M.阿卜迪 - Jalebi感谢纳瓦技术有限公司为博士奖学金。 MI达累斯萨拉姆和M.Grätzel感谢阿卜杜勒阿齐兹国王城科学和技术（KACST）和瑞士国家科学基金会（SNSF）的资金支持。笔者想感谢皮埃尔Mettraux博士在分子和混合材料表征中心，洛桑联邦理工学院为进行XPS测量。 A.Sadhanala十分感谢印度 - 英国APEX项目的资金支持。 SP Senanayak承认皇家学会伦敦牛顿奖学金。 RH朋友，M.阿卜迪 - Jalebi和A. Sadhanala要感谢来自EPSRC的支持。

1.合成和质朴和基于添加剂CH 3的沉积NH 3碘化铅3 注:防潮和氧在受控条件下在氩气手套箱内制备所有溶液（H 2 O级:&lt;1ppm的和O 2水平:&lt;10ppm的）。 <ol><li>在80℃下溶解碘化铅2的553毫克（1.2 M），在1毫升的N，N-二甲基甲酰胺（DMF）中不断搅拌下。 </li><li>添加0.02M的一价阳离子的卤化物的碘化铅溶液。 </li><li>旋涂在6,500 rpm时得到的黄色透明溶液到衬底（ 例如，介孔-TiO 2的）30秒以4,000rpm的坡道。 </li><li>烘烤在电炉上的膜在80℃下进行30分钟。 </li><li>在5毫升异丙醇中溶解40毫克碘甲基铵（MAI）的。 </li><li>旋涂的MAI溶液足量到使用两步骤protoc所得碘化铅膜其次是20秒旋转在4000转醇，其中包括45秒的加载时间。 </li><li>退火在电炉上的旋涂钙钛矿薄膜在100℃下45分钟。 </li></ol> 2.太阳能电池的制造<ol><li> 基板制备 <ol><li>图案氟掺杂的氧化锡（FTO）包被的玻璃。 <ol><li>覆盖在FTO玻璃半透明粘合带的活动区域。 </li><li>倒在FTO基板的未覆盖区域的锌（Zn）的粉末。 </li><li>在蒸馏水中制备的2M盐酸（HCl）的。 </li><li>倒入HCl溶液到该覆盖用Zn粉在FTO玻璃的一部分。 </li><li>用清水洗净FTO并取出磁带。 </li></ol></li><li>清洁基片<ol><li>洗，用2％（重量/体积）的洗涤剂在FTO玻璃上。 </li><li>超声处理在丙酮和异丙醇（IPA）在蚀刻FTO基板10分钟。 </li><li>对待FTO基板与ultraviolet / O 3清洗剂15分钟。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> 空穴阻挡层的沉积 <ol><li>在7毫升IPA中添加钛二异丙醇二（乙酰丙酮）（TAA）的0.6毫升。 </li><li>穿上在450℃的加热板上的清洁和图案化的FTO基板和覆盖加热前的接触面积。 </li><li>喷雾热分解的TAA溶液到使用O 2作为载气的未覆盖区域。 </li><li>离开样品在450℃下30分钟。 </li></ol></li><li> 电子传输层的沉积 <ol><li>稀释商用的 TiO 2浆料（30纳米粒径）用乙醇（2:7，重量比）。 </li><li>通过超声处理30分钟均质化的 TiO 2稀释。 </li><li>旋涂二氧化钛稀释到制备的样品紧凑型二氧化钛层30秒以5,000rpm 2,000 rpm的坡道。 </li><li>退火二氧化钛膜在500℃下进行30分钟。 </li><li>治疗在蒸馏水的 TiCl 4的40mM溶液所得介孔TiO 2的薄膜在70℃20分钟。 </li><li>在退火450 四氯化钛-处理电影 °下进行30分钟。 </li></ol></li><li> 钙钛矿层的沉积 注意:用二氧化钛层中的FTO基板转移到干燥空气箱与&lt;1％用于制造工艺的其余部分的湿度。 <ol><li>旋涂的准备碘化铅解决方案（有和没有掺杂剂）到介孔二氧化钛30秒在6,500 rpm转速下拥有4000 rpm的坡道。 </li><li>烘烤在电炉上的膜在80℃下进行30分钟。 </li><li>旋涂足够量的MAI溶液成使用两步骤的协议，其中包括45秒的加载时间接着在4000 rpm的转速2000转的斜坡纺纱20秒所得碘化铅膜。 </li><li>退火在hotpla旋涂钙钛矿薄膜德在100℃下45分钟。 </li></ol></li><li> 空穴输送层的沉积 <ol><li> 72.3毫克螺OMeTAD添加到1毫升氯苯和摇动直到溶液变得透明。 </li><li>通过在乙腈中加入520毫克的LiTFSI的使双（三氟甲基磺酰基）酰亚胺（的LiTFSI）的贮备溶液。 </li><li>加入的LiTFSI原液17.5微升和4- 叔丁基吡啶（TBP）的螺OMeTAD溶液28.8μL。 </li><li>旋涂层30秒以上溶液以4000rpm 2,000 rpm的坡道。 </li></ol></li><li> 顶部接触的热蒸发 <ol><li>面膜样本，并把它们在蒸发器的真空室。 </li><li>蒸发80纳米的金为0.01纳米/秒的速率。 </li></ol></li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Polman, A., Knight, M., Garnett, E. C., Ehrler, B., Sinke, W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photovoltaic+materials+-+present+efficiencies+and+future+challenges.">Photovoltaic materials - present efficiencies and future challenges.</a> Science. 352, 307 (2016).</li><li>Green, M. A., Ho-Baillie, A., Snaith, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+emergence+of+perovskite+solar+cells.">The emergence of perovskite solar cells.</a> Nat. Photonics. 8 (7), 506-514 (2014).</li><li>Stranks, S. D., Snaith, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metal-halide+perovskites+for+photovoltaic+and+light-emitting+devices.">Metal-halide perovskites for photovoltaic and light-emitting devices.</a> Nat. Nanotechnol. 10 (5), 391-402 (2015).</li><li>Snaith, H. H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perovskites:+The+Emergence+of+a+New+Era+for+Low-Cost,+High-Efficiency+Solar+Cells.">Perovskites: The Emergence of a New Era for Low-Cost, High-Efficiency Solar Cells.</a> The J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4 (21), 3623-3630 (2013).</li><li>Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Shirai, Y., Miyasaka, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organometal+halide+perovskites+as+visible-light+sensitizers+for+photovoltaic+cells.">Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (17), 6050-6051 (2009).</li><li>Kim, H. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lead+iodide+perovskite+sensitized+all-solid-state+submicron+thin+film+mesoscopic+solar+cell+with+efficiency+exceeding+9%.">Lead iodide perovskite sensitized all-solid-state submicron thin film mesoscopic solar cell with efficiency exceeding 9%.</a> Sci. rep. 2, 591 (2012).</li><li>Jeon, N. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Compositional+engineering+of+perovskite+materials+for+high-performance+solar+cells.">Compositional engineering of perovskite materials for high-performance solar cells.</a> Nature. 517 (7535), 476-480 (2014).</li><li>Li, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+vacuum+flash-assisted+solution+process+for+high-efficiency+large-area+perovskite+solar+cells.">A vacuum flash-assisted solution process for high-efficiency large-area perovskite solar cells.</a> Science. 353 (6294), 58-62 (2016).</li><li>Manser, J. S., Kamat, P. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Band+filling+with+free+charge+carriers+in+organometal+halide+perovskites.">Band filling with free charge carriers in organometal halide perovskites.</a> Nat. Photonics. 8 (9), 737-743 (2014).</li><li>Xing, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-Range+Balanced+Electron-+and+Hole-Transport+Lengths+in+Organic-Inorganic+CH3NH3PbI3.">Long-Range Balanced Electron- and Hole-Transport Lengths in Organic-Inorganic CH3NH3PbI3.</a> Science. 342 (6156), 344-347 (2013).</li><li>Stranks, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron-Hole+Diffusion+Lengths+Exceeding+1+Micrometer+in+an+Organometal+Trihalide+Perovskite+Absorber.">Electron-Hole Diffusion Lengths Exceeding 1 Micrometer in an Organometal Trihalide Perovskite Absorber.</a> Science. 342 (6156), 341-344 (2013).</li><li>Pazos-Outon, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photon+recycling+in+lead+iodide+perovskite+solar+cells.">Photon recycling in lead iodide perovskite solar cells.</a> Science. 351 (6280), 1430-1433 (2016).</li><li>Saliba, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cesium-containing+Triple+Cation+Perovskite+Solar+Cells:+Improved+Stability,+Reproducibility+and+High+Efficiency.">Cesium-containing Triple Cation Perovskite Solar Cells: Improved Stability, Reproducibility and High Efficiency.</a> Energy Environ. Sci. 9 (6), (2016).</li><li>Pellet, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mixed-organic-cation+perovskite+photovoltaics+for+enhanced+solar-light+harvesting.">Mixed-organic-cation perovskite photovoltaics for enhanced solar-light harvesting.</a> Angew. Chemie - Int. Ed. 53 (12), 3151-3157 (2014).</li><li>Hao, F., Stoumpos, C. C., Chang, R. P. H., Kanatzidis, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anomalous+band+gap+behavior+in+mixed+Sn+and+Pb+perovskites+enables+broadening+of+absorption+spectrum+in+solar+cells.">Anomalous band gap behavior in mixed Sn and Pb perovskites enables broadening of absorption spectrum in solar cells.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (22), 8094-8099 (2014).</li><li>Dar, M. I., Abdi-Jalebi, M., Arora, N., Gr&#228;tzel, M., Nazeeruddin, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+Engineering+of+CH+3+NH+3+PbI+3+Structures+for+High-Efficiency+Solar+Cells.">Growth Engineering of CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 Structures for High-Efficiency Solar Cells.</a> Adv. Energy Mater. 6 (2), 1501358 (2016).</li><li>Ibrahim Dar, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+the+Impact+of+Bromide+on+the+Photovoltaic+Performance+of+CH3+NH3+PbI3+Solar+Cells.">Understanding the Impact of Bromide on the Photovoltaic Performance of CH3 NH3 PbI3 Solar Cells.</a> Adv. Mater. 