作者感谢所有参与这项研究的所有人和狗, 以及那些进行实验的学生: 丽莎瓦利斯, 克劳迪娅 Rosam, 孙燕姿 Riemer 和茱莉亚. Schößwender。我们进一步感谢 Desirée Brucks 的可靠性编码, 他的支持, 卡琳·拜耳, 珍妮弗 Bentlage 和亚历山大·季米特洛夫 Orlic 的行政支持, 和彼得 Füreder 和沃尔夫冈伯格的技术帮助。我们感谢雷切尔修改了手稿的英文。资助: 目前的研究得到奥地利科学基金 (FWF) 项目 I 1271-B24 和匈牙利科研基金项目 OTKA-ANN 107726 的支持。b.t 还获得了匈牙利科学院的资助。此外, 我们还要感谢海伦娜 Manzenreiter 和他们对视频拍摄的帮助。此外, 我们感谢皇家 Canin 支持聪明的狗实验室。

此处描述的所有方法都是根据全球定位系统指南和在维也纳兽医大学实验中使用动物伦理委员会的国家立法批准的 (参考: 09/10/97/2012和 10/10/97/2012). 
 1. 参与者招募 <ol> <li> 招募220名业主 (这里, 187 女性, 33 男性; 平均年龄和 #177; SD = 38.64 和 #177; 13.57 年, 范围13-72 年) 宠物边境牧羊犬, 并邀请他们参加与他们的狗的行为研究(在这里, 125 女性 (45 绝育) 和95男性 (32 绝育); 平均年龄和 #177; SD = 48.07 和 #177; 42.43 月). </li>
</ol> 2。行为测试过程 <ol> <li> 预测试 <ol> <li> 欢迎所有者和狗到实验室, 并邀请他们熟悉实验室 (6 m X 5 m, 请参见 图 1 ). </li>
		<li> 向所有者解释5分钟的总体过程, 而狗则可以自由地探索房间. </li>
		<li> 将测试使用四数字摄像机放置在房间的四个角 (黑点命名和 #34; 照相机和 #34; 在 图 1 ) 中连接到测试室外的视频记录站. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 食品选择测试 <ol> <li> 让所有者坐在房间一侧的椅子上 (橙色正方形; #34; 椅子 (食物选择) 和 #34; 在 图 1 中). </li>
		<li> 为所有者提供一份调查表, 以记录狗和所有者 (即所有者年龄、所有者性别、狗龄、狗性、狗中性状态) 的人口统计信息, 以便所有者在设置和选择过程中不影响狗. </li>
		<li> 将狗拴在皮带上, 并将其系在与主人直接相反的墙上 (橙色曲线; 和 #34; 皮带 (食物选择 + 教学) 和 #34; 在 图 1 ) 中. </li>
		<li> 从位于所有者旁边的表 (橙色正方形; #34; 表和 #34; 在 图 1 ) 中, 取两个盘子 (一根香肠和一个空的). </li>
		<li> 向狗走去, 把两个盘子放在狗面前的地板上, 1 m 从彼此和 1.5 m 从狗 (橙色正方形; 和 #34;P 晚 1 (食物选择) 和 #34; 和 #34;P 晚 2 (食物选择) 和 #34; 在 图 1 ) </li>
		<li> 在狗后面走。站在狗后面看地板. </li>
		<li> 让主人站起来, 走到空盘子旁边蹲下. </li>
		<li> 让主人拿起盘子, 向狗展示这个盘子是有趣和美味的. 
		注意: 指示所有者显示对 5 s 的空盘的优先权, 但否则让所有者行为根据需要. </li>
		<li> 让所有者返回到椅子并继续填写调查表. </li>
		<li> 一旦主人坐回椅子上, 松开狗的皮带, 让它接近一个盘子. </li>
		<li> 一旦狗在15厘米内从一个盘子, 步行去拿起另一个盘子. </li>
		<li> 按住皮带并将狗带回起始位置 (橙色曲线在 图 1 )。从地板上收集另一个盘子, 把两个盘子都放回桌子上. </li>
		<li> 重复此过程 (步骤 2.2.2-2.2.12) 六次. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> DNA 样本收集 <ol> <li> 让拥有者在 #34;D na 区域和 #34 的领/线上抓住狗; ( 图 1 )。解释, DNA 样本将收集从狗和 #39 的嘴的内侧。在这次测试中, 指示主人可以与狗交谈和宠物。允许所有者根据需要进行行为. </li>
		<li> 取标本, 蹲在靠近狗的一侧, 轻轻地在口腔内侧旋转棉签。用第二次拭子重复. </li>
		<li> 重复该过程两次, 每一侧的狗和 #39 的嘴. </li>
	分离后的 </ol> </li> <li> 团聚 <ol> <li> 让拥有者离开实验室, #34;D oor 1 和 #34; ( 图 1 ) 为3分钟, 而狗留在房间内释放和自由移动. </li>
		<li> 让主人回到房间里 #34;D oor 1 和 #34; 然后停在门边 (蓝色正方形; #34; 所有者位置 2 (团聚 + 命令)) 5 s 不与狗互动。让主人在三十年代向狗问好. 指示主人在家里向狗问好. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 拔河游戏 <ol> <li> 让拥有者用绳子玩具在三十年代和狗玩拔河比赛. 指示主人与狗玩, 因为他们通常会在日常玩耍的情况. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> t恤 <ol> <li> 让主人把 t恤放在狗头上, 把每一个前爪的袖子一个接一个, 并绑在底部的 t恤上的狗和 #39 的一个结; 回来. </li>
		<li> 让主人绕着房间走, 无视狗。三十年代以后, 让主人把 t恤衫从狗身上移开。指示所有者在过程中不说话, 但应按预期的方式行为. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 基本命令 <ol> <li> 让实验者蹲在房间的一侧 (灰色正方形; #34; 在 图 1 ) 后面一个满是皱巴巴的报纸的盒子里. </li>
		<li> 让所有者站在相反的一侧 (灰色正方形; #34; 所有者位置 1 (命令) + 所有者位置 (球打) 和 #34; 在 图 1 ) </li>
		<li> 让主人打电话给狗, 让主人和狗都在灰色的正方形 (和 #34; 所有者位置 1 (命令) + 所有者位置 (球戏剧) 和 #34;), 狗面对门, 主人面对狗. </li>
		<li> 在满是皱巴巴的报纸的盒子里搜索东西, 以分散狗的主人和 #39 的命令. </li>
		<li> 让所有者向狗发出三简单命令。
		<ol> <li> 首先, 让所有者命令狗坐。一旦狗坐, 让主人命令狗躺下。一旦狗躺下, 让主人命令狗留下. </li>
		</ol> </li> <li> 留在命令之后, 让所有者向实验者走去, 等待十五年代, 除了实验者以外, 5 m 从狗 (蓝色正方形; 和 #34; 所有者位置 2 (团聚 + 命令) 和 #34; 在 图 1 中, 面向狗。让主人叫狗。在任务期间, 主人可以赞美和与狗交谈. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 教学 <ol> <li> 让所有者将狗拴在1米的皮带上 (曲线线; #34; 皮带 (食物选择 + 教学) 和 #34; 在 图 1 ) 和步行2米远离狗 (红色虚线区域; 和 #34;教学领域和 #34; 在 图 1 中). </li>
		<li> 让所有者显示狗如何从包含一条香肠的纸盒中取下盖子: <ol> <li> 用一只手握住一根香肠, 另一只手取下纸盒的盖子。把食物放在垃圾箱里, 然后盖回去。取出纸盒的盖子, 并在垃圾桶内显示食物. </li>
			<li>让所有者重复该过程四次. 
			注: 在整个过程中, 主人可以说话和看狗. </li>
		</ol> </li> </ol> </li> <li> 播放 <ol> <li> 让所有者站在房间的特定位置 (灰色正方形;打球; 图 1 )#160; 把网球扔向房间的另一侧。让主人要求狗取回球. </li>
		<li> 让所有者重复该过程三次. 
		注意: 指示主人与狗玩, 因为他们通常会在日常玩耍的情况. </li>
	</ol> </li> </ol> 3。行为编码 <ol> <li> 分析测试过程中拍摄的视频, 并在电子表格上记录以下行为: <ol> <li> 对行为变量进行评分; 沟通方式, 积极的社会支持, 温暖和发挥风格的4点的规模, 并得分3分音阶的热情和独裁行为。有关每个值的定义, 请参见表 1. </li>
		<li> 计算表1中所示情况下的命令、赞美、爱抚和注意声音的数量. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 为编码变量的列表和定义提供第二个编码器。有第二个编码器代码20% 的视频计算评分的可靠性. </li>
</ol> 4。数据处理 <ol> <li> 在表2中描述的2或4磅的比例转换所有计数变量. </li>
	<li> 在所有行为变量上运行具有 Oblimin 旋转的探索性因子分析 (普及教育)。根据碎石图定义要提取的因子数。使用回归方法提取因子, 并排除缺少的值列表. </li>
	<li> 使用克隆和 #180 计算提取因子的内部一致性。比较主编码器提供的数据和使用科恩和 #180 的第二个编码, 以测量评分的可靠性. </li>
</ol>

