に対するCS + PDT。 ^ P &lt;0.05、CS +テスト対CS +の絶滅。図は、もともとChaudhri、Sahuque＆ヤナーク（2008）で発表した。エルゼビアから許可を得て使用。 </p>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats at JoVE.com

A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats

<p class="jove_content">ラットにおけるアルコール探索行動の更新をトリガするために環境的文脈を関連付けアルコールの能力を研究するための手順が記載されている。 </p>

ラットにおけるパブロフ付きアルコール探索行動の状況誘発性のリニューアルを観察する手順

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate ...

a-procedure-to-observe-context-induced-renewal-pavlovian-conditioned

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

12.8K ビュー.  Concordia University. ラットにおけるアルコール探索行動の更新をトリガするために環境的文脈を関連付けアルコールの能力を研究するための手順が記載されている。 

ビデオ: A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats

Esterification

<p>Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA</p>
<ol class="note-items">
	<li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Preparation of the Laboratory<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p><em>Here, we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students working in pairs, with some excess. Please adjust quantities as needed.</em></p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-2">
		<div class="lab-step">First, put on a lab coat, safety glasses, and nitrile gloves.<strong> Note:</strong> Some of the reagents are volatile or have unpleasant odors, so you will handle them in a fume hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-3">
		<div class="lab-step">Ensure that you have glass and organic waste containers and that each sink has paper towels.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-4">
		<div class="lab-step">Follow the table to designate codes for the carboxylic acids and alcohols used in this lab. The carboxylic acids are coded A through C, and the alcohols are coded D through I. The students will use a 3:1 molar ratio of alcohol to carboxylic acid in the reaction.
		<table align="center" height="224" style="border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 17px; line-height: 24px;">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Code</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Compound</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>MW<br />
					(g/mol) </strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Density at RT (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Moles per vial</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Grams per vial</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>cm<sup>3</sup> per vial </strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Number of vials</strong></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">A</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Acetic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">60.05</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1.049</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.07</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">4.2035</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">4.0</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">3</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">B</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Butyric acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">88.11</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.953</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.07</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">6.1677</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">6.5</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">3</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">C</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Anthranilic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">137.14</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">-</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.07</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">9.5998</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">-</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">D</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Propanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">60.10</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.803</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">12.6210</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">15.7</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">E</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Isoamyl alcohol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">88.15</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.810</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">18.512</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">22.8</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">F</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Butanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">74.12</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.810</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">15.565</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">19.2</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">G</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Ethanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">46.07</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.789</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">9.6747</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">12.3</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">H</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Methanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">32.04</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.791</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">6.7284</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">8.5</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">2</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">I</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Octanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">130.23</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.830</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">0.21</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">27.348</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">32.9</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1</td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-5">
		<div class="lab-step">Prepare the three carboxylic acids: acetic acid, butyric acid, and anthranilic acid. Each group will need 0.07 moles of their assigned carboxylic acid in a vial.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-6">
		<div class="lab-step">Tare a 10-mL glass vial on an analytical balance in a fume hood. Use a Pasteur pipette to measure 4.2035 g of acetic acid, which will be about 4 mL. Cap the vial and label it &#8216;A&#8217;. Prepare two more labeled vials of acetic acid in the same way.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-7">
		<div class="lab-step">Weigh 6.1677 g of butyric acid, which will be about 6.5 mL, in a tared 10-mL vial. Cap the vial and label it &#8216;B&#8217;. Prepare two more vials of butyric acid in the same way.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Use a small spatula to weigh 9.5998 g of solid anthranilic acid in a tared 10-mL vial. Cap the vial and label it &#8216;C&#8217;. You should now have a total of seven vials of carboxylic acid.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-9">
		<div class="lab-step">Prepare the 7 alcohols. Each group will need 0.21 moles of their assigned alcohol in a vial. Use the table as a guide to prepare and label one vial of each alcohol. Prepare and label two vials of methanol.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-10">
		<div class="lab-step">You should now have a total of seven vials of alcohol. Keep the reagent vials in the instructor&#39;s hood for now and put away the stock bottles of the carboxylic acids and alcohols.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-11">
		<div class="lab-step">Assign each student group one of these seven combinations of reagents.
		<table align="center" height="224" style="border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 17px; line-height: 24px;">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Ester code</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Carboxylic acid </strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Alcohol</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Ester product</strong></td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;"><strong>Scent</strong></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">AD</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Acetic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Propanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Propyl acetate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Pear</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">AE</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Acetic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Isoamyl alcohol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Isoamyl acetate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Banana</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">AI</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Acetic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Octanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Octyl acetate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Orange</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">BF</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Butyric acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">1-Butanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Butyl butyrate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Pineapple</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">BG</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Butyric acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Ethanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Ethyl butyrate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Strawberry</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">BH</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Butyric acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Methanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Methyl butyrate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Apple</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">CH</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Anthranilic acid</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Methanol</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Methyl anthranilate</td>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">Grape</td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-12">
		<div class="lab-step">Prepare or obtain seven vials of the fruit scents and label them with the fruit names as references.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-13">
		<div class="lab-step">Set out the following glassware and equipment at each student lab station (we suggest that students work in pairs):</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-14">
		<div class="lab-step">Put bottles of saturated sodium bicarbonate and 3 M sulfuric acid in a dedicated fume hood, along with a roll of plastic paraffin film and scissors.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-15">
		<div class="lab-step">Set out filter paper and Pasteur pipettes in a central area so that every student group can easily access them.
		<table align="center" height="224" style="border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 17px; line-height: 24px;">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Lab stand</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;3-prong clamps</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Stir plate</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Lab jack</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Heating mantle</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Temperature controller</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Pieces of tubing (for condenser)</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Joint clip</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Tube of vacuum grease</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Box of laboratory wipes</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;10-mL graduated cylinder</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;600-mL beaker</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;50-mL round-bottom flask and flask stand</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Standard condenser</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Small stir bar</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Glass rod</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Package of pH paper</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="border: 1px solid; padding: 0px;">&#160;2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Pasteur pipette bulbs</td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-16">
		<div class="lab-step">Just before the lab, fill a large insulated cooler with crushed ice. Place the cooler and an ice scoop in a central area in the lab.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-17">
		<div class="lab-step">When the students arrive, show them how to safely waft vapors before giving them their assigned reagents.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
</ol>

