作者感谢小行政区提契诺的森林服务和联邦政府机关为环境 FOEN 为这项研究部份地资助。

1. 树的选择和评估设计
<ol><li>如有可能, 通过使用可靠来源确定栗瘿栗瘿和Torymus的到来年份, 确定研究区的流行阶段 ( 例如,科学出版物、森林服务、板栗林管理人员的知识)。<ol>
<li>如果没有可靠的来源, 通过计算中华民国寄生率和下文所述的实地观察, 确定四主要流行阶段 (早期、峰值、恢复、生物防治)。<ol>
<li>鉴定阶段为早期流行时, 树冠显示既无显著损害, 也无冠透明, 当年瘿罕见,中华寄生是非常低或微不足道。</li>
			<li>当树冠显示高度透明度时, 确定流行峰, 虽然死枝稀少, 当年瘿丰富。</li>
			<li>在当前和往年的瘿丰富 (三年前) 和T. 中华寄生仍然很低或没有的情况下, 确定长期流行高峰。树冠仍然显示高透明度和另外的损伤由死的分支的第一个证据代表在冠。</li>
			<li>确定中华民国寄生率大于 75%10的早期恢复期。损伤仍然很大, 但当年瘿的数量减少, 一些分支产生无胆芽, 特别是从顶端芽。</li>
			<li>确定恢复阶段当中华民国寄生率永久大于 75%, 当年瘿是罕见的, 通常只限于单株树木, 大多数分支产生无胆芽。过去几年的瘿在老分支和死的分支由于D. 栗瘿攻击仍然是可看见的。</li>
			<li>确定完全恢复阶段时, 损坏和瘿 (过去和现在的年份) 是罕见的或缺席, 冠完全恢复。在严重受损的树木中, 前栗瘿攻击的一些痕迹 (例如,死芽或腐烂的过去几年的瘿) 仍可存在于冠内。 注: 补充文件1显示每个流行阶段的模范树冠图片。</li>
		</ol>
</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>观察整个地区的板栗树, 以直观地估计树木之间和内部的损伤变异性。损伤变异通常是低的在早期的流行病和恢复阶段 (冠基本地是健康的) 并且在流行性高峰期间 (全冠是充分的瘿)。相比之下, 在中间流行阶段, 变异往往很高, 因为过去D. 栗瘿攻击的死芽仍然存在。</li>
	<li>根据1.1 和 1.2, 确定要分析的树数。不幸的是, 对于样本大小的具体规则是不可能的, 也不合适, 因为这可能因实地和/或研究目标的具体流行情况而异。根据我们10年的经验, 对于一个10公顷的网站, 我们建议如下 (也见表 1了解详细信息):<ol>
<li>每个站点至少取样十棵树, 而不考虑疫情阶段。虽然在早期流行病和恢复阶段三棵树是足够的, 增加样本大小到十将提供更多的统计能力的结果。</li>
		<li>在早期流行和恢复阶段, 每棵树取样一个分支。</li>
		<li>在疫峰期间, 如果瘿在树冠内均匀分布, 或每棵树上有两个树枝, 则每棵树取样一根树枝, 如果你注意到一些冠部分受到更严重的攻击。</li>
		<li>在其他流行阶段, 根据每棵树的树冠损伤的变异性, 将分支的数量增加到两个 (用于恢复良好的树木) 或三 (用于更多损坏的树木)。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. 外地的数据收集
<ol><li>准备适当的设备, 包括剪贴板, 露营椅, 整枝剪刀一般, 伸缩树剪, 30 米测量磁带, 和爬树设备, 如果顶冠超过8米需要分析。</li>
	<li>选择最具代表性的分支, 试图按比例覆盖树枝多样性在树冠 (健康的树木通常有类似的分支, 而受损的树木可能有不同程度的损害分支)。例如, 如果您选择收集每棵树三个分支, 收集最损坏的分支, 最健康和中间一个。</li>
	<li>只要可能, 选择仅建筑分支, 同时避免 reiterations (树干吸盘或 reiterations Hallé)16。</li>
	<li>确保分支机构长度至少为50厘米, 至少有10枝。</li>
	<li>在伸缩树剪的刀片附近附上测量磁带的开始, 以测量树枝在切削点上的高度。</li>
	<li>用伸缩剪切割分支, 记录其切割高度、侧面、类型 (结构或重复), 并用整枝剪刀一般细化分支选择, 以仅保留部件进行分析。</li>
	<li>为分支分配唯一 ID, 并记录其年龄、其最大长度 (从第一个分支点到顶点) 以获得一般信息。</li>
	<li>快速查看整个分支, 以获得其历史和当前状态的第一印象 (严重攻击与否), 并在图 2和图 3的帮助下确定所有重要的元素和功能, 以计算 DCI。</li>
</ol>3. 分支特征定义
以下定义是部分或完全复制从 Gehring等。20185, 以 Springer-出版社柏林海得尔堡2017的允许。
<ol><li>将芽(在拍摄上) 定义为一种新形成的芽, 在当前的营养季节从一枝成熟的芽上生长。</li>
	<li>根据取样日期 (例如,取样季节 = 2017, 在2016年生长的芽) 定义一个芽作为萌芽从早先植物季节。可以是死是活。</li>
	<li>将死射(Sd) 定义为栗瘿攻击后或因自然死亡而死亡。</li>
	<li>定义一个活的拍摄(as) 作为一个活生生的拍摄, 不要混淆与重新激活休眠芽。</li>
	<li>将重新激活的休眠芽(Bdor) 定义为一种新形成的芽, 在当前的营养季节从休眠的芽上生长到比拍摄年龄长的分支部分。</li>
	<li>在芽 (Gons) 上定义一种瘿, 如在基部或沿萌芽轴上发育的瘿。从技术上讲, 这些应该被称为 "瘿", 但为了与现存的文学保持一致, 我们将它们称作 "瘿"。 注:图 2和图 3显示了所选分支特征的示例。更详细和完整的描述 (这是超出本文的范围) 可能会发现在 Gehring等。20185和 Maltoni等。20124。</li>
</ol>4. 分支分析
<ol><li>计数和记录所有的活芽 (活芽)。</li>
	<li>计数并记录所有的死芽。</li>
	<li>计数并记录所有重新激活休眠芽。</li>
	<li>计数和记录所有的瘿在拍摄。 注意: 补充文件2显示了字段取样表单的示例, 补充文件3显示了填写的取样表单。</li>
</ol>5. 损伤综合指数的计算
<ol><li>计算死芽的比例 (Sd) 从死亡芽的数量除以芽的总数量 (死芽 + 活芽)。</li>
	<li>计算重新激活休眠芽 (BdoR) 的比例, 从重新激活休眠芽的数量除以活芽的总数 (BdoR + 活芽)。</li>
	<li>计算瘿的平均数量 (Gons) 从瘿的数量除以活芽的数量 (BdoR + 活芽)。</li>
	<li>使用公式计算 dci = (Sd * 0.479 + BdoR * 0.525 + Gons * 0.120) * 100。</li>
	<li>使用表 2评估损坏严重性。 注: 具有 DCI 功能的 R 脚本可在补充编码文件1中使用。它的描述在补充文件4中找到。</li>
</ol>