<ol>
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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parenting+Dimensions+and+Styles:+A+Brief+History+and+Recommendations+for+Future+Research.">Parenting Dimensions and Styles: A Brief History and Recommendations for Future Research.</a> Child Obes. 9 (s1), S-14-S-21 (2013).</li><li>Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., Hooven, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parental+meta-emotion+philosophy+and+the+emotional+life+of+families:+Theoretical+models+and+preliminary+data.">Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data.</a> J Fam Psychol. 10 (3), 243-268 (1996).</li><li>Holtgraves, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Social+Desirability+and+Self-Reports:+Testing+Models+of+Socially+Desirable+Responding.">Social Desirability and Self-Reports: Testing Models of Socially Desirable Responding.</a> Pers Soc Psychol B. 30 (2), 161-172 (2004).</li><li>Gere, M. K., Villab&#248;, M. A., Torgersen, S., Kendall, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overprotective+parenting+and+child+anxiety:+The+role+of+co-occurring+child+behavior+problems.">Overprotective parenting and child anxiety: The role of co-occurring child behavior problems.</a> J Anxiety Disord. 26 (6), 642-649 (2012).</li><li>Holmbeck, G. N., Johnson, S. Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observed+and+perceived+parental+overprotection+in+relation+to+psychosocial+adjustment+in+preadolescents+with+a+physical+disability:+The+mediational+role+of+behavioral+autonomy.">Observed and perceived parental overprotection in relation to psychosocial adjustment in preadolescents with a physical disability: The mediational role of behavioral autonomy.</a> J Consult Clin Psychol. 70 (1), 96-110 (2002).</li></ol>