Esterification: Synthesis of Ester by Fischer Esterification - Prep

エステル化

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Education

JoVE Lab Manual

化学

Lab Manual Sub Articles

Identifying Alcohols

<p>Source: Lara Al Hariri and Ahmed Basabrain at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA</p>
<ol class="note-items">
	<li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Ferric Chloride Test for Phenols<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p>In this lab, you will identify an unknown alcohol using the ferric chloride test, the Jones test, and the Lucas test. You&#39;ll test known alcohols alongside the unknown alcohol as examples of positive and negative results for each test.</p>
	<p>The four known alcohols are 1-butanol, a primary alcohol, 2-butanol, a secondary alcohol, 2-methyl-2-propanol, a tertiary alcohol, and phenol. The four possible unknown alcohols are 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 2-methyl-2-butanol, and para-chlorophenol.</p>
	<p>You&#39;ll start with the ferric chloride test for the presence of phenols. Iron(III) chloride, or ferric chloride, forms a brown complex when it&#39;s dissolved in water. If you add a phenol to this solution, a purple iron(III)-phenol complex will form instead. This effect is not observed with non-aromatic or aliphatic alcohols.</p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-4">
		<div class="lab-step">Put on a lab coat, safety glasses, and gloves before you begin. <strong>Note:</strong> The alcohols that you will test are toxic and flammable, and the reagents that you will use are toxic and corrosive, so you will perform this lab in a fume hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-5">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, get your assigned unknown alcohol from your instructor and bring it to your fume hood. Label a 250-mL beaker &#8216;aqueous metal waste&#8217;.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-6">
		<div class="lab-step">Next, put five small test tubes in a rack and label them &#8216;1-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-methyl-2-propanol&#8217;, &#8216;phenol&#8217;, and &#8216;unknown&#8217;. Bring the rack to the analytical balance to obtain phenol.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-7">
		<div class="lab-step">If your unknown is a solid, bring it with you. Weigh about 0.2 g of phenol and pour it into the corresponding tube. Do the same for your unknown if it is a solid and then return to your hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Now label three small vials &#8216;1-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-butanol&#8217;, and &#8216;2-methyl-2-propanol&#8217;.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-9">
		<div class="lab-step">Bring the vials to the solvent hood and use clean Pasteur pipettes to fill each vial with about 1 mL of the matching alcohol.<strong> Note: </strong>Do not reuse pipettes.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-10">
		<div class="lab-step">Next, obtain at least four Pasteur pipettes and a 250-mL beaker. Get more pipettes whenever you need them, and don&#39;t put used pipettes back in the beaker.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-11">
		<div class="lab-step">In your fume hood, pipette 3 &#8211; 4 drops of 1-butanol, 2-butanol, and 2-methyl-2-propanol into the corresponding tubes.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-12">
		<div class="lab-step">To the phenol tube, add several drops of deionized water and shake to mix. This will provide better visual results for the ferric test.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-13">
		<div class="lab-step">If your unknown alcohol is a liquid, use a clean pipette to place 3 &#8211; 4 drops of it in the unknown test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-14">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, obtain the bottle of iron(III) chloride solution and add 2 &#8211; 3 drops to each test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-15">
		<div class="lab-step">Stir each mixture well with a glass rod. Use deionized water to rinse off residual alcohol before mixing the contents of the next tube. Make sure that the phenol dissolves completely along with the unknown if it is a solid.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-16">
		<div class="lab-step">Wait 5 min before comparing your unknown to the known solutions. <strong>Note:</strong> If your unknown solution is purple, like the phenol solution, then your unknown is a phenol derivative. If it looks like the other three tubes, it is not a phenol derivative. Record the results of the test in your lab notebook.
		<h4><strong>Table 1: Identifying Unknown Alcohol</strong></h4>
		<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Alcohol</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Ferric Chloride Test</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Jones Test</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Lucas Test</strong></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>1-butanol</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>2-butanol</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>2-methyl-2-propanol</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>Phenol</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>Unknown</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/71/Table_1._Identifying_unknown_alcohol.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a></div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-17">
		<div class="lab-step">The next tests don&#39;t work with phenols, so you&#39;ll only test aliphatic alcohols for the rest of the lab. If your unknown is a phenol derivative, skip the instructions for the unknown and test only the three known aliphatic alcohols.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">The Jones Test for Aliphatic Primary and Secondary Alcohols<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p>In this section, you&#39;ll perform the Jones test for primary and secondary alcohols. Jones&#39; reagent is made with chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid in water, which forms chromic acid (H<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub>)<em> in situ</em>. This powerful reagent oxidizes secondary alcohols to ketones, primary alcohols to aldehydes, which after forming an aldehyde hydrate, are further reduced to carboxylic acids.</p>
	<p>The oxidation state of chromium is the key to this test. Chromium is in the +6 oxidation state in the Jones&#39; reagent. The Cr(VI) complexes in the reagent give it its bright reddish, orange color.</p>
	<p>When Cr(VI) oxidizes an alcohol, chromium is reduced to the +3 oxidation state. First, the alcohol and chromic acid form a chromate ester. Then, a base (H<sub>2</sub>O) cleaves the C-H bond of the alcohol, forming the carbonyl group while reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(IV). Because the carbon of the alcohol undergoes a 2-electron oxidation, and Cr(VI) a 2-electron reduction, this step is a reduction-oxidation step. Cr(IV) participates in further oxidation steps and is eventually reduced to Cr(III). Cr(III) is often present as hexaaquachromium(III) ions&#160;&#8212; [Cr(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> &#8212; and Cr(III) complexes, where H<sub>2</sub>O molecules are replaced by one or more sulphate ions, [Cr(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>5</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)]<sup>+</sup>. These complexes give Cr(III) the characteristic green color. So, when you mix Jones&#39; reagent with a primary or secondary alcohol in acetone, the orange solution will turn green.</p>