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作者没有什么可透露的。

栗瘿栗瘿在板栗树芽上产卵, 诱导春季瘿的形成。重复和失控的栗瘿攻击导致, 除了胆的形成, 一般分支腐败, 包括许多芽死亡和绿色光合叶面积的显著损失5。树木通常通过尝试通过激活休眠芽来产生替代芽来做出反应。因此, 特别是在疫情高峰期和恢复阶段, 经典女佣 (仅基于瘿丰度) 往往低估了栗瘿所造成的实际损害, 而 DCI 不仅基于瘿丰, 而且还死于芽和活化休眠芽, 较好地反映了实际损伤严重程度和分支结构的改变程度。事实上, 女佣更注重栗瘿的人口水平, 而不是对树木的破坏程度。例如, 当分支损伤很小, 瘿的存在在早期流行病和最终恢复阶段是微不足道的, 女仆和 DCI 都表现出非常低的价值。然而, 在疫情高峰期或暴露在栗瘿攻击几年后, 严重受损的分支可能会显示许多死亡部分, 但只有少数瘿, 或者根本没有。使用每个索引的标准, 这将导致高的 DCI 值 (严重损坏), 但较低的女仆值 (低损害)。
因此, 了解各指标的含义和相关损害程度, 以便根据预期的目的选择最适合的害虫评价方法, 是十分重要的。因此, 我们建议利用 DCI 评估有害生物的总体影响, 特别是在疫情高峰期和恢复阶段。为了确保彻底的害虫评估, 经典女佣可以用来评估害虫种群水平 (我们建议 Gehring等。201715关于如何调整取样工作的建议) 而 DCI 则可用于对分支体系结构以及整个树冠的详细评估。相比之下, 对于皇冠透明度的简单一般评估, 使用 SANASILVA 皇冠透明度指数18的树木评估可能最适合于努力-利益平衡。
一旦操作员熟悉了所需的主要分支结构和功能, 应用 DCI 就非常简单, 相对快。然而, 如果由于重复的栗瘿攻击而造成高度受损的分支, 可能很难正确评估死芽的数量, 因为存在着较老的死枝。因此, 重构树枝的历史, 评价枯死枝和芽的腐烂程度是很重要的。通常, 死芽不腐烂或比死枝更少。
在树级, 评估一棵具有异质树冠损伤的大树平均分支损伤的主要困难 (例如,一棵显示健康、破损和死亡树枝的树) 认为分析的分支数量和树攀登技巧和努力, 以达到冠顶。此外, 由于这种方法是破坏性的, 评估一棵受损的树将不可避免地造成额外的绿色生物量损失。因此, 重要的是只有选择最小数量的最具代表性的分支机构, 以避免过度切割。
确定正确的样本大小有时会很棘手。根据我们的经验, 我们注意到, 在早期流行和完全恢复阶段, 树木的破坏是不存在的, 因此, 它的变异性非常低。因此, 每个站点取样10棵树和每棵树的1个分支已经给出了一个公平的损失估计。相比之下, 在疫情高峰期和恢复阶段, 树木呈现出不同的伤害程度。通过收集每棵树3个分支, 每个站点总共10棵树, 可以达到取样努力、数据准确性和树损之间的良好平衡。请注意, 这一建议是根据我们的经验和研究需要。其他人可以根据具体情况和评估目标自由增加或减少样本大小。
最后, 在恢复阶段开始的时候, 当几乎没有瘿或死枝在树枝上可见时, DCI (和女仆) 低估了树枝上的残余损伤。这种残余损伤的表现是可能缺乏侧向芽和休眠芽, 特别是在严重受损的树木遭受反复D. 栗瘿攻击5年。缺乏侧向芽意味着部分叶面积仍然缺失, 而休眠芽的缺乏表明, 该树仍然没有完全恢复其储量。
未来或其他应用的 DCI 是难以想象的, 因为它是特定物种, 并在其计算中应用的常数校准到板栗树5。然而, 用于创造它的方法可以适应和实施任何其他树种和相关害虫。