作者没有什么可透露的。

所有者交互风格测试是一项新开发的协议, 旨在分析在许多不同情况下狗主人对狗的表现。我们定义了三影响宠物狗主人互动风格的因素, 这与温暖、社会支持和控制有关。三因素显示了与人类养育所确定的维度的相似性21,22,29。此外, 这里发现的两个因素与业主年龄显著相关, 暗示了年龄对所有者互动风格的调节作用。
在以前的研究中, 使用这里提出的方法, 我们还发现了所有者互动因素和人格特质之间的关联 (即所有者控制与开放性之间的负关联, 所有者社会支持与责任心, 和所有者的热情和开放之间的积极联系)18。在此基础上, 在当前的研究中, 我们还发现了所有者相互作用因素和狗行为之间的关联 (例如, 狗的接近寻求行为对所有者和所有者温暖之间的积极关联)18。同时, 结果表明, 目前的方法提供了可靠的和有用的衡量人类社会行为, 可以促进动物-人的互动, 人的个性, 和社会心理学领域。
客观行为分析结合因素分析方法, 使得对行为的客观评价比使用所有者报告或调查问卷更具有客观性。inter-coder 可靠性分析证实, 该结果是可靠的, 并没有编码器的偏见/主观性。本议定书是第一个全面分析狗主人的行为在各种情况下, 反映日常生活的狗业主母婴。这包括所有者行为的组分, 所有者不必要故意地使用影响他们的狗或他们甚而神志清楚地知道。因此, 所有者交互样式测试涵盖的行为范围远比其他调查人类-动物交互的研究更广泛, 其中许多都集中在训练或口述命令4,11,16,19。
所有者交互样式的三组分之一, 即所有者社会支持因素, 与所有者个性或狗行为没有关联18。作为一种可能的解释, 这一因素在其目前的形式可能不仅包括适当的支持, 但也过分保护行为。在儿童, 充分支持和过分保护的养育导致不同的行为结果31, 这也可能是在狗的情况。出于这个原因, 呵护和足够的支持需要更好的迎刃而解, 例如, 增加了一个关于所有者的侵扰和防止狗的独立行为的全球评级规模32。
所描述的方法的最关键的方面是所有者可能犯下协议的错误。因此, 我们建议在测试之前向所有者提供详细的书面协议, 以便他们对测试的执行情况形成一个总体的概念。此外, 在每 sub-test 之前, 实验者应再次解释细节和所有者的具体职责。此外, 业主应只指示他们需要执行的实际任务, 但不是关于他们应该如何执行, 让他们的行为, 因为他们通常会 (这是我们想要衡量) 而不是他们 ' 认为 ' 测试要求他们行为.此外, 在基本命令测试 (见协议), 有可能狗不会执行的行为要求的主人。如果发生这种情况, 所有者将重复命令, 最多3分钟。在球打测试中, 当被问及时, 狗可能无法取回球。在这种情况下, 业主可以从地板上的球, 移动到起始位置, 并继续执行过程。如果狗采取球, 但不给它的主人, 主人可以把球从狗的方式, 他们通常会采取的对象从狗。
上下文, 知道他们被观察并且被记录, 可能影响狗所有者的行为。即使是被动观察 (即在测试过程中在场的实验者) 也可能会阻止主人使用消极的行为 (如严厉训斥, 皮带牵引等), 他们可能认为这是不能公开接受的, 即使他们通常会使用它.这种现象 (在心理学中被称为社会可取性偏见30) 在测试人类行为时很常见。我们的建议是在测试开始之前让所有者尽可能舒适, 并告知所有者测试是关于狗的行为或狗主人的互动, 而不是只针对所有者的行为。此外, 本议定书的目的是为成年狗 (超过一年), 因此可能需要进一步修改, 如果测试狗幼犬。
然而, 这里开发的方法为各种研究目的提供了一个有用的工具。例如, 未来的研究可以进一步阐述所有者互动风格如何影响宠物狗的行为特征, 它们如何随着时间的推移而发展和变化, 它们如何与所有者的个人特征 (例如, 个性,人际行为), 以及他们如何影响业主的满意与狗主人的债券。此外, 我们的方法也可以有直接的实际应用 (例如, 狗培训师, 兽医, 和其他狗的从业人员), 并最终帮助改善宠物狗的福利。特别是, 该测试可以用来调查是否和如何所有者互动风格影响狗的行为问题, 如侵略性, 推进的领域狗咬预防和行为医学。此外, 所有者互动风格和父母教养方式之间的强烈相似性为直接比较动物的互动方式和养育方式提供了可能性。此外, 该议定书允许调查是否有类似的心理, 人口, 环境和文化因素影响/驾驶父母和狗的照顾行为, 它将允许使用狗-人的互动模型亲子关系的发展和进展。