	<p>Jones oxidation of alcohols doesn&#39;t work with tertiary alcohols because the -OH group is already bonded to three carbon atoms and cannot form an extra C-O bond. Thus, you won&#39;t see a color change if you combine Jones&#39; reagent with a tertiary alcohol because chromium isn&#39;t reduced.</p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-5">
		<div class="lab-step">Label four clean test tubes &#8216;1-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-methyl-2-propanol&#8217;, and &#8216;unknown&#8217; and place 10 drops of acetone in each. Acetone is the preferred solvent for Jones oxidation.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-6">
		<div class="lab-step">Then, use clean pipettes to add 3 &#8211; 4 drops of the known aliphatic alcohols and your unknown alcohol to the corresponding tubes.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-7">
		<div class="lab-step">Stir each solution well with the glass rod and rinse the rod with water after mixing each one.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, obtain the bottle of Jones&#39; reagent and carefully add 2 &#8211; 3 drops to each tube. The reagent is strongly acidic and corrosive, so be careful with it and tightly cap the bottle when you&#39;re done. Then, mix each solution well, cleaning the glass rod after each one.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-9">
		<div class="lab-step">Let the solutions react for 10 min, and then compare your unknown to the knowns. <strong>Note:</strong> If the unknown solution turned green, like 1-butanol and 2-butanol, the test is positive for a primary or secondary alcohol. If it stayed orange, like 2-methyl-2-propanol, the test is negative.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-10">
		<div class="lab-step">Record the results in your lab notebook.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">The Lucas Test for Classifying Small Saturated Alcohols<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p>The Jones test doesn&#39;t distinguish between primary and secondary alcohols, so you&#39;ll use the Lucas test to identify which is which.</p>
	<p>Lucas&#39; reagent, which is a mixture of zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid, converts secondary and tertiary alcohols to chloroalkanes at room temperature. Chloroalkanes are nearly insoluble in water, so a positive result appears as the mixture separates into a cloudy chloroalkane-containing layer over a clear layer.</p>
	<p>The rate-determining step of the reaction involves converting the alcohol to a carbocation, so the speed of the reaction depends on how stable the carbocation is.</p>
	<p>Tertiary carbocations are very stable, so tertiary alcohols give a positive reaction almost immediately. Secondary carbocations are less stable, so secondary alcohols give a positive result after a few seconds to a few minutes. Primary carbocations are too unstable for this reaction, so primary alcohols give a negative result.</p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-5">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, label for clean test tubes as &#8216;1-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-butanol&#8217;, &#8216;2-methyl-2-propanol&#8217;, and &#8216;unknown&#8217;.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-6">
		<div class="lab-step">Obtain the bottle of Lucas&#39; reagent and use a graduated cylinder to measure 2 mL of the reagent for each tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-7">
		<div class="lab-step">Next, add 2 drops of 2-methyl-2-propanol to the appropriate tube. Immediately, stir the mixture for a few seconds and place it in the rack. The mixture will promptly separate into a clear lower layer and a cloudy upper layer.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Thoroughly rinse the glass rod and record the immediate positive result in your lab notebook.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-9">
		<div class="lab-step">Mix the remaining alcohols with Lucas&#39; reagent in the same way, using a fresh pipette for each alcohol and rinsing the glass rod each time. <strong>Note:</strong> Don&#39;t add too much alcohol or jostle the tubes because that can slow down the reaction.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-10">
		<div class="lab-step">Watch carefully after mixing the unknown alcohol with Lucas&#39; reagent to ensure that you can distinguish an immediate positive result from a positive result after a brief delay.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-11">
		<div class="lab-step">Check on the tubes every few minutes and record positive results as you see them. Note approximately how long it took for delayed positive results to appear.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-12">
		<div class="lab-step">Once the tubes have sat for at least 15 min, you can assume that the results are final. Record the results for 1-butanol, 2-butanol, and for your unknown if applicable.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-13">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, let&#39;s clean up. Your instructor will collect the Cr(VI) solutions, so leave any tubes of orange solution from the Jones test in your hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-14">
		<div class="lab-step">Empty the other test tubes into the waste beaker and rinse them with deionized water. Pour the waste into the aqueous metal waste container using a funnel and rinse the beaker with deionized water.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="3-15">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, wash your glassware as usual and dispose of used pipettes in the glass waste. Lastly, clean your hood and throw out any trash in the lab trash container.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li data-note-item="4" data-parent-collapse="">Results<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p>Identify your unknown alcohol. The four possibilities are 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 2-methyl-2-butanol, and para-chlorophenol.</p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="4-2">
		<div class="lab-step">Consider the results of the ferric chloride test first. If the mixture with your unknown alcohol turned purple, like phenol did, your alcohol must be para-chlorophenol. If you saw a negative result, your unknown is one of the three aliphatic alcohols.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="4-3">
		<div class="lab-step">Look at the results of the Jones test. If the mixture with the unknown alcohol turned green, the unknown could be primary or secondary. If the mixture with your unknown alcohol stayed orange, your unknown alcohol is tertiary. Therefore, a negative Jones result means that your alcohol must be 2-methyl-2-butanol.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="4-4">
		<div class="lab-step">Lastly, look at the results of the Lucas test. If you had a negative result in the Jones test, you should also have seen an immediate positive result in the Lucas test. This confirms that your alcohol was tertiary. If your unknown had a positive result after a short delay, then your unknown alcohol is secondary, and therefore, must be 2-propanol. Finally, if your unknown had a negative result in the Lucas test, your alcohol is primary, and therefore, must be 1-propanol.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
</ol>