板栗 gallwasp栗瘿栗瘿Yasumatsu (膜翅目: Cynipidae) 是锥1、2、3属最显著的全球害虫。它通过反复的擦伤活动, 防止和抑制正常的芽发育4,5, 导致叶面积逐渐减少, 并由此造成树木绿色生物量和活力5,6 的损失., 休眠芽重新激活5和 gallwasp 后出现分支死亡率7,8增加。
欧洲 gallwasp 流行病的经验表明, 不受控制的和重复的 gallwasp 攻击可能会导致板栗 (锥磨) 的严重的冠层腐败。这可能导致冠叶面积的损失高达 70%, 既不是由激活休眠芽产生的替代叶补偿, 也不通过建立在同一植被期间的第二次冲洗5。
通过天然拮抗剂寄生蜂Torymus 中华Kamijo (膜翅目: Torymidae)9、10, 唯一成功的方法是减少害虫种群, 使板栗树恢复正常。一旦生物控制通过其天敌实现, 板栗树开始产生新的健康芽。如果树损伤水平是非常高的, 这可能从终端芽开始仅发生, 由于事实它通常无侵扰由于它的形成在 gallwasp 产卵活动4以后。这意味着一个长的恢复过程之前, 整个树冠重新建立5。
为了检验板栗树在Torymus生物防治后的阳性反应, 并验证 sylvicultural (修剪、细化) 干预的必要性, 森林管理人员和板栗种植者需要一种快速、通过对害虫的拮抗剂进行生物控制后, 从最初的 gallwasp 流行阶段, 对损伤程度及相关分支体系结构和叶面积演化进行可靠的评估。迄今已开发并使用了几种评估 gallwasp 感染程度 (女仆) 的方法, 例如测量被攻击芽11的比例或每芽12的平均瘿数。女佣不直接测量绿色生物量 (如叶面积), 后备结构, 如休眠芽, 反应结构 (例如,重新激活休眠芽和第二冲洗), 或前一年的损害 (如死芽) 作为主要当前树生命力和活力的代理6,13,14。此外, 大多数女佣只是根据在树枝上发现的瘿的数量和低估了真正的分支损害, 特别是在害虫流行的高峰期 (图 1)。
本文描述了 Gehring 的损伤复合指数 (DCI) 方法. 20185认为绿色生物量的代理, 储备如休眠芽和树反应 (休眠芽恢复和第二冲洗), 使一个现实的, 可靠的, 并合理快速评估的损害, 通过所有阶段的流行病,特别是结合 Gehring 提出的评估努力优化. 201715。
具体而言, 本文的目标是 1), 详细说明外地议定书, 包括将要评估的相关分支特征, 2) 提出损害综合指数公式和 3, 提出改进的严重性等级换算为 DCI。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clipboard</td>
			<td>Any brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camping chair 
			(Foldable and lightweight chair)</td>
			<td>Any brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Companies: Kelty, Campz, Half-Ton.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Felco 9 secateurs 
			(One-hand pruning shear)</td>
			<td>Felco</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Other companies: Bahco.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AP-5M-Aluminium Pole 
			(Telescopic tree pruner pole)</td>
			<td>Bahco</td>
			<td>8152079</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Other companies: Spear &#38; Jackson, Kingfisher, Hortex, Fiskars.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>P34-37 top pruner 
			(Telescopic tree pruner head)</td>
			<td>Bahco</td>
			<td>8002787</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 ft Fiberglass Long Tape 
			(30 m measuring tape)</td>
			<td>Stanley</td>
			<td>34-790</td>
			<td>Other companies: Tjima, Freemans, Astor, Lux.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parallel 10.5mm 
			(Low stretch kernmantel rope, flexible and lightweight for rope access)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>R077AA03</td>
			<td rowspan="10">Basic equipment for tree climbing&#160; (if necessary). Many other equipment configurations can be used for tree climbing, depending on the situation and on single operator preferences. We used Pezl equipment but many other companies offer similar products (e.g. Edelrid, Notch, Climbing technologies, DMM, ...). For a complete overview of equipment and companies we recommend a search in google&#160; &#34;tree climbing gear&#34; as search keyword. PLEASE NOTE: tree climbing activities should be done only by professionals and are submitted to specific regulatory prescriptions according to the country.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Avao Sit 
			(Harness for work positioning and suspension)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>C69AFA 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rig 
			(Compact self-braking descender)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>D21A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ascension 
			(Handled rope clamp for rope ascents)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>B17ALA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eclipse 
			(Storage for throw-line)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>S03Y</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Airline 
			(Throw-line)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>R02Y 060</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jet 
			(Throw-bag)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>S02Y 300</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertex best 
			(Comfortable helmet for work at height and rescue)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>A10BYA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zillon 
			(Adjustable work positioning lanyard for tree care)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>L22A 040</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ok 
			(Lightweight oval carabiner)</td>
			<td>Petzl</td>
			<td>M33A SL</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