人类是生活在西方家庭中的宠物狗的主要社会伙伴, 研究狗和人类之间相互建立的关系, 从理论和应用两个角度来看都是重要的1。事实上, 与人类紧密进化的狗, 可以作为人类社会技能进化的模型来研究2。此外, 狗在人类环境中的广泛存在给社会带来了实际问题, 对人类安全、狗的福利和双方的健康都有影响3。事实上, 它已经表明, 在训练过程中处理他们的狗的方式 (例如使用-技术) 是与狗对人和 conspecifics 的侵略, 强调考虑如何主人的行为的重要性与它的狗咬伤预防4,5,6。然而, 大多数旨在调查狗主人关系的研究只集中在一个伙伴身上: 狗。虽然已经开发了数以百计的测量来描述的一个或多个方面的狗的行为7, 迄今尚未有系统地编码的主人如何对他们的狗在各种情况下的行为。虽然许多研究使用问卷 (例如8,9,10,11) 获取有关所有者行为特征的信息, 但很少有研究使用行为观察分析狗主人与宠物狗互动的方式12,13,14,151617然而, 这些后研究只在少数情况下调查狗主人的行为 (在一个12、13、15、17和三16之间, 以及主要上下文具有正价 (例如, 播放12,14,15), 只有三的这些研究是在一个标准化环境中进行的 14,15,17。此外, 大多数研究的重点是培训方法4,111619, 由所有者在特定的上下文中应用, 如教狗特定行为或修改不想要的。然而, 正式培训只是一种方式, 业主与他们的狗互动, 它可能不仅取决于业主自己的特点, 但也在狗学校, 他们参加。因此, 主人训练他们的狗的方式可能不可靠地反射他们自发地与他们互动和沟通在日常生活情况下, 与后者可能是更加重要的在影响狗的每天行为。考虑到缺乏对狗主人行为特征的标准化测量, 我们开发了第一个行为测试, 目的是分析业主如何在反映日常情况的任务中与宠物狗进行互动。
研究表明, 人类婴儿的行为受到与父母的日常互动的影响: 例如, 父母如何支持他们的 children´s 自主权20, 在痛苦情况下, 敏感和反应灵敏的父母是怎样的21, 以及家长如何控制其子级的行为22。所有这些元素都被证明在父母之间有很大的不同, 这些行为的组合被称为养育风格20,21,22,23,24.由于养狗人的关系被描述为类似于子母债券1,25,26, 因此假设所有者与其狗的交互方式也可以分为特定的行为模式 (即所有者交互样式), 但迄今尚未尝试创建此类类别。
为人父母的风格研究表明, 结合详细的观察编码和因子分析方法是不容易受编码器的偏见和更可靠的比全球评级和自我27。因此, 我们决定运用这种方法来研究狗主人的互动风格。本研究是在实验室环境中进行的, 由两个独立的编码者 (允许我们对评分的可靠性进行测试) 对所有者的行为进行录像和分析。这些任务旨在反映出狗主人母婴在西方城市化的环境中面临的日常情况。重要的是, 我们包括对狗的积极和负价的任务。我们使用的编码方案包括了反映语言、面部、物理和手势交流的变量的组合, 测量为计数和刻度。对于所有者交互样式的描述, 我们使用了探索性因素分析。
目前的方法不仅是第一个专门开发的描述宠物狗主人的行为特征在许多不同的上下文, 但它也允许识别所有者交互维度, 这可能显示高相似性用于描述养育方式的维度18,28。
本白皮书详细介绍了整个过程, 并介绍了在 Cimarelli et al. (2016)18中完整发布的一些结果。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Videocamera</td>
			<td>Samsung</td>
			<td>ZA TZ6V3Z300274W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Videocamera</td>
			<td>Samsung</td>
			<td>ZA TZ6V3Z300316J</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Videocamera</td>
			<td>JVC</td>
			<td>066C1124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Videocamera</td>
			<td>JVC</td>
			<td>066C1123</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chair</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: plastic and metal. Color: black. With backrest and seat. Overall measures: 39 x 47 x 77 cm. Seat measures: 39 x 34 x 45 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leash</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: nylon. Color: black. Measures: 2 x 300 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plates</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: pottery. Color: white. Diameter: 25 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cotton swabs</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: cotton. Color: white. Length: 7.6 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dog toy: rope</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: cotton. Color: red. Diameter: 5 cm. Length: 30 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T-shirt</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: cotton. Size M. Measures: 70 x 60 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carton box</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: carton. Color: brown. Measures: 50 x 35 x 25.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crumpled newspaper</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: paper. From 3-4 newspapers.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bin + lid</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: plastic. Shape: round. Color: grey. Diameter: 20 cm. Height: 28 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tennis ball</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>n.a.</td>
			<td>Material: rubber, nylon. Color: yellow. Diameter: 6.5 cm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the other end of the leash: an experimental test to analyze how owners interact with their pet dogs

有人建议, 业主与他们的狗的互动方式可以在很大程度上改变和影响狗主人的债券, 但很少有客观的研究, 到目前为止, 已经解决了如何业主与狗的互动。本研究的目的是通过客观观察和编码, 记录狗主人的互动方式。该实验包括八标准的情况下, 宠物狗的主人要求执行具体的任务, 包括积极的 (即玩, 教一个新的任务, 显示在食物搜索任务的偏好对象, 问候后分离) 和潜在的令人不安的任务 (即在 DNA 取样过程中的物理限制, 把 t恤衫放在狗身上, 在狗分心的时候给予基本的服从命令)。视频录音被编码离线使用一个专门设计的编码方案, 包括得分的沟通, 社会支持, 温暖, 热情, 和戏剧风格, 以及频率的行为, 如爱抚, 赞美, 命令, 和注意听.对20变量的探索性因素分析揭示了3因素, 被标记为所有者温暖, 所有者社会支持和所有者控制, 可以被看待作为类似物为人父母样式维度。这里介绍的实验程序代表了狗主人互动风格的第一个标准措施。这里提出的方法是一个有用的工具, 以调查个体变化的互动风格的宠物狗主人, 可以用来解释差异的狗-人的关系, 狗的行为结果, 和狗的压力应对策略, 所有从理论和应用的角度来看都是至关重要的因素。