Identifying Alcohols: Ferric Chloride Test, Jones Test, and Lucas Test - Procedure

アルコールの識別

Source: Lara Al Hariri and Ahmed Basabrain at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Ferric Chloride Test for PhenolsExpand
	In this lab, you ...

Beer's Law

Beer-Lambert Law and Equilibrium Constant Determination - Procedure

ビールの法則

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Lab Setup for Beer&#8217;s LawExpand
	In this lab, you will combine aqueous solutions of FeCl3 ...

Concentration Dependence

<p>Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA</p>
<ol class="note-items">
	<li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Concentration Dependence<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<p>In this experiment, you will combine varying concentrations of aqueous HCl and sodium thiosulfate to make solid sulfur, which rapidly gathers into opaque yellow particles at a certain sulfur concentration. Since the reaction solution starts clear and colorless, you can easily tell when it reaches that concentration.</p>
	<p>You&#39;ll use the same test tube and total volume each time, so it will take the same amount of sulfur to make each solution completely opaque. Thus, you&#39;ll measure the reaction progress by timing how long that takes. You&#39;ll then use that data to estimate the reaction orders of the individual reactants and of the overall reaction.</p>
	<p>Before starting the lab, make a table listing the reactant concentrations, the time to solution opacity, and the solution temperature for the trials.</p>
	<h4><strong>Table 1: Reaction progress</strong></h4>
	<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td><strong>Trial</strong></td>
				<td><strong>[Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>] (M)</strong></td>
				<td><strong>[HCl] (M)</strong></td>
				<td><strong>Time (s)</strong></td>
				<td><strong>Temp (&#176;C)</strong></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">1</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.1 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">2</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.1 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.2 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">4</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.15 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">5</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.05 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">6</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.1 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">6.0 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">7</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.1 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">4.5 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">8</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.1 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">1.5 M</td>
				<td></td>
				<td></td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
	</table>
	<p><a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/50/Table_1._Reaction_progress.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a></p>
	<p>We want to make sure that the reactions are all taking place at room temperature. You&#39;ll perform two benchmark trials, three trials with different sodium thiosulfate concentrations, and three trials with different HCl concentrations. You will vary the concentrations by diluting stock solutions of sodium thiosulfate and HCl, as shown in the following tables.</p>
	<h4><strong>Table 2: Sodium thiosulfate dilutions</strong></h4>
	<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Target Concentration</strong></td>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Volume of 0.2 M sodium thiosulfate</strong></td>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Volume of DI water</strong></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.05 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">5 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">15 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.10 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">10 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">10 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.15 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">15 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">5 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0.20 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">20 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0 mL</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
	</table>
	<p><a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/50/Table_2._Sodium_thiosulfate_dilutions.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a></p>
	<h4><strong>Table 3: HCl Dilutions</strong></h4>
	<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Target Concentration</strong></td>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Volume of 6.0 M HCl</strong></td>
				<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Volume of DI water</strong></td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">1.5 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">2.5 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">7.5 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">3.0 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">5.0 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">5.0 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">4.5 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">7.5 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">2.5 mL</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td style="text-align: center;">6.0 M</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">10 mL</td>
				<td style="text-align: center;">0 mL</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
	</table>
	<p><a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/50/Table_3._HCl_Dilutions.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 3</a></p>
	<p>Remember to use caution when handling HCl, which is toxic and highly corrosive. Sulfur dioxide, which is a gaseous product of this reaction, is also toxic. You will leave the reaction waste in the fume hood overnight to let the sulfur dioxide escape harmlessly.</p>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-6">
		<div class="lab-step">First, put on a lab coat, splash-proof safety glasses, and nitrile gloves.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-7">
		<div class="lab-step">Fill a plastic wash bottle with deionized water and get a test tube marked with an X.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Clamp the test tube over the center of a small stir plate. The label must be on the opposite side from you. Make sure that you can clearly see the X. Place a small magnetic stir bar in the test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-9">
		<div class="lab-step">Use a thermometer clamp to secure a glass thermometer in the lower third of the tube, keeping it clear of the X and the stir bar.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-10">
		<div class="lab-step">Cut a sheet of about 20 squares of plastic paraffin film from a roll and bring the sheet back to your hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-11">
		<div class="lab-step">Lay paper towels in the fume hood as a clean surface for labware to be reused.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-12">
		<div class="lab-step">Label a 600-mL beaker as &#8216;waste&#8217; for the reaction, a 100-mL beaker as &#8216;0.2 M sodium thiosulfate&#8217;, and a 50-mL beaker as &#8216;6 M HCl&#8217;.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-13">
		<div class="lab-step">Fill the 100-mL beaker with 0.2 M sodium thiosulfate from the stock bottle in the dispensing hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-14">
		<div class="lab-step">After that, bring the 50-mL beaker and a watch glass to the acid-dispensing hood to obtain 50 mL of 6 M HCl. Cover the filled beaker with the watch glass and bring your portion of HCl back to your hood.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-15">
		<div class="lab-step">Prepare 20 mL of 0.1 M sodium thiosulfate for the first benchmark trial. Use a 10-mL volumetric pipette to measure 10 mL of 0.2 M sodium thiosulfate and dispense it into a 20-mL volumetric flask. Fill the 20-mL volumetric flask with deionized water to the mark.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-16">
		<div class="lab-step">Then, cut a square of plastic paraffin film, seal the flask, and invert it several times to thoroughly mix the solution.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-17">
		<div class="lab-step">Remove the film and pour the solution into the test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-18">
		<div class="lab-step">Prepare 10 mL of 3 M HCl. Pipette 5 mL of 6 M HCl into a 10-mL graduated cylinder. Add deionized water to fill the graduated cylinder to the 10-mL line.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-19">
		<div class="lab-step">Seal the top of the graduated cylinder with plastic paraffin film and thoroughly mix the HCl solution by inverting it several times.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-20">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, start the stir motor and get a reset stopwatch. Confirm that you can see the X through the solution in the test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-21">
		<div class="lab-step">Simultaneously start the stopwatch and pour the 3 M HCl into the test tube.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-22">
		<div class="lab-step">Watch the X through the solution, which will start becoming cloudy when enough sulfur has been produced to saturate it. Stop the stopwatch exactly when the solution becomes so opaque that the X disappears.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-23">
		<div class="lab-step">Record the time in your lab notebook for benchmark trial 1 and then reset the stopwatch. Also, record the temperature of the solution.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-24">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, turn off the stir motor, remove the thermometer, and rinse it with deionized water into the waste beaker.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-25">
		<div class="lab-step">Then, empty the test tube into the waste beaker, retrieve the stir bar with long forceps, and rinse the test tube and stir bar with deionized water.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-26">
		<div class="lab-step">Thoroughly clean the test tube with a test tube brush. Briefly rinse the volumetric flask and graduated cylinder with deionized water as well. Dry everything with paper towels.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-27">
		<div class="lab-step">Repeat the trial in the exact same way for the second benchmark time. If the time is not within 3 - 5 s of the first trial, repeat the benchmark trial until you have two consistent trials.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-28">
		<div class="lab-step">Follow the same overall procedure for each subsequent trial, changing the dilutions as indicated in your table and cleaning your glassware between each trial. Use a 5-mL volumetric pipette as needed when measuring the sodium thiosulfate stock solution in trials four and five.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-29">
		<div class="lab-step">Once you have performed all eight trials, rinse your glassware and tools one last time and neutralize the reaction waste with baking soda. Use caution because sulfur dioxide is one of the reaction products.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-30">
		<div class="lab-step">Transfer the neutralized reaction waste to the designated waste container. Then, pour any remaining sodium thiosulfate solution into its labeled waste container and rinse the beaker with deionized water.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-31">
		<div class="lab-step">Neutralize any remaining HCl with baking soda before flushing it down the drain with tap water.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="1-32">
		<div class="lab-step">Finally, clean and put away your labware according to your standard practices and throw out any trash remaining in your hood. Your instructor will dispose of the reaction waste later.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Results<button class="expand">Expand</button>
	<ul class="lab-items">
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-1">
		<div class="lab-step">Now, estimate the reaction order of sodium thiosulfate and HCl. Calculate the starting concentration of sodium thiosulfate in the reaction mixture for trials 1 through 5. Looking at the concentration of sodium thiosulfate and the reaction times, we see that as the concentration doubles, the time to opacity is halved.
		<h4><strong>Table 4: Estimating reaction order sodium thiosulfate</strong></h4>
		<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Trial</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>[Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>] added</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> volume (mL)</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Total volume (mL)</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>[Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>] in mixture </strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Time (s)</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Inverse time (s<sup>-1</sup>)</strong></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">1, 2</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.1</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">3</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.2</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">4</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.15</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">5</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.05</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/50/Table_4._Estimating_reaction_order_sodium_thiosulfate.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 4</a></div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-2">
		<div class="lab-step">Remember that each trial used the same volume, so it took the same amount of sulfur to make each solution opaque. Thus, the reaction is twice as fast when the sodium thiosulfate concentration is doubled.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-3">
		<div class="lab-step">When the concentration increases by a factor of 4, the reaction rate also increases by a factor of 4. This one-to-one relationship suggests that the reaction was first order for sodium thiosulfate. If so, we would expect a plot of rate versus sodium thiosulfate concentration to be linear.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-4">
		<div class="lab-step">We didn&#39;t measure how much sulfur it took to turn the solution opaque, but we assume that it was the same for each trial. This lets us use the inverse of time to opacity as a stand-in for the rate. The slope won&#39;t be equal to k, but that&#39;s OK for this lab.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-5">
		<div class="lab-step">Plot inverse reaction time as a function of sodium thiosulfate concentration. This confirms the linear relationship between sulfur production and thiosulfate concentration. Thus, the reaction seems to be first order with respect to thiosulfate.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-6">
		<div class="lab-step">Use the same method to estimate the reaction order of HCl. First, calculate the starting concentration of HCl in the benchmark trials and in trials 6 through 8.
		<h4><strong>Table 5: Estimating reaction order HCl</strong></h4>
		<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Trial</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>[HCl] added</strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>HCl volume (mL) </strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Total volume (mL) </strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>[HCl] in mixture </strong></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Time (s)</strong></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">1, 2</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.1</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">3</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.2</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">4</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.15</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td style="text-align: center;">5</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;">0.05</td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
					<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
		<a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/50/Table_5._Estimating_reaction_order_HCl.xlsx" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 5</a></div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-7">
		<div class="lab-step">Then, look at the concentration of HCl and the reaction times for these trials. The reaction times are nearly identical, so the HCl concentration has no effect on the reaction rate. This means that HCl seems to be zeroth order for this reaction.</div>
		</li>
		<li data-sub-note-item="2-8">
		<div class="lab-step">Lastly, add up the reaction orders of the reactants to get the overall reaction order.</div>
		</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
</ol>

Concentration Dependence and Reaction Order - Procedure

濃度依存性

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Concentration DependenceExpand
	In this experiment, you will combine varying concentrations of ...