evaluating dryocosmus kuriphilus-induced damage on castanea sativa

栗瘿栗瘿Yasumatsu 已成为Castaneasativa的主要害虫, 因为它的到来在欧洲。其擦伤活性导致不同类型的胆类形成, 防止正常芽的发育。重复和失控的攻击造成, 除了生产瘿和随之而来的与胆汁相关的减少叶面积, 逐步腐败的分支体系结构, 包括死亡的分支部分, 并增加休眠芽激活。迄今为止, 很少有人试图量化分支体系结构的损坏。此外, 评估已发展的侵害程度 (女仆) 的不同方法只注重瘿的存在和富足。
利用叶面积与边材区域的关系作为绿色生物量指标, 我们在以前的研究中开发了一种损伤复合指数 (DCI), 它考虑了最重要的分支结构特征, 允许在整个流行病过程。
本研究的目的是提出这一新的方法, 并强调不同的损害描述与其他广泛使用的指数。结果显示, 与女仆相比, 协会对分支损伤的描述是更好的, 尤其是在流行高峰时期。最后, 我们建议如何通过我们的综合损伤指数、使用经典方法的侵扰程度以及冠层透明度评估来正确评估害虫的总体影响。

共计25个现场在提契诺, 瑞士被参观了在2013和2016之间为了创造一个世俗梯度覆盖所有瘿蜂流行性阶段。总计, 我们收集和分析了94个分支在5个站点在早期的流行性阶段 (害虫的到来和树损伤的开始), 200 个分支在5个站点在流行性高峰 (中等到严重损伤由于高水平的D. 栗瘿攻击), 200 个分支在5个站点在恢复阶段 (由中华民国的生物防治到达和开始渐进的树恢复), 并且54个分支在5个站点, 在那里害虫返回在非常低水平在过去4-5 年。为每个分支计算了 DCI 和两个女仆 ("每芽的平均瘿数" (GB)12和 "被攻击的芽的比例" (AB)11)。因为三个索引在不同的标度, 一个规范化的严重性标尺从1到 9 (1 = 非常低损伤, 9 = 极端损伤) 被使用为了比较他们。rescaled 根据 Gehring等。20185, GB 根据 Sartor等。201512和 AB 根据 Gyoutoku 和上村 198517(桌 2)。通过对p值的圣调调整, 利用非参数魏氏签名秩检验, 对分支内的 DCI 和女仆进行了比较。
在流行病的早期阶段, dci 和女仆是低 (中值在 25日和 75日百分点, DCI = 1 [1, 1], AB = 1 [1, 2], GB = 1 [1, 2]) 并且表达同样水平的损伤 (p > 0.5;图4). 在流行高峰期间, 协会表示非常高的损伤水平 (dci = 8 [7, 9]) 与两个仅表明中间分支损伤水平的女仆相比 (AB = 4 [3, 5], GB = 4 [3, 6];图4). 考虑到低 GB 和 AB 值的分支 (< 3), 34 出71和29出59有30% 死芽分别, 而从分支与中 GB 和 AB 值 (4 和 5), 19 出76和30出108有超过40% 死芽分别。这客观上表明了严重的损害程度。在恢复阶段, DCI 和女仆之间的差异较小, 但仍然很重要 (p < 0.01), 而在达到恢复阶段时没有任何差异。图5提供了一个可视的例子, 这些差异的可能原因在不同的流行阶段。
一般而言, 在疫情高峰期, GB 和 AB 在仅有5% 的病例中表达了与 DCI 相同的损害程度, 同时倾向于低估它在85% 的病例中。在恢复阶段, GB 和 dci 之间以及 AB 和 dci 之间的通信分别发生在12% 和14% 的病例中。两位女佣都低估了70% 的病例的伤害。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig1.jpg"> 图1: 分支损害评估, 说明了评估 gallwasp 感染程度 (女仆) 的经典方法的局限性。剪影显示两个分支以同样程度 GB (11 瘿/8 芽) 和 AB (4 被攻击的芽或8芽), 但与非常不同的叶子区域损失。* 发芽: 生长在当前的营养季节;** 拍摄: 从上一个植物人季节发芽。<a href="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig2.jpg"> 图2: 计算损伤复合指数时考虑的主要特征。照片中的死射在技术上是一个在先前的植物人季节 (2016) 中生长的瘿, 完全阻止了2016枝的伸长。因为整个胆都死了, 没有活芽存在, 它被认为是死射在2017年。<a href="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig3.jpg"> 图3: 评估损伤综合指数 (DCI) 的基本分支特征.死芽在 (A) 和 (B) 在技术上瘿在生长在早先植物季节的芽, 完全地防止了射击的伸长, 并且现在死。死的射击在 (C) 为其他起因死了。腐烂的射击在 (A) 的底部已经是死的在那之前死亡射击礼物在那分支, 并且因而不被考虑在 DCI 演算。(D)、(E) 和 (F) 在芽上显示不同的瘿例子, 而 (G)、(H) 和 (I) 代表重新激活的休眠芽。<a href="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig4.jpg"> 图 4: 损伤综合指数 (DCI) 的演变和两种经典方法评估 gallwasp 感染程度 (女佣) 在不同的流行阶段。有关损坏类别的详细信息, 请参阅表 2 。协会: 损害综合指数 (见议定书第5段);AB: 被攻击的芽的比例 (不。攻击芽/不。芽);GB: 每个芽的平均瘿数 (no。瘿/不。芽)。上面的标签 (n) 表示每个传染病阶段取样分支的数量。不同的字母表明, 在流行阶段, DCI 和女仆分支值之间存在显著差异 (p < 0.01), 这是基于非参数魏氏签名秩测试和p值的圣调整。异常点被定义为任何观察, 在1.5 倍以上的四分位范围内, 分别高于或低于上四分四分。请注意, 噪音已添加到异常数据, 以避免过度重叠。<a href="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig5v2.jpg"> 图5: 板栗枝在不同的示意图描述栗瘿栗瘿流行阶段.在早期流行阶段 (A, B), 分支结构仍然是完好的, 并且损伤复合指数 (DCI) 和女仆 (GB 和 AB) 有非常低价值。特别是在疫情高峰期和恢复阶段, 分支结构可能会因不同类型和程度的破坏而变得异种地。因此, 由 DCI、GB 和 AB 表示的损坏可能会类似 (C) 或完全不同 (D), 这取决于分支机构损坏的严重性。最后, 在恢复阶段 (E, F), 协会和女仆再次具有同样低的价值, 与协会是有点更敏感的前一年损害 (死枝)。<a href="/files/ftp_upload/57564/57564fig5v2large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody>
<tr>
<td>流行阶段</td>
			<td colspan="2">年后抵达</td>
			<td>Ts</td>
			<td>树</td>
			<td>分公司</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td>Dk</td>
			<td>Ts</td>