探索性因素分析
在所有者互动风格测试中对行为变量进行分析的全民教育揭示了三因素占总方差的29.47%。凯撒-迈耶-Olkin (KMO) 测试结果的值为0.69。第一个因素被标记了 "所有者温暖 (方差解释: 17.41%, 内部一贯性: Cronbach´s α = 0.77) 并且它包括了以下行为可变物: 热情, 频率称赞和戏剧样式在球戏剧期间;拔河比赛中的热情、表扬频率和演奏风格;在团聚以后的温暖在分离以后;教学中的沟通方式;食物选择时的沟通方式。第二个因素, 标签为 "所有者社会支持" (方差解释: 6.64%; 内部一致性: Cronbach´s α = 0.68) 包括以下行为: 社会支持, 爱抚的频率, 并在 DNA 样本的赞美频率;t恤衫的社会支持;爱抚的频率, 和在基本命令期间赞美的频率。第三个因素被标记了 "所有者控制 (方差解释: 5.41%; 内部一贯性: Cronbach´s α = 0.49) 和它包括: 命令的频率在球戏剧期间;拔河比赛中注意声音和命令的频率;基本命令期间命令的频率。
提取因子之间的关系
因素 "所有者温暖" 并且 "所有者社会支持" 互相正面地相关 (Pearson´s r = 0.53, p和 #60; 0.01,图 2), 而 "所有者控制" 似乎独立于其他两个因素 ("所有者控制" vs。所有者温暖 ";Pearson´s r =-0.03, p和 #62; 0.05;"所有者控制" 与 "所有者社会支持";Pearson´s r =-0.05, p和 #62; 0.05)。
评分员间的可靠性
两个独立的程序员之间的协议之间的好, 以优秀的变量 (Cohen´s 卡伯 = 0.72-0.94)。
owners´人口学特征与提取因子的相关性
在以前的研究18中, 我们发现, 所有者的年龄与 "所有者温暖" (Pearson´s r =-0.25, p和 #60 有关, 0.01,图 3) 和与 "所有者社会支持" (Pearson´s r =-0.24, pand #60; 0.01,图 4), 但没有发现与 "所有者控制" (Pearson´s r = 0.12, p和 #62; 0.05) 的显着相关性。此外, 我们发现女性所有者在 "所有者温暖" 中得分高于男性所有者 (Pearson´s r = 0.15, p & #60; 0.05), 但不是在 "所有者社会支持" (Pearson´s r = 0.13, p和 #62; 0.05) 和 "所有者控制" (Pearson´sr = 0.04, p和 #62; 0.05)。此外, 我们还表明, "所有者控制" 与所谓的 "开放性" (Pearson´s r =-0.22, p和 #60; 0.01) 的人格因素有负相关, 并且 "所有者社会支持" 与人格负相关称为 "责任心" 的因素 (Pearson´s r =-0.16, p和 #60; 0.05)。
提取因子与狗行为的关联
目前的方法, 分析了狗主人的互动风格的各个方面, 允许调查的影响, 主人的行为, 他/她的狗的行为。在以前的研究18中, 我们分析了狗对压力情况的反应 (即一个陌生人以威胁的方式接近狗) 是否取决于主人的行为。在那里, 我们发现, 狗会躲在主人, 当接近一个威胁的陌生人更高的狗的主人在 "主人温暖" 比狗的主人得分更低 (Pearson´s r = 0.16, p和 #60; 0.05)。同样的, 当陌生人接近2米的狗主人二, 我们发现, 狗向主人或保持被动在整个威胁的方法, 拥有者比狗更高的 "主人温暖", 接近陌生人 (在友好, 姑息或侵略性的方式) (多项式回归模型: X2 = 8.94, p & #60; 0.05)。此外, 我们发现狗对威胁的陌生人的攻击可能更高, 狗的主人在 "主人控制" 中得分更高, 而狗的主人在这一因素中得分较低 (Pearson´s r =-0.15, p#60; 0.05)。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig1.jpg"> 
图 1: 实验设置.这个数字代表了测试的实验室。房间有两个门 (门1和门 2) 在房间的一侧和四相机放置在房间的四角落 ("相机")。该图显示了主人、狗和实验者在整个测试中的位置, 以及椅子、桌子和食物选择测试中使用的盘子的位置。最后给出了 DNA 样本采集和教学测试的区域位置。<a href="//ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig2.jpg"> 
图 2: "所有者温暖" 和 "所有者社会支持" 因素之间的积极关联 (Pearson´s r = 0.53, p和 #60; 0.01).<a href="//ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig3.jpg"> 
图 3: "所有者温暖" 与所有者的年龄 (年) (Pearson´s r =-0.25, p和 #60; 0.01) 之间的负关联。较年长的业主在 "所有者温暖" 中得分低于年轻业主。此图已从18进行了改编。<a href="//ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig4.jpg"> 
图 4: "所有者社会支持" 与所有者的年龄之间的负关联 (年) (Pearson´s r =-0.24, p和 #60; 0.01).年长业主在 "业主社会支持" 中的得分低于年轻业主。<a href=" href=""></a href=">ecsource/文件/ftp_upload/56233/56233fig4large. jpg "目标 =" _blank ">> 请点击这里查看这个数字更大的版本。
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>行为</td>
			<td>类型</td>
			<td colspan="3">定义</td>
			<td>测试中, 它是编码</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>沟通方式</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 所有者以冷的方式表达他们的偏爱, 并且从不看狗;2: 所有者以冷的方式表达他们的偏爱, 但看狗至少一次, 但不比2秒;3: 所有者与狗使用友好, 高音调的声音和看狗不止一次。主人不笑;4: 主人与狗在友好, 高音音调的声音, 微笑和看狗几乎整个试验</td>
			<td>食物选择, 教学</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>热情</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 所有者戏剧与显示低能量和没有参与的狗;2: 所有者戏剧与显示中等能量和缺乏参与的狗, 3: 所有者戏剧与显示高能和高参与的狗</td>
			<td>打球, 拔河游戏</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>称赞</td>
			<td>频率</td>
			<td colspan="3">口头上的话语以积极友好的语气发音 (例如, 德国的 "干得好!</td>
			<td>球类, 拔河游戏, DNA 样本, 基本命令</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>抚摸</td>
			<td>频率</td>
			<td colspan="3">拍, 划, 划痕</td>
			<td>DNA 样本, 基本命令</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>播放样式</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 所有者不笑或微笑在戏剧会议期间, 连续给命令并且使用强/苛刻的口气。主人从不允许狗赢得比赛;2: 主人不笑或微笑在戏剧会议期间和可能给命令对狗使用强或苛刻的口气。主人从不允许狗赢得比赛;3: 主人是愉快和热心的在戏剧会议期间, 但不允许狗赢取比赛;4: 主人是愉快和热心的在戏剧会议期间并且让狗赢取比赛。</td>
			<td>打球, 拔河游戏</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>温暖</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 主人是型和推挤下来狗, 如果她设法跳跃对她或他。主人不活跃地招呼狗并且可能给一些命令控制狗的行为;2: 主人是型, 但可以被动地接受狗的问候。主人不活跃地招呼狗并且可能给一些命令象 "坐下" 或 "下来" 控制狗的行为;3: 主人活跃地招呼狗并且讲话对狗在友好和高音调的声音;4: 主人清楚地微笑和招呼狗在兴奋的方式讲话对狗在友好和高音调的声调</td>
			<td>团聚在分离以后</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>社会支持</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 所有者限制狗的运动使用力量, 从不使狗或口头上, 和身体和讲话与狗用苛刻的口气的声音;2: 主人限制狗的运动使用力量, 从不使狗不放心, 也不口头上, 也不使用刺耳的声调。3: 主人可能口头上和/或身体而不是连续地安抚狗。主人用温柔的方式对狗说话, 并在测试结束时赞美狗;4: 所有者口头上和/或者身体连续地使狗安心。主人用温柔的方式对狗说话, 在测试结束时赞美狗。</td>
			<td>DNA 样本, t恤衫</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>命令</td>
			<td></td>
			<td colspan="3">用命令语气发音的口头话语 (例如, "坐" 或 "留下来" 的德国等价物)</td>
			<td>球类, 拔河游戏, 基本命令</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>注意声音</td>
			<td>频率</td>
			<td colspan="3">拍手, 口哨, 舌头, 或腭的点击</td>
			<td>打球, 拔河游戏</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>独裁行为</td>
			<td>得分</td>
			<td colspan="3">1: 所有者不提高声音的口气没有强迫狗在一个坚定的位置;2: 所有者提高声音的口气;3: 所有者去物理力量狗在坚定的位置</td>
			<td>基本命令</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
表 1: 在所有者交互样式测试期间分析的行为的列表和定义.此表已从18进行了改编。
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>测试</td>
			<td>行为</td>
			<td>转换</td>
			<td>分布</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA 样本采集</td>
			<td>命令</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>34.60%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>37.10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-5-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>17.10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 6-19-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>11.20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>注意声音</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>77.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-5-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>22.20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>抚摸</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>25.40%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>26.30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-5-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>26.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 6-20-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>21.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>称赞</td>
			<td>N = 0-4-和 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>25.40%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 5-9-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>26.30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 10-14-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>26.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 15-20-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>21.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>拔河比赛</td>
			<td>命令</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>38.00%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>24.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-5-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>27.40%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 6-13-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td></td></tr></tbody></table>10.10%
		