Sexual Selection and Mate Choice

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Sexual Selection Class Simulation
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">Note: In this activity, you and your classmates will portray a sexually reproducing population consisting of an equal number of male and female animals. You will simulate several different mating scenarios to determine how relative quality, attractiveness, sex, and parental commitment affect mate choice and reproductive success. The goal of this activity is to maximize your progeny. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Hypotheses: There are several overall hypotheses for female and male behavior for this activity. The main experimental hypothesis for female behavior is that females will mate with males of high quality more frequently than those of low quality, yielding a higher reproductive success. The null hypothesis is that females will not demonstrate preference towards high- or low-quality males in any of the four rounds of mating. For males, one experimental hypothesis is that males with a higher visible score will have greater reproductive success. Another could be that males will be more selective for females in scenarios in which they join females to care for offspring as opposed to scenarios in which they exhibit no parental commitment. The null hypothesis for male behavior might be that males will not demonstrate preference towards high- or low-quality females in any of the four rounds of mating. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Activity Overview: To begin, each student will be assigned a sex as well as a relative quality and attractiveness score. Remember - the goal is to maximize your reproductive success in each round. You do this by mating with partners of the highest possible quality which is rated on a scale of one to three with three being the highest possible score. Attractiveness scores, which follow the previously described scoring paradigm, correlate with quality but do not exactly predict the score. Though useful, they are not a perfect way to choose the best mate.  If you are assigned a male ID holder, you will have 16 gametes. However, if you are assigned a female ID holder, you will only have four. A successful mating occurs when one sperm and one egg are paper-clipped together and deposited at the fertilization area. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Note - Rules of the activity: 
<ul>
	<li>Assigned male and female identities for these experiments are not representative of students&#39; personal gender identities. </li>
	<li>Running is not permitted. </li>
	<li>Talking is not permitted.</li>
	<li>Hidden values cannot be shared but individuals can attempt to hide their visible scores. </li>
	<li>Respect the space around each individual and remain an arm&#39;s length away. </li>
	<li>Offspring will only be counted towards an individual score if both gametes are paper-clipped together and dropped off in the designated fertilization area before the end of the two-minute round. </li>
</ul>
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Round 1 &#8211; Hidden Quality Score
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">To begin the first simulation, take the clip-on ID holder you were randomly assigned and make sure it contains four gametes if you are assigned female or sixteen gametes if male. Males should also have a strip of white paper and two paperclips. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">Next, males should paperclip the white strip of paper over their quality score to hide it, but keep the attractiveness score visible. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Record your ID number for round one in table two.  <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/35/Table_2_sexual_selection.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Next, clip on the ID holder and move to the designated mating area. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">When the instructor says begin, you may commence the mating simulation. You will have exactly two minutes to produce as many offspring as possible. Males may freely give their sperm to females, and females may choose to use these sperm immediately after which they would walk to the fertilization area and paperclip it to one of their eggs, or they may choose to wait until they receive other sperm to do so. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">Once the gametes have been deposited in the fertilization area, females may resume mating. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">When the two minutes have elapsed, all matings must stop and any gametes not in the fertilization area at this time will not be counted. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">The instructor should now tally all of the matings and record the numbers of the individuals who produced each offspring.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-9"><div class="lab-step">Now, find all the gametes that came with your ID holder and repackage them for the next round. 
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">Round 2 &#8211; Hidden Attractiveness Score
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="3-1"><div class="lab-step">For the second round, obtain a new randomly assigned ID holder and again ensure it contains the proper number of gametes. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-2"><div class="lab-step">Next, males should use the paperclip and strip of white paper to hide their attractiveness score (instead of the quality score, which was covered in round one).
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-3"><div class="lab-step">Record the ID number of your clip in table two under round two.  Note: The mating simulation process for round two will be the same as round one.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-4"><div class="lab-step">Move to the designated mating area and with for the instructor to signal the start of the round. As before, males may freely give away their sperm while females will choose to use it now or wait for different sperm. When a female decides to fertilize an egg, she will walk to the fertilization area and paperclip the gametes together. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-5"><div class="lab-step">Proceed with the simulation for two minutes, and at the signal from the instructor all mating activity should stop. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-6"><div class="lab-step">The instructor should now tally all of the matings from this second round.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-7"><div class="lab-step">Now, find and return the gametes to your ID holder, and then return the holder to the instructor.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="4" data-parent-collapse="">Round 3 &#8211; Visible Quality and Attractiveness Scores
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="4-1"><div class="lab-step">For the third simulation, you should again obtain a new clip-on ID holder and check that it contains the appropriate number of gametes. Record the ID number of your clip in table two.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-2"><div class="lab-step">For this round, leave both attractiveness and quality scores visible on male IDs. Note: The mating simulation process for round three will be the same as the previous two rounds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-3"><div class="lab-step">Move to the mating area and wait for the signal to begin the simulation.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-4"><div class="lab-step">Once the instructor starts the timer and gives the signal, commence mating. As before, males are allowed to freely give away their sperm to females and females may use the sperm immediately or wait for different sperm. Again, fertilized eggs only count if placed in the fertilization area. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-5"><div class="lab-step">After the two-minute time limit, the instructor should tally all matings. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-6"><div class="lab-step">Now, find and return the gametes to your ID holder, and then return the holder to the instructor.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="5" data-parent-collapse="">Round 4 &#8211; Increased Male Parental Care
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="5-1"><div class="lab-step">In the final round, males will again leave their attractiveness and quality scores visible. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-2"><div class="lab-step">Obtain an ID holder and ensure it contains the appropriate number of gametes. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-3"><div class="lab-step">Clip on the ID holder and move to the mating area. Note: As before, males may freely give away their sperm to females. However, in this round, once a female chooses to mate with a male, both the male and female will walk to the fertilization area to paperclip their gametes together. After placing the paper-clipped gametes on the table, both male and female actors may return to the mating area. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-4"><div class="lab-step">The instructor should signal the start of the round and begin the timer &#8211; at this point participants can begin the simulation.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-5"><div class="lab-step">Once the two-minute time limit is up, all matings must stop. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-6"><div class="lab-step">The instructor should tally all mating events.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-7"><div class="lab-step">Find and return the gametes to your ID holder. Give your ID holder to the instructor and notify them if any gametes or supplies are missing. 
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="6" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="6-1"><div class="lab-step">To analyze the data generated during the mating activities, first split up into groups of four. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-2"><div class="lab-step">Collect the class data from the instructor for ONE of the four rounds of mating. Note: In this activity, there were several types of females and males distinguished by different letters. These letter types correspond to specific combinations of quality and attractiveness scores. In the compiled data, the average number of matings and reproductive success has already been sorted by letter type for you by the instructor. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-3"><div class="lab-step">Use these data to generate four graphs for the round you were assigned. First plot two graphs for the average number of matings against female and male type. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-4"><div class="lab-step">Then plot the reproductive success for males and females against male or female type, giving a total of four graphs.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-5"><div class="lab-step">Once these graphs are complete, each group should present their data to the class, making sure to state the original hypothesis for your assigned round and whether or not the hypothesis was upheld.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-6"><div class="lab-step">After each group presents, discuss the overall results of the four rounds together. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-7"><div class="lab-step">Note the affect that hiding the quality score had on the overall quality of mates chosen.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-8"><div class="lab-step">Note how hiding or revealing the attractiveness score affected the results.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="6-9"><div class="lab-step">Discuss the effect of male parental investment on the number and overall quality of mating pairs.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

性選択と配偶者選択

Sexual Selection Class Simulation
ExpandNote: In this activity, you and your classmates will portray a sexually reproducing population consisting of an ...