			<td>%</td>
			<td>n. 每个站点</td>
			<td>n. 每棵树</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>早期</td>
			<td>1-2</td>
			<td>0-1</td>
			<td>0-5</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>峰值</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>2-3</td>
			<td>> 5 < 70</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>1-2</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>延长峰值</td>
			<td>4-5</td>
			<td>2-3</td>
			<td>> 5 < 30</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>2-3</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>早期恢复</td>
			<td>6-7</td>
			<td>4-5</td>
			<td>> 70</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>2-3</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>恢复</td>
			<td>8-10</td>
			<td>6-8</td>
			<td>> 70</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>2-3</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>完全恢复</td>
			<td>> 10</td>
			<td>> 9</td>
			<td>> 70</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>表1: 根据疫情阶段和所需的最低数量的树木和树枝Torymus 中华寄生率.深色 = Dryocosmsus 栗瘿;Ts = Torymus 中华;Ts% = Torymus 中华寄生率计算如下:中华民国的生活数量/总商会数 * 100 (在胆汁水平)。
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">转换比例</td>
			<td>Dci</td>
			<td>G b</td>
			<td>Ab</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">损坏严重性</td>
			<td rowspan="2">点</td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td>平均</td>
			<td rowspan="2">比例</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>每次拍摄</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>无损坏</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>≤2。5</td>
			<td>≤0。1</td>
			<td>≤0。1</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>非常低</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>> 2.5-≤5</td>
			<td>> 0.1-≤0。2</td>
			<td>> 0.1-≤0。2</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>低</td>
			<td>3</td>
			<td>> 5-≤7。5</td>
			<td>> 0.2-≤0。3</td>
			<td>> 0.2-≤0。3</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>温和</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>> 7.5-≤10</td>
			<td>> 0.3-≤0。4</td>
			<td>> 0.3-≤0。4</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>温和</td>
			<td>5</td>
			<td>> 10-≤15</td>
			<td>> 0.4-≤0。5</td>
			<td>> 0.4-≤0。5</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>高</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>> 15-≤20</td>
			<td>> 0.5-≤0。6</td>
			<td>> 0.5-≤0。6</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>非常高</td>
			<td>7</td>
			<td>> 20-≤25</td>
			<td>> 0.6-≤0。7</td>
			<td>> 0.6-≤0。7</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">极端</td>
			<td>8</td>
			<td>> 25-≤30</td>
			<td>> 0.7-≤0。8</td>
			<td>> 0.7-≤0。8</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>9</td>
			<td>> 30</td>
			<td>> 0。8</td>
			<td>> 0。8</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>表2: 三指数的换算量表: 损伤复合指数 (DCI)、每芽瘿数 (GB) 和被攻击芽 (AB).rescaled 根据 Gehring等。20185, GB 根据 Sartor等。201512, 和 AB 根据 Gyoutoku 和上村 198517。
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Evaluating Dryocosmus Kuriphilus-induced Damage on Castanea Sativa at JoVE.com