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>注意声音</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>68.60%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-13-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>31.40%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>称赞</td>
			<td>N = 0-4-和 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>24.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 5-9-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>27.60%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 10-14-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>20.00%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 15-20-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>27.60%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>基本命令</td>
			<td>命令</td>
			<td>N = 3-6-和 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>29.20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 7-9-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>26.10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 10-14-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>22.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 15-50-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>21.90%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>抚摸</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>13.20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>47.90%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-4-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>19.60%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 5-10-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>19.30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>称赞</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>23.20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>33.30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 2 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>19.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-10-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>23.70%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>打球</td>
			<td>命令</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>23.70%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>19.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-5-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>30.00%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 6-77-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>26.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>注意声音</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>42.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-16-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>57.50%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>称赞</td>
			<td>N = 0 #62; 分数1</td>
			<td>35.30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 1-2-和 #62; 分数2</td>
			<td>29.00%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 3-4-和 #62; 分数3</td>
			<td>19.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>N = 5-10-和 #62; 分数4</td>
			<td>15.90%</td>
		</tr>
	

表2。初始编码为计数的行为变量的数据处理.命令, 赞美和爱抚的数量被转换成4点音阶, 而注意声音的数量被转化为2点音阶。此表已从18进行了改编。

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The Successive Alleys Test of Anxiety in Mice and Rats

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones. Handley, Mithani and File et al. performed the first studies on the plus-maze design we use today, and in 1987 Lister published a design for use with mice. 
Time spent on, and entries into, the open arms are an index of anxiety; the lower these indices, the more anxious the mouse is. Alternatively, a mouse that spends most of its time in the closed arms is classed as anxious. 
One of the problems of the plus-maze is that, while time spent on, and entries into, the open arms is a fairly unambiguous measure of anxiety, time in the central area is more difficult to interpret, although time spent here has been classified as &#x201C;decision making&#x201D;. In many tests central area time is a considerable part of the total test time.
Shepherd et al. produced an ingenious design to eliminate the central area, which they called the &#x201C;zero maze&#x201D;. However, although used by several groups, it has never been as widely adopted as the plus-maze. 
In the present article I describe a modification of the plus-maze design that not only eliminates the central area but also incorporates elements from other anxiety tests, such as the light-dark box and emergence tests. It is a linear series of four alleys, each having increasing anxiogenic properties. It has given similar results to the plus-maze in general. Although it may not be more sensitive than the plus-maze (more data is needed before a firm conclusion can be reached on this point), it provides a useful confirmation of plus-maze results which would be useful when, for example, only a single example of a mutant mouse was available, as, for example, in ENU-based mutagenesis programs.

The plus-maze measures anxiety-like behaviour in rodents. There are two opposite closed and two opposite open arms; anxious rodents avoid the open arms. The central area is neither completely open nor closed, so time spent here is ambiguous and difficult to interpret. Here a modification of the plus-maze protocol eliminating this area is described.

在小鼠和大鼠连续的小巷测试焦虑

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones.  ...