生物学

生態学

Optimal Foraging

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Simulating Foraging with Artificial Habitats and Prey
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: The foragers will hunt for prey represented by pinto beans in four buckets of rice with varying prey densities. Without knowing what these densities are, foragers must obtain as many prey items as possible in as little time as possible. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: In this experiment, the experimental hypothesis could be that foragers will catch the most prey in the higher prey density bucket and also spend the most time foraging there.  The null hypothesis would then be that foragers will catch an equal number of prey in each bucket and that foragers will spend an equal amount of time foraging in each patch. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">To begin the foraging activity, record the names and role of each participant at the top of the student data collection sheet.  NOTE: Before starting the experiment, the forager is allowed to become familiar with the foraging process &#8211; the following steps are a practice round. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">The forager should kneel or sit in front of the average density bucket. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Once the timer says start, the forager may begin looking for the pinto beans representing the prey. The forager can spend as much time as they like foraging in this bucket. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">Once a prey item is located, the forager must signal that one has been found and place the prey in the cup next to the bucket.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">Once they believe they have acquired most of the prey in the patch, they should tell the timer to stop the time and the practice round is over. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">To begin the simulation proper, the forager should sit or kneel in front of bucket A. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">The timer must be ready to start the stopwatch. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">The recorder should be ready to record the time each prey item is located, in addition to the time that the forager arrived at and left each bucket. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">When all parties are ready, the timer should start the stopwatch and say &#8220;start&#8221;,  and the forager should begin foraging. NOTE: The stopwatch will run through the rest of the round for buckets B and C.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">As the forager signals finding pinto beans and places them in the cup next to the bucket, the timer should tell the recorder the time.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">The recorder should then write the time in the student data collection sheet.  <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/34/Table_1_Optimal_foraging.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-14"><div class="lab-step">Once the forager has decided to move on to the next bucket, they should tell the timer &#8220;done&#8221;, and begin moving to the next patch. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-15"><div class="lab-step">The recorder should record the time the forager left and the time they arrived at bucket B in the student data collection sheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-16"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the same procedure for buckets B and C. Once the forager has completed the activity, it is time for the next forager to begin using the same procedure. 
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">Before performing any data analysis, review the data collection sheet and compile your individual data for captured prey, foraging time, and travel time for each bucket in your student calculations table. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/34/Table_2_Optimal_foraging.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">After this, calculate your individual capture rate for each bucket by dividing the number of prey captured by the sum of the foraging time and travel time and record these values in your table. Individual capture rate =  Number of prey captured / (foraging time + travel time)
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">To calculate your Giving-Up-Time or a GUT for each bucket, subtract the time that the last prey item was acquired from the time you left the bucket.  GUT = time forager left bucket  -  time last prey item acquired
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Next, calculate the mean GUT for your foraging group and record the values in your table.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">Finally, calculate your scaled GUT for each bucket by dividing the bucket GUT by your group&#39;s mean GUT. Scaled GUT =  Bucket GUT / Group mean GUT NOTE: The scaled GUT will allow class data to be pooled later on without differences in individual foragers skewing the data. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">The instructor should now compile the data into the classroom spreadsheet.  <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/34/Table_3_Optimal_foraging.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 3</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">Plot a bar graph of the average number of prey collected in each bucket. On the x-axis, A should represent the low prey density bucket, B should represent the medium prey density bucket, and C the high prey density bucket. Plot the y-axis as the number of prey items caught. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">Next, plot the graph of the class average scaled GUT, where the x-axis represents the buckets with varying levels of prey density and the y-axis shows the values for the average scaled GUT. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-9"><div class="lab-step">Plot a third graph of the average time spent foraging in each bucket. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-10"><div class="lab-step">Now review the Marginal Value Theorem (MVT) from the concepts video and examine the three graphs that you generated from your class data. Take note of whether the graphs conform to the predictions of MVT. 
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Optimal Foraging: Foraging with Artificial Habitats and Prey - Procedure

最適な採餌

Simulating Foraging with Artificial Habitats and Prey
ExpandNOTE: The foragers will hunt for prey represented by pinto beans in four buckets of rice with ...

Animal Behavior

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Making Choice Chambers
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">Before beginning the experiments, use one of the Sharpies from the lab table to trace a line around the circumference of the bottom of both bottles. One line should be 1 cm from the base of the bottle and the other should be 1.5 cm from the base of the bottle.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Use a razor blade to make a small cut in each bottle at the mark. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Then, insert the scissors and carefully cut along the line until the bottoms of the bottles are removed completely.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Fit one bottle bottom into the other.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Tape the bottles together to make a secure chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">Use the razor blade and scissors to poke a hole into the center of the chamber. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">Take a piece of tape and fold the edge onto itself to make a tab and place the tape over the hole.  Note: The tab helps with easy removal and reattachment of the tape to the chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">Use the Sharpie to label one side of the chamber A and the other side B.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">Upon receiving the colony of <em>Drosophila</em>, perform a count to make sure there are 40 living individuals in the vial.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Geotaxis
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">To perform a geotaxis assay, first attach a clean, empty bottle cap to each end of the choice chamber and turn the fly vial upside down onto its lid.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">Open the tape flap in the center of the choice chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Insert the funnel into the hole and tap all of the flies into the chamber. HYPOTHESES: The alternate hypothesis is that more flies will be moving against gravity, or up, regardless of the orientation of the choice chamber. Alternatively, if the flies are positively geotactic, then more flies will move down, or with gravity. The null hypothesis is that the flies will have no preference with regard to gravity and will move randomly within the chamber. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Once the <em>Drosophila</em> are in the chamber, close the tape flap, rotate the chamber so that it stands vertically with side A on the bottom, and start the timer.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">Immediately, count the number of <em>Drosophila</em> that are moving up and the number that are moving down. Record these data for time point 0 in the table. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">After 30 seconds, rotate the chamber so that side B is on the bottom and count the number of <em>Drosophila</em> that are moving up or down. Record these data for time point 30 in the table.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">After 60 seconds, rotate the chamber so that side A is on the bottom again and record the number of moving flies for time point 60.  <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/15/Table_1_Animal_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="__blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">Hold the chamber over the fly vial and carefully open the cap to return all of the <em>Drosophila</em> back to their empty vial. 
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">Phototaxis
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="3-1"><div class="lab-step">To perform a phototaxis analysis, first cover side A of the choice chamber with tin foil, taking care that the foil reaches to the exact center between the two sides. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-2"><div class="lab-step">Ensure the caps are secured on both ends of the chamber.  HYPOTHESES: In this exercise, the alternative hypothesis is that more flies will be found in the light side of the choice chamber, if the flues are attracted to light, or on the dark side if they are repelled by light. The null hypothesis is that <em>Drosophila</em> will have no preference with regard to either stimulus. Therefore, equal numbers of flies will be found on either side of the choice chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-3"><div class="lab-step">Open the tape flap in the center of the choice chamber, insert the funnel into the hole, and tap all 40 flies into the chamber as previously described.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-4"><div class="lab-step">Set the timer to sound an alarm at 10 minutes.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-5"><div class="lab-step">When the alarm sounds, stop the timer, and count the number of flies in the open side B of the chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-6"><div class="lab-step">Subtract that number from the total number of flies added to the choice chamber to calculate the number of flies in the covered side A.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-7"><div class="lab-step">Record these data in the table for time point 10.  <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/15/Table_2_Animal_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="__blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-8"><div class="lab-step">Carefully, return all of the flies back to their empty vial.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="4" data-parent-collapse="">Chemotaxis
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="4-1"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: In this exercise, the alternative hypothesis is that more flies will be found on the side of the chamber with the apple cider vinegar if the flies are attracted to the odor. Or, if the flies are repelled by the vinegar, then more of them will be found on the side of the chamber presenting the odorless water. The null hypothesis is that <em>Drosophila</em> will have no preference with regard to either stimulus and will move randomly in the chamber.  Use an individual disposable plastic pipette to dispense two drops of the apple cider vinegar onto one cotton ball for side A of the chamber. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-2"><div class="lab-step">Use an individual disposable plastic pipette to dispense two drops of the distilled water onto a cotton ball for side B of the chamber. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-3"><div class="lab-step">Fold two pieces of tape over themselves to create individual pieces of double-sided tape and use the tape to attach each cotton ball to the inside of the single bottle cap.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-4"><div class="lab-step">Screw the bottle caps with the cotton balls onto their corresponding sides of the chamber.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-5"><div class="lab-step">Transfer all of the flies into the chamber and set the timer to sound an alarm after 10 minutes. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-6"><div class="lab-step">When the alarm sounds, stop the timer and record the number of flies in each side of the chamber. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/15/Table_3_Animal_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="__blank">Click Here to download Table 3</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-7"><div class="lab-step">At the end of the final experiment, funnel the flies into a morgue tube containing 70% ethanol. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-8"><div class="lab-step">Dismantle the choice chambers for recycling.  NOTE: Since all of the chemicals used in these experiments are lab safe, the liquids can be disposed of down the sink, the chambers rinsed, and the solids can be thrown away in the trash. 
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="5" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="5-1"><div class="lab-step">Gather all of the data collected for the geotaxis, phototaxis, and chemotaxis experiments.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-2"><div class="lab-step">Plot these values as bar graphs for different conditions and different time points.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="5-3"><div class="lab-step">Use these data to draw inferences about the behavior of <em>drosophila melanogaster</em>. 
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Animal Behavior: Studying Taxis Behavior of Drosophila - Procedure

動物の行動

Making Choice Chambers
ExpandBefore beginning the experiments, use one of the Sharpies from the lab table to trace a line around the circumference of the ...