Evaluating Dryocosmus Kuriphilus-induced Damage on Castanea Sativa

栗瘿栗瘿致锥害的评价

通过考虑瘿的丰度, 而不是考虑到相关的分支腐败, 来评估栗瘿栗瘿造成的损害是普遍的做法。我们提出一个综合损伤指数, 考虑到最重要的分支特征, 从而使更现实的损害评估。

Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu has become a major pest for Castaneasativa since its arrival in Europe. Its galling activity results in the formation of ...

evaluating-dryocosmus-kuriphilus-induced-damage-on-castanea-sativa

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

Evaluating Dryocosmus Kuriphilus-induced Damage on Castanea Sativa

7.2K 次观看.  WSL Swiss Federal Research Institute. 通过考虑瘿的丰度, 而不是考虑到相关的分支腐败, 来评估栗瘿栗瘿造成的损害是普遍的做法。我们提出一个综合损伤指数, 考虑到最重要的分支特征, 从而使更现实的损害评估。

视频: Evaluating Dryocosmus Kuriphilus-induced Damage on Castanea Sativa

Semi-High Throughput Screening for Potential Drought-tolerance in Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Germplasm Collections

This protocol describes a method by which a large collection of the leafy green vegetable lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) germplasm was screened for likely drought-tolerance traits. Fresh water availability for agricultural use is a growing concern across the United States as well as many regions of the world. Short-term drought events along with regulatory intervention in the regulation of water availability coupled with the looming threat of long-term climate shifts that may lead to reduced precipitation in many important agricultural regions has increased the need to hasten the development of crops adapted for improved water use efficiency in order to maintain or expand production in the coming years. This protocol is not meant as a step-by-step guide to identifying at either the physiological or molecular level drought-tolerance traits in lettuce, but rather is a method developed and refined through the screening of thousands of different lettuce varieties. The nature of this screen is based in part on the streamlined measurements focusing on only three water-stress indicators: leaf relative water content, wilt, and differential plant growth following drought-stress. The purpose of rapidly screening a large germplasm collection is to narrow the candidate pool to a point in which more intensive physiological, molecular, and genetic methods can be applied to identify specific drought-tolerant traits in either the lab or field. Candidates can also be directly incorporated into breeding programs as a source of drought-tolerance traits.

Semi-High Throughput Screening for Potential Drought-tolerance in Lettuce Lactuca sativa Germplasm Collections

This protocol was developed to screen a large germplasm collection of the leafy vegetable lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) for drought-tolerance, in order to identify a small candidate pool of lettuce for use in physiological, molecular, and genetic studies to identify underlying drought-tolerance traits along with breeding programs.

半高通量筛选潜在的抗干旱的生菜（<em&gt;莴苣</em&gt;）种质资源

This protocol describes a method by which a large collection of the leafy green vegetable lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) germplasm was screened for likely ...

科研

环境科学

Administering and Detecting Protein Marks on Arthropods for Dispersal Research

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ecological interactions. Arthropods are usually tracked in nature by tagging them with a unique mark and then re-collecting them over time and space to determine their dispersal capabilities. In addition to actual physical tags, such as colored dust or paint, various types of proteins have proven very effective for marking arthropods for ecological research. Proteins can be administered internally and/or externally. The proteins can then be detected on recaptured arthropods with a protein-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Here we describe protocols for externally and internally tagging arthropods with protein. Two simple experimental examples are demonstrated: (1) an internal protein mark introduced to an insect by providing a protein-enriched diet and (2) an external protein mark topically applied to an insect using a medical nebulizer. We then relate a step-by-step guide of the sandwich and indirect ELISA methods used to detect protein marks on the insects. In this demonstration, various aspects of the acquisition and detection of protein markers on arthropods for mark-release-recapture, mark-capture, and self-mark-capture types of research are discussed, along with the various ways that the immunomarking procedure has been adapted to suit a wide variety of research objectives.

Proteins are often used to mark arthropods for dispersal research. Methods for administering internal and external protein marks on arthropods are demonstrated. Protein mark detection techniques, either through indirect or sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), are also illustrated.

管理和检测蛋白标记的节肢动物的扩散研究

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ...

Remote Sensing Evaluation of Two-spotted Spider Mite Damage on Greenhouse Cotton

The objective of this study was to evaluate a ground-based multispectral optical sensor as a remote sensing tool to assess foliar damage caused by the two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch, on greenhouse grown cotton. TSSM is a polyphagous pest which occurs on a variety of field and horticultural crops. It often becomes an early season pest of cotton in damaging proportions as opposed to being a late season innocuous pest in the mid-southern United States. Evaluation of acaricides is important for maintaining the efficacy of and preventing resistance to the currently available arsenal of chemicals and newly developed control agents. Enumeration of spider mites for efficacy evaluations is laborious and time consuming. Therefore, subjective visual damage rating is commonly used to assess density of spider mites. The NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) is the most widely used statistic to describe the spectral reflectance characteristics of vegetation canopy to assess plant stress and health consequent to spider mite infestations. Results demonstrated that a multispectral optical sensor is an effective tool in distinguishing varying levels of infestation caused by T. urticae on early season cotton. This remote sensing technique may be used in lieu of a visual rating to evaluate insecticide treatments.