科研

行为学

How to Detect Amygdala Activity with Magnetoencephalography using Source Imaging

In trace fear conditioning a conditional stimulus (CS) predicts the occurrence of the unconditional stimulus (UCS), which is presented after a brief stimulus free period (trace interval)1. Because the CS and UCS do not co-occur temporally, the subject must maintain a representation of that CS during the trace interval. In humans, this type of learning requires awareness of the stimulus contingencies in order to bridge the trace interval2-4. However when a face is used as a CS, subjects can implicitly learn to fear the face even in the absence of explicit awareness*. This suggests that there may be additional neural mechanisms capable of maintaining certain types of "biologically-relevant" stimuli during a brief trace interval. Given that the amygdala is involved in trace conditioning, and is sensitive to faces, it is possible that this structure can maintain a representation of a face CS during a brief trace interval.
It is challenging to understand how the brain can associate an unperceived face with an aversive outcome, even though the two stimuli are separated in time. Furthermore investigations of this phenomenon are made difficult by two specific challenges. First, it is difficult to manipulate the subject's awareness of the visual stimuli. One common way to manipulate visual awareness is to use backward masking. In backward masking, a target stimulus is briefly presented (&lt; 30 msec) and immediately followed by a presentation of an overlapping masking stimulus5. The presentation of the mask renders the target invisible6-8. Second, masking requires very rapid and precise timing making it difficult to investigate neural responses evoked by masked stimuli using many common approaches. Blood-oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) responses resolve at a timescale too slow for this type of methodology, and real time recording techniques like electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) have difficulties recovering signal from deep sources.
However, there have been recent advances in the methods used to localize the neural sources of the MEG signal9-11. By collecting high-resolution MRI images of the subject's brain, it is possible to create a source model based on individual neural anatomy. Using this model to "image" the sources of the MEG signal, it is possible to recover signal from deep subcortical structures, like the amygdala and the hippocampus*.

This article describes how to record amygdala activity with magnetoencephalography (MEG). In addition this article will describe how to conduct trace fear conditioning without awareness, a task that activates the amygdala. It will cover 3 topics: 1) Designing a trace conditioning paradigm using backward masking to manipulate awareness. 2) Recording brain activity during the task using magnetoencephalography. 3) Using source imaging to recover signal from subcortical structures.

如何检测杏仁核活动脑磁图源成像

In trace fear conditioning a conditional  stimulus (CS) predicts the occurrence of the unconditional stimulus (UCS),  which is presented after a brief ...

An Alternative to the Traditional Cold Pressor Test: The Cold Pressor Arm Wrap

Recently research on the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior has greatly increased. These advances have yielded insights into important questions ranging from the nature of stress&#39; influence on addiction1 to the role of stress in neural changes associated with alterations in decision-making2,3. As topics being examined by the field evolve, however, so too must the methodologies involved. In this article a practical and effective alternative to a classic stress induction technique, the cold pressor test (CPT), is presented: the cold pressor arm wrap (CPAW). CPT typically involves immersion of a participant&#39;s dominant hand in ice-cold water for a period of time4. The technique is associated with robust activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary (SAM) axis (and release of catecholamines; e.g.&#160;adrenaline and noradrenaline) and mild-to-moderate activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis with associated glucocorticoid (e.g.&#160;cortisol) release. While CPT has been used in a wide range of studies, it can be impractical to apply in some research environments. For example use of water during, rather than prior to, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential to damage sensitive and expensive equipment or interfere with acquisition of MRI signal. The CPAW is a practical and effective alternative to the traditional CPT. Composed of a versatile list of inexpensive and easily acquired components, CPAW makes use of MRI-safe gelpacs cooled to a temperature similar to CPT rather than actual water. Importantly CPAW is associated with levels of SAM and HPA activation comparable to CPT, and can easily be applied in a variety of research contexts. While it is important to maintain specific safety protocols when using the technique, these are easy to implement if planned for. Creation and use of the CPAW will be discussed.

The cold pressor test is a classic stress induction task used in a wide range of research examining the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior. In this article, a practical and versatile alternative to the traditional cold pressor test is presented: the cold pressor arm wrap.

传统冷压机测试的替代方案:冷压机臂包装

Recently research on the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior has greatly increased. These advances have yielded insights into ...

Stimulating the Lip Motor Cortex with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. Researchers have used single-pulse and repetitive TMS to stimulate the lip representation in the motor cortex. The excitability of the lip motor representation can be investigated by applying single TMS pulses over this cortical area and recording TMS-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) via electrodes attached to the lip muscles (electromyography; EMG). Larger MEPs reflect increased cortical excitability. Studies have shown that excitability increases during listening to speech as well as during&#160;viewing speech-related movements. TMS can be used also to disrupt the lip motor representation. A 15-min train of low-frequency sub-threshold repetitive stimulation has been shown to suppress motor excitability for a further 15-20 min. This TMS-induced disruption of the motor lip representation impairs subsequent performance in demanding speech perception tasks and modulates auditory-cortex responses to speech sounds. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that the motor cortex contributes to speech perception. This article describes how to localize the lip representation in the motor cortex and how to define the appropriate stimulation intensity for carrying out both single-pulse and repetitive TMS experiments.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception.&#160; This article describes how to record motor evoked potentials (MEPs) from the lip muscles and how to disrupt the motor lip representation using repetitive TMS.

刺激唇部运动皮层与经颅磁刺激

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

应力的社会问题:社会支持和社会认同的特里尔社会的实验操作压力测试

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

Experimental Research Examining How People Can Cope with Uncertainty Through Soft Haptic Sensations

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has focused on the cognitive strategies people adopt to deal with uncertainty. However, especially when uncertainty is due to unpredictable societal events (e.g., economical crises, political revolutions, terrorism threats) of which one is unable to judge the impact on one&#8217;s future live, cognitive strategies (like seeking additional information) is likely to fail to combat uncertainty. Instead, the current paper discusses a method demonstrating that people might deal with uncertainty experientially through soft haptic sensations. More specifically, because touching something soft creates a feeling of comfort and security, people prefer objects with softer as compared to harder properties when feeling uncertain. Seeking for softness is a highly efficient and effective tool to deal with uncertainty as our hands are available at all times. This protocol describes a set of methods demonstrating 1) how environmental (un)certainty can be situationally activated with an experiential priming procedure, 2) that the quality of the softness experience (what type of softness and how it is experienced) matters and 3) how uncertainty can be reduced using different methods.

To date research has focused on cognitive strategies people adopt to cope with uncertainty. This research examines instead an experiential way of dealing with uncertainty and introduces a set of experimental methods showing how the experience of haptic softness can serve as a tool to deal with uncertainty.

实验研究研究如何人能不确定性通过软触觉感知应对

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has ...