Extinction

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Diversity and Extinction during the Paleogene Epoch
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">Begin this procedure by reading the extinction reading supplement that has been printed out for you. <br /><strong>NOTE:</strong> Alternatively, you may download the reading supplement at the link below.&nbsp; <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/24/Lab_20_Reading Supplement.docx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click here to download the extinction reading supplement</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Using the information contained in the extinction reading supplements pertaining to the taxa of interest and the Chicxulub impact event, make predictions for each taxon listed in Table 1. Consider whether diversity in each taxon increased, decreased, or stayed the same immediately following the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary and later on in the Paleogene epoch. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/24/Table_1_Extinction.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Then, fill out the reasons for each of your predictions in the Contributing Factors column. HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis is that many of the different taxa will show changes in diversity after the Cretaceous-Paleogene event, and again at the end of the Paleogene, with some increasing in diversity, while others decrease. The null hypothesis is that there will be no changes in diversity between taxa following the Cretaceous-Paleogene event, or at the end of the Paleogene.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Gather diversity data by going to the Paleobiology Database: <a href="http://www.paleobiodb.org" target="_blank">www.paleobiodb.org</a>.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">In the center of the screen, click the yellow box labeled Download Data. Under the italicized heading, &#8220;What do you want to download?&#8221;, select Diversity over time on the left side and Comma-separated values on the right side.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">Scroll down to the heading &#8220;Select by taxonomy&#8221;.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">In the first box labeled 'Taxon or taxa to include', type in the name of the taxon that data is being gathered on.  NOTE: Ensure the spelling is correct.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">Now, go to the dropdown menu right below that box labeled &#8220;Taxonomic resolution&#8221;, and select genera.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">Under the next heading, Select by time, type Maastrichtian into the first box and Chattian in the box directly below. Make sure the dropdown menu labeled Time rule is set to major and the Temporal resolution is set to stage.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">Select &#8220;Assume extant taxa range through to present&#8221;. Scroll back up to the middle of the page and click download. A save window will open.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">Save the .csv file to a safe and accessible place and rename it to make it easy to identify.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">Open the file and scroll down to the main dataset under Records.  NOTE: The data are arranged in reverse time order by geological stage. The second column, interval_name, gives the accepted name of the stage in question. The next two columns give the appropriate dates of the stage in millions of years before the present. The final column, number of occurrences, gives a total count of the genera extant during that geological stage as determined from occurrence of fossils.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">To more easily work with this data, copy and paste each column into a new sheet. Be sure to label this sheet with the taxon in question, the data and time the data were obtained, and the data source.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-14"><div class="lab-step">Repeat this process for each of the taxa in Table 1 (steps 4 &#8211; 12). NOTE: Data from multiple taxa can be kept on the same sheet, so long as they are kept distinct and labeled appropriately.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-15"><div class="lab-step">To create line plots for each of the taxa showing the change in diversity over time, select the max_ma column and the number of occurrences column simultaneously.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-16"><div class="lab-step">In Excel, select Insert from the top toolbar and find the section labeled Charts. Select the bottom center icon, Insert Scatter Chart.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-17"><div class="lab-step">Then, select the Scatter with Straight Lines and Markers and a graph should appear. NOTE: Since the axis of this graph is in units of millions of years ago, the axis is in the reverse direction of time when put in numerical order.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-18"><div class="lab-step">To fix this, click on the green plus sign in the top-right corner of the graph and hover over Axes. This should reveal a small black arrow. Click the arrow to open up a small menu and select More Options.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-19"><div class="lab-step">This will open the Axis Options menu. Under Axis Options, click the box next to Values in reverse order. NOTE: It is also possible to change the axis scales from this menu, which can be used to eliminate the excess time that is not being analyzed in this lab. Keep any changes consistent between different graphs.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-20"><div class="lab-step">Double-click on the title at the top of the graph and change it to the taxon being represented.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-21"><div class="lab-step">Make a separate graph for each of the taxa in Table 1. Keep them organized and in one location. A separate sheet for graphs is recommended.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">For each graph, identify the location of the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary and draw a vertical line through the graph at this point.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">Using the information from the graphs, fill out Table 2. In some cases, it may be helpful to go back to the original dataset and compare actual values, particularly when they are small. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/24/Table_2_Extinction.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Compare these values to the predictions made in Table 1 and discuss if the original contributing factors are still likely candidates.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Using the dataset, calculate the percentage of total taxa that went extinct over the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary using this equation.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">There is an event in the middle of the Paleogene known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum about 55.5 million years ago. This represents a high point in temperature during the Paleogene epoch at approximately 8 &#176;C higher than today&#39;s average temperature. Does this point seem to have an effect on diversity for any of the taxa? If yes, then which ones?
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Extinction: Diversity and Extinction during the Paleogene Epoch - Procedure

絶滅

Diversity and Extinction during the Paleogene Epoch
ExpandBegin this procedure by reading the extinction reading supplement that has been printed out for ...