This manuscript describes a multispectral optical sensor that effectively detected damage to early season cotton artificially infested with varying densities of the two-spotted spider mite populations.

温室棉二斑叶螨危害的遥感评价

The objective of this study was to evaluate a ground-based multispectral optical sensor as a remote sensing tool to assess foliar damage caused by the ...

A Gusseted Thermogradient Table to Control Soil Temperatures for Evaluating Plant Growth and Monitoring Soil Processes

Thermogradient tables were first developed in the 1950s primarily to test seed germination over a range of temperatures simultaneously without using a series of incubators. A temperature gradient is passively established across the surface of the table between the heated and cooled ends and is lost quickly at distances above the surface. Since temperature is only controlled on the table surface, experiments are restricted to shallow containers, such as Petri dishes, placed on the table. Welding continuous aluminum vertical strips or gussets perpendicular to the surface of a table enables temperature control in depth via convective heat flow. Soil in the channels between gussets was maintained across a gradient of temperatures allowing a greater diversity of experimentation. The gusseted design was evaluated by germinating oat, lettuce, tomato, and melon seeds. Soil temperatures were monitored using individual, battery-powered dataloggers positioned across the table. LED lights installed in the lids or along the sides of the gradient table create a controlled temperature chamber where seedlings can be grown over a range of temperatures. The gusseted design enabled accurate determination of optimum temperatures for fastest germination rate and the highest percentage germination for each species. Germination information from gradient table experiments can help predict seed germination and seedling growth under the adverse soil conditions often encountered during field crop production. Temperature effects on seed germination, seedling growth, and soil ecology can be tested under controlled conditions in a laboratory using a gusseted thermogradient table.

Traditional thermogradient tables create a range of temperatures across the surface. Welding gussets perpendicular to the surface of a thermogradient table will control temperature in depth increasing possible research applications.

一个插角Thermogradient表来控制土壤温度为评估植物生长和监测土壤过程

Thermogradient tables were first developed in the 1950s primarily to test seed germination over a range of temperatures simultaneously without using a ...

A Flow-through Exposure System for Evaluating Suspended Sediments Effects on Aquatic Life

This paper describes the Fish Larvae and Egg Exposure System (FLEES). The flow-through exposure system is used to investigate the effects of suspended sediment on various aquatic species and life stages in the laboratory by using pumps and automating delivery of sediment and water to simulate suspension of sediment. FLEES data are used to develop exposure-response curves between the effects on aquatic organisms and suspended sediment concentrations at the desired exposure duration. The effects data are used to evaluate management practices used to reduce the interactions between aquatic organisms and anthropogenic causes of suspended sediments. The FLEES is capable of generating total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations as low as 30 to as high as 800 mg/L, making this system an ideal choice for evaluating the effects of TSS resulting from many activities including simulating low ambient levels of TSS to evaluating sources of suspended sediments from dredging operations, vessel traffic, freshets, and storms.

A robust and flexible flow-through exposure system designed to maintain sediment in suspension is presented. The system is used to investigate the effects of suspended sediment on various aquatic species and life stages in the laboratory.

对水生生命值评价悬浮泥沙影响的流通系统曝光

This paper describes the Fish Larvae and Egg Exposure System (FLEES). The flow-through exposure system is used to investigate the effects of suspended ...

A Method for Evaluating Insecticide Efficacy against Bed Bug, Cimex lectularius, Eggs and First Instars

Standard toxicity evaluations of insecticides against insect pests are primarily conducted on adult insects. Evaluations are based on a dose-response or concentration-response curve, where mortality increases as the dose or concentration of an insecticide is increased. Standard lethal concentration (LC50) and lethal dose (LD50) tests that result in 50% mortality of a test population can be challenging for evaluating toxicity of insecticides against non-adult insect life stages, such as eggs and early instar or nymphal stages. However, this information is essential for understanding insecticide efficacy in all bed bug life stages, which affects control and treatment efforts. This protocol uses a standard dipping bioassay modified for bed bug eggs and a contact insecticidal assay for treating nymphal first instars. These assays produce a concentration-response curve to further quantify LC50 values for insecticide evaluations.

A Method for Evaluating Insecticide Efficacy against Bed Bug,  Cimex lectularius, Eggs and First Instars

Insecticide evaluations are often targeted against adult insects, rather than immature stages. Here, we present a protocol for evaluating insecticides against bed bug eggs with a comparison to the first nymphal bed bug stage. These protocols could be adjusted for other insects to evaluate insecticide efficacy in non-adult life stages.

一个反对臭虫评估杀虫剂效果的方法，<em&gt;臭虫臭虫</em&gt;，鸡蛋和一龄期

Standard toxicity evaluations of insecticides against insect pests are primarily conducted on adult insects. Evaluations are based on a dose-response or ...