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of four mountains within a computer-generated landscape is tested using a delayed match-to-sample paradigm. Allocentric spatial memory is assessed by altering the viewpoint, colors and textures between the initially presented and target images.
Allocentric spatial memory is a key function of the hippocampus, one of the earliest brain regions to be affected in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and impairment of hippocampal function predates the onset of dementia. It was hypothesized that performance on the 4MT would aid the diagnosis of predementia AD, which manifests clinically as Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI).
The 4MT was applied to patients with MCI, stratified further based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarker status (10 MCI biomarker positive, 9 MCI biomarker negative), and with mild AD dementia, as well as healthy controls. Comparator tests included tests of episodic memory and attention widely accepted as sensitive measures of early AD. Behavioral data were correlated with quantitative MRI measures of the hippocampus, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus.
4MT scores were significantly different between the two MCI groups (p = 0.001), with a test score of &#8804;8/15 associated with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity for the classification of MCI with positive AD biomarkers, i.e., predementia AD. 4MT test scores correlated with hippocampal volume (r = 0.42) and cortical thickness of the precuneus (r = 0.55).
In conclusion, the 4MT is effective in identifying the early stages of AD. The short duration, easy application and scoring, and favorable psychometric properties of the 4MT fulfil the need for a simple but accurate diagnostic test for predementia AD.

This article describes the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a hippocampus-dependent test of working allocentric spatial memory. The hippocampus is affected early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this article outlines the 4MT methodology and results of patient testing, which demonstrates the value of the 4MT in the diagnosis of pre-dementia AD.

四山测试:空间记忆的一个简短的测试与高灵敏度的预痴呆诊断阿尔茨海默氏病

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of ...

How to Use the H1 Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Coil for Conditions Other than Depression

Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) is a relatively new technique that uses different coils for the treatment of different neuropathologies. The coils are made of soft copper windings in multiple planes that lie adjacent to the skull. They are located within a special helmet so that their magnetic fields combine and improve depth penetration. The H1 dTMS coil is designed to stimulate bilateral prefrontal cortices with greater effective stimulation over the left than the right. By positioning the left side of the coil close to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the H1 coil was used in a multisite study, leading to FDA approval for treatment-resistant depression. In this same position, the H1 coil was also explored as a possible treatment for negative symptoms of schizophrenia, bipolar depression, and migraine. When moved to different positions over the subject's skull, the H1 coil was also explored as a possible treatment for other conditions. Such manipulation of the H1 coil was demonstrated for PTSD and alcohol dependence by positioning it over the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), for anxiety by positioning it over the right prefrontal cortex (rPFC), for auditory hallucinations and tinnitus by positioning it over the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), and for Parkinson's and fatigue from multiple sclerosis (MS) by positioning it over the motor cortex (MC) and PFC. Corresponding electrical field diagrams measured with an oscilloscope through a saline-filled head are included.

The H1 deep transcranial magnetic stimulation coil is FDA-cleared for the treatment of depression. We demonstrate how to utilize the H1 for other conditions, such as auditory hallucinations and PTSD, by moving the helmet to different locations over the subject's skull.

如何使用H1深经颅磁刺激线圈条件除抑郁症

Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) is a relatively new technique that uses different coils for the treatment of different neuropathologies. The ...

Using Wavelet Entropy to Demonstrate how Mindfulness Practice Increases Coordination between Irregular Cerebral and Cardiac Activities

In both the East and West, traditional teachings say that the mind and heart are somehow closely correlated, especially during spiritual practice. One difficulty in proving this objectively is that the natures of brain and heart activities are quite different. In this paper, we propose a methodology that uses wavelet entropy to measure the chaotic levels of both electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) data and show how this may be used to explore the potential coordination between the mind and heart under different experimental conditions. Furthermore, Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) was used to identify the brain regions in which the EEG wavelet entropy was the most affected by the experimental conditions. As an illustration, the EEG and ECG were recorded under two different conditions (normal rest and mindful breathing) at the beginning of an 8-week standard Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) training course (pretest) and after the course (posttest). Using the proposed method, the results consistently showed that the wavelet entropy of the brain EEG decreased during the MBSR mindful breathing state as compared to that during the closed-eye resting state. Similarly, a lower wavelet entropy of heartrate was found during MBSR mindful breathing. However, no difference in wavelet entropy during MBSR mindful breathing was found between the pretest and posttest. No correlation was observed between the entropy of brain waves and the entropy of heartrate during normal rest in all participants, whereas a significant correlation was observed during MBSR mindful breathing. Additionally, the most well-correlated brain regions were located in the central areas of the brain. This study provides a methodology for the establishment of evidence that mindfulness practice (i.e., mindful breathing) may increase the coordination between mind and heart activities.

This manuscript describes how to use the wavelet entropy index to analyze high-density electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiography (ECG) data. We show that the irregularity of cerebral and cardiac activities became more coordinated during mindfulness-based stress reduction practice.

使用小波熵来证明正念练习如何增加不规则脑与心脏活动之间的协调

In both the East and West, traditional teachings say that the mind and heart are somehow closely correlated, especially during spiritual practice. One ...

An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, clinicians typically employ the pull test to grade corrective responses to a backward perturbation at the shoulders. However, the pull test is prone to issues with reliability and scaling (score/4). Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to more precisely quantify postural responses. Akin to the clinical test, pulls are manually administered except pull force is also recorded. Displacements of the trunk and feet are captured by a semi-portable motion tracking system. Raw data represent distance traveled (in millimeter units), making subsequent interpretation and analysis intuitive. The instrumented pull test also detects variabilities influencing pull test administration, such as pull force, thereby identifying and quantifying potential confounds that can be accounted for by statistical techniques. The instrumented pull test could have application in studies seeking to capture early abnormalities in postural responses, track postural instability over time, and detect responses to therapy.

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is difficult to quantify. Clinical assessments such as the pull test suffer issues with reliability and scaling. Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to objectively characterize postural responses.

一种表征姿势反应的仪器拉力测试

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, ...