Group Behavior

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">The Hawk-Dove Game
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: In this activity, you will play the hawk and dove game with a single partner and then with multiple partners to observe hypothetical costs and benefits of the antagonist or cooperative behavior respectively. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Before the activity starts, review the cost-benefit table so that you understand how to score the game. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_1_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis for this exercise could be that the dove strategy will become more frequent between repeated partners, and the hawk strategy will become more frequent when interactions are with a variety of partners. The null hypothesis could be that there will be no change in strategy over time with repeat or different partner combinations. NOTE: Benefit can be determined by looking at the left column and choosing the row that corresponds to the card you played. The box that corresponds to the choice of your partner can be found in the top row. For the purposes of this game, B equals four and C equals three. So depending on the cards played, player one here, which is you, would gain a score of two, four, zero or one half. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Collect a set of two game cards. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Take out the cards labeled hawk and dove and place them face down on the table or conceal them in your hands. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">When the instructor gives the signal show either of the two cards to the student sitting across from you. Try to strategize how to receive the highest benefit from every interaction on your own but do not communicate with your partner. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">In the Single Partner Recording Table (Table 2) provided by your instructor, note the cards played as well as the benefit you received for that round.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">Repeat showing cards to the same partner and determining benefit on your instructor&#39;s signal for a total of 15 rounds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">At the end of those rounds, the student with the highest total benefit value was determined to be the &#8220;winner&#8221;, or the most fit.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">As a class, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played as well as the average benefit received for each round, using this formula: Class average benefit=(sum total benefit)/(number of players)
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">For the second game, and then for each round of play, one row of students should rotate to their right, leaving all players with a new partner.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">Continue playing for 15 rounds or until students end up back in their starting positions, recording the data in the Multiple Partner Recording Table (Table 3) given to you by your instructor.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">For each round, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played that round, as well as the average benefit received.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Cheating and Cooperation Exercise
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: In this activity, you will exchange benefits, represented by colored or similar items, with your classmates. In this simulation, a cheater is defined as a person who gives fewer benefits than they receive. During this activity, you will observe the frequency of cheating behavior over time. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis is that cheaters will receive fewer benefits over time and cooperators will continue to provide equal benefits to one another. The null hypothesis is that the frequency of cheaters and cooperators does not change over time. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Each person should collect beads of one color to represent a tangible benefit, as well as one paper bag and a three-ring binder.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Get into a group of three so that all members have objects of the same color.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">Now find another group with a different color to pair with. In each round, partners will exchange benefits without knowing what they are receiving from their partner and without discussion within their group.  NOTE: Benefits of a different color from your starting color are worth twice as much.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">Turn face to face with a member from the other group while still being able to conceal the objects in your possession.  TIP:<strong> </strong>Setting up a screen using a notebook or sitting behind a desk can be helpful here.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">When given a signal from the instructor, place zero to two benefits into the paper bag and pass it to your partner.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">Simultaneously, receive the bag from your partner and then remove the benefits from the bag.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-9"><div class="lab-step">Make a note of how many benefits you gave away and how many you received in the Cheating and Cooperation Table (Table 4) provided by your instructor.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-10"><div class="lab-step">Turn to a new member from the other group and repeat the exchange.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-11"><div class="lab-step">Rotate through all of the members of the other group for as many rounds as the instructor determines - which will not be revealed until the game ends so as not to alter player behavior.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-12"><div class="lab-step">Once the game has ended, note for each round in the cheating and cooperation table whether you gave more than your partner, received more from them or if you gave the same amount.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-13"><div class="lab-step">Now total up all of the benefits in your possession, with benefits you&#39;ve received from the other group being worth twice as much.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-14"><div class="lab-step">For each round, the whole class should total up the number of cheaters - with cheaters defined as those who gave less than they received.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="3-1"><div class="lab-step">For both the single partner hawk-dove game and the multiple partners hawk-dove game, use the whole class data to plot the percentages as two separate lines - one for the percentage of hawks, and one for the percentage of doves, for each of the 15 rounds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-2"><div class="lab-step">Take note of whether the cards played changed as more rounds were played.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-3"><div class="lab-step">Manipulate the values for B and C to see if you can find the point at which values of B and C would render the hawk strategy no longer effective (this would be the point when there is no benefit to choosing the hawk strategy over always choosing the dove strategy).
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-4"><div class="lab-step">As a class, use the data from the cheating and cooperation activity to make a graph showing the percentage of rounds each individual player cheated versus the amount of benefits they ended with.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-5"><div class="lab-step">Consider whether it is better to be a cheater or a cooperator in this scenario and discuss as a class what makes this scenario different from the hawk-dove game.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-6"><div class="lab-step">Now, use the class data to graph the percentage of cheaters against the number of rounds, and look for any trends over time.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-7"><div class="lab-step">Consider which type of strategy would most likely evolve in a setting where partners interact repeatedly.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-8"><div class="lab-step">Then, note which tactic might be beneficial for a species that relies on cooperation. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-9"><div class="lab-step">Discuss as a class what would likely happen if you increased or decreased the relative value of the benefits you receive.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Group Behavior: Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise - Procedure

グループの動作

The Hawk-Dove Game
ExpandNOTE: In this activity, you will play the hawk and dove game with a single partner and then with multiple partners to observe ...

Artificial Selection

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Observing Artificial Selection in Plants 
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">To begin the experiment, collect five two-week old grown plants from the generation one population that appear healthy. Note: Plants should appear green, not wilted, and not have damaged leaves. Experimental Hypothesis: The experimental hypothesis for this lab might be that the number of lead trichomes varies naturally, but the average number will increase over generations if only plants with the highest number of trichomes are interbred or decrease if those with the least are interbred. Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis might be that the average number of trichomes will not change over subsequent generations after artificial selection.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Label each plant with a letter from A to E and with both partners&#8217; names.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Record any natural differences you see between your plant samples. Note: All of the plants are the same age, so any observed variation is due to expressed phenotype, not development.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Use a hand lens to count the number of trichomes found on the petiole of the lowest leaf, not including the round, first-grown cotyledons for each plant. Note: It can be helpful to shine a light onto the plant and to hold it against a dark background, such as a lab bench, during the trichome analysis. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Both partners will conduct counts on each plant independently and compare answers. If the counts are different, enlist a third counter or take the average of the two results.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">After this, determine the median number of trichomes for the entire class.  <a target="__blank" style="display:block;padding:20px;" href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/2/Lab_2_Table_A.xlsx">Click Here to download Table A</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">Determine the top and bottom 10% of the plants from the class trichome count. These groups will make up the two artificially selected lines: high hairiness and low hairiness, respectively.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">If more than 10% of the plants have no trichomes, select 10% of those plants randomly for the low hairiness plant line.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">Separate the two groups of selected plants and label them clearly.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">Move the plants to a well-lit area and keep them well watered until they develop flowers. Note: Flowers typically develop around 14 days.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">When the flowers are fully developed, use a pollination wand or paintbrush to rub the stigma and anther of one plant&#8217;s flowers for a few seconds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">Using the same wand or brush, rub the inside of each flower of every other plant in the same selection line.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">Using a different wand or brush, repeat steps 11 through 12 on the other line. Note: Take care not to cross the lines. Spread the pollen only among the appropriately selected plants.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-14"><div class="lab-step">Return the generation one plants to the growing areas. When the plants reach approximately 1 month old, they should produce mature seed pods.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-15"><div class="lab-step">Allow the plants to dry out once the seed pods turn yellow.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-16"><div class="lab-step">Break the seed pods open and collect the seeds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-17"><div class="lab-step">Obtain new pots for the generation two seeds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-18"><div class="lab-step">Fill the pots with moist potting soil about halfway and add a fertilizer pellet to each pot.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-19"><div class="lab-step">Fill the pots with more soil to fill just below the lip.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-20"><div class="lab-step">Make a shallow depression in the soil of each pot with a probe.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-21"><div class="lab-step">Touch a clean toothpick to a gluestick and use the toothpick to transplant the seeds into the soil one by one.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-22"><div class="lab-step">Cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-23"><div class="lab-step">Label the pots with their hairiness line and place them in the designated growing area.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-24"><div class="lab-step">Use a plastic dropper to water the plants as needed to ensure they do not dry out.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-25"><div class="lab-step">When the plants are two weeks old, collect five plants from each line and label them A to E.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-26"><div class="lab-step">Then, count the trichomes on these plants as previously described (steps 4- 5).
<a target="__blank" style="display:block;padding:20px;" href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/CDNSource/lm/labs/2/Lab_2_Table_B.xlsx">Click Here to download Table B</a>
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Data Analysis
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">Create a frequency graph based on the generation one class data with the trichome count on the x axis and the number of plants on the y axis. Label the mean. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">Then, create frequency graphs for both of the selected hairiness lines.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Compare the frequency graphs for generation one and both hairiness lines.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Take note of phenotypic shifts observed in the selected hairiness lines.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Artificial Selection: Visualization in Plants and Data Analysis - Procedure

人工選択

Observing Artificial Selection in Plants 
ExpandTo begin the experiment, collect five two-week old grown plants from the generation one population that ...