Evaluating the Effect of Environmental Chemicals on Honey Bee Development from the Individual to Colony Level

The presence of pesticides in the beekeeping environment is one of the most serious problems that impacts the life of a honey bee. Pesticides can be brought back to the beehive after the bees have foraged on flowers that have been sprayed with pesticides. Pesticide contaminated food can be exchanged between workers which then feed larvae and therefore can potentially affect the development of honey bees. Thus, residual pesticides in the environment can become a chronic damaging factor to honey bee populations and gradually lead to colony collapse. In the presented protocol, honey bee feeding methods are described and applied to either an individual honey bee or to a colony. Here, the insect growth regulator (IGR) pyriproxyfen (PPN), which is widely used to control pest insects and is harmful to the development of honey bee larvae and pupae, is used as the pesticide. The presenting procedure can be applied to other potentially harmful chemicals or honeybee pathogens for further studies.

Herein we present a method to feed pesticide contaminated food to both an individual honey bee and a beehive colony. The procedure evaluates the pesticide effect on individual honey bees by in vivo feeding of basic larval diet and also on the natural condition of beehive colony.

从个体到群体度评价环境化学物质对蜜蜂发展的影响

The presence of pesticides in the beekeeping environment is one of the most serious problems that impacts the life of a honey bee. Pesticides can be ...

Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation

Dimethylated thioarsenicals such as dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV), which are produced by the metabolic pathway of dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV) thiolation, have been recently found in the environment as well as human organs. DMMTAV and DMDTAV can be quantified to determine the ecological effects of dimethylated thioarsenicals and their stability in environmental media. The synthesis method for these compounds is unstandardized, making replicating previous studies challenging. Furthermore, there is a lack of information about storage techniques, including storage of compounds without species transformation. Moreover, because only limited information about synthesis methods is available, there may be experimental difficulties in synthesizing standard chemicals and performing quantitative analysis. The protocol presented herein provides a practically modified synthesis method for the dimethylated thioarsenicals, DMMTAV and DMDTAV, and will help in the quantification of species separation analysis using high performance liquid chromatography in conjunction with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS). The experimental steps of this procedure were modified by focusing on the preparation of chemical reagents, filtration methods, and storage.

Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation

This article presents modified experimental protocols for dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV) synthesis, inducing dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV) thiolation through mixing of DMAV, Na2S, and H2SO4. The modified protocol provides an experimental guideline, thereby overcoming limitations of the synthesis steps that could have caused experimental failures in quantitative analysis.

使用 DMAv为环境应用 DMMTAv和 DMDTAv的准备: 合成、纯化和确认

Dimethylated thioarsenicals such as dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV), which are produced by the metabolic ...

The Hawaii Protocol for Scientific Monitoring of Coffee Berry Borer: a Model for Coffee Agroecosystems Worldwide

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most devastating insect pest for coffee crops worldwide. We developed a scientific monitoring protocol that is aimed at capturing and quantifying the dynamics and impact of this invasive insect pest as well as the development of its host plant across a heterogeneous landscape. The cornerstone of this comprehensive monitoring system is timely georeferenced data collection on CBB movement, coffee berry infestation, mortality by the fungus Beauveria bassiana, and coffee plant phenology via a mobile electronic data recording application. This electronic data collection system allows field records to be georeferenced through built-in global positioning systems, and is backed by a network of weather stations and records of farm management practices. Comprehensive monitoring of CBB and host plant dynamics is an essential part of an area-wide project in Hawaii to aggregate landscape-level data for research to improve management practices. Coffee agroecosystems in other parts of the world that experience highly variable environmental and socioeconomic factors will also benefit from implementing this protocol, in that it will drive the development of customized integrated pest management (IPM) to manage CBB populations.

Comprehensive monitoring of coffee berry borer and host plant dynamics is essential for aggregating landscape-level data to improve management of this invasive pest. Here, we present a protocol for scientific monitoring of coffee berry borer movement, infestation, mortality, coffee plant phenology, weather, and farm management via a mobile electronic data recording application.

夏威夷咖啡莓科学监测协议: 全球咖啡农田模型

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most devastating insect pest for coffee crops worldwide. We developed a scientific monitoring protocol that is aimed at ...

Studying Neurobehavioral Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Zebrafish Larvae

Recent years more and more environmental pollutants have been proved neurotoxic, especially at the early development stages of organisms. Zebrafish larvae are a preeminent model for the neurobehavioral study of environmental pollutants. Here, a detailed experimental protocol is provided for the evaluation of the neurotoxicity of environmental pollutants using zebrafish larvae, including the collection of the embryos, the exposure process, neurobehavioral indicators, the test process, and data analysis. Also, the culture environment, exposure process, and experimental conditions are discussed to ensure the success of the assay. The protocol has been used in the development of psychopathic drugs, research on environmental neurotoxic pollutants, and can be optimized to make corresponding studies or be helpful for mechanistic studies. The protocol demonstrates a clear operation process for studying neurobehavioral effects on zebrafish larvae and can reveal the effects of various neurotoxic substances or pollutants.

A detailed experimental protocol is presented in this paper for the evaluation of neurobehavioral toxicity of environmental pollutants using a zebrafish larvae model, including the exposure process and tests for neurobehavioral indicators.

环境污染物对斑马鱼幼虫的神经行为影响研究

Recent years more and more environmental pollutants have been proved neurotoxic, especially at the early development stages of organisms. Zebrafish larvae ...

栗瘿栗瘿致锥害的评价

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半高通量筛选潜在的抗干旱的生菜（