27 (44), 7221-7228 (2015).</li><li>Abdi-Jalebi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+Monovalent+Cation+Halide+Additives+on+the+Structural+and+Optoelectronic+Properties+of+CH+3+NH+3+PbI+3+Perovskite.">Impact of Monovalent Cation Halide Additives on the Structural and Optoelectronic Properties of CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 Perovskite.</a> Adv. Energy Mater. 6 (10), 1502472 (2016).</li><li>Yin, W. J., Shi, T., Yan, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unusual+defect+physics+in+CH3NH3PbI3+perovskite+solar+cell+absorber.">Unusual defect physics in CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite solar cell absorber.</a> Appl. Phys. Lett. 104 (6), 063903/1-063903/4 (2014).</li><li>Agiorgousis, M. L., Sun, Y. Y., Zeng, H., Zhang, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strong+Covalency-Induced+Recombination+Centers+in+Perovskite+Solar+Cell+Material+CH+3+NH+3+PbI+3.">Strong Covalency-Induced Recombination Centers in Perovskite Solar Cell Material CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (41), 14570-14575 (2014).</li><li>Andaji Garmaroudi, Z., Abdi-Jalebi, M., Mohammadi, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+facile+low+temperature+route+to+deposit+TiO2+scattering+layer+for+efficient+dye-sensitized+solar+cells.">A facile low temperature route to deposit TiO2 scattering layer for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells.</a> RSC Adv. 6 (75), (2016).</li><li>Abdi-Jalebi, M., Mohammadi, M. R., Fray, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double-Layer+TiO2+Electrodes+with+Controlled+Phase+Composition+and+Morphology+for+Efficient+Light+Management+in+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Double-Layer TiO2 Electrodes with Controlled Phase Composition and Morphology for Efficient Light Management in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> J. of Clust. Sci. 25 (4), 1029-1045 (2014).</li><li>Abdi-Jalebi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+a+Mesoporous+Titania-Perovskite+Interface+on+the+Performance+of+Hybrid+Organic-Inorganic+Perovskite+Solar+Cells.">Impact of a Mesoporous Titania-Perovskite Interface on the Performance of Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells.</a> The J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7 (16), 3264-3269 (2016).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

介观钙钛矿的太阳能电池的典型架构是在这项工作中，其中系列的材料是旋涂在导电基底和热蒸发金属接触（ 图1）之间使用。介孔TiO 2的层用的TiCl 4，其被报告给钝化表面陷阱和提高电子传输层和吸收体材料21，22之间的接口处理。然后在钙钛矿层使用顺序两步沉积技术沉积。在完全转化卤化铅进入钙钛矿在第二步骤是必不可少的，以实现最高的光吸收16，图 17，我们表明，一价阳离子的卤化物添加剂（ 如，碘化钠和溴化亚铜）导致完全转化。另外，介孔二氧化钛层的完全覆盖瓦特第i个钙钛矿过度层是至关重要的，以消除在空穴传输层（ 例如，螺OMETAD）和电子传输层（ 例如，介孔二氧化钛）23之间的潜在重组。我们示出，加入一价阳离子的卤化物（ 例如，碘化亚铜和碘化银）可提高钙钛矿覆盖层，这导致了装置的高开路电压的表面覆盖。 我们的方法的主要优点是掺杂步骤，在那里我们引入一价阳离子入CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3结构来提高电荷的密度，电荷传输，和吸收体层的导电性。正如上一节中所述，上述的掺杂剂显著增强两个电子和空穴迁移率。此外，显着降低在电荷输送活化能，以及在perovski的高能紊乱德膜，是由单价阳离子掺杂实现。 在这项工作中，我们已经证明掺杂CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3如在介观钙钛矿太阳能电池结构的吸收体层的方法。价阳离子的卤化物被用于调谐CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿薄膜的形态，光学，和电性能，以提高光电性能。因此，我们的CH 3的连续的两步沉积掺入三种不同的一价阳离子（即钠离子 ，铜+和Ag +），它们具有相似的离子半径的Pb 2+，在引入源的 NH 3碘化铅3 。其结果是，在CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3的结构和光电特性的显着的改善发生在这些添加剂的存在，导致对所制造的太阳能电池更高的PCE。因此，我们的工作喜ghlights掺杂CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3作为吸收层，它可以在钙钛矿太阳能电池（ 例如，平面结构）的所有其它构造，以进一步提高钙钛矿薄膜的电子质量被使用的便利途径。 本文的基本数据，请访问:https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/260187。

目前，世界上能量需求（ 即，85％）的主要部分是由石油，煤和天然气的燃烧，这有助于全球变暖和对我们的环境1的有害作用提供。因此，能源的CO 2 -零排放能源的发展是至关重要的利益。光伏（PV）是一种理想的能量转换的过程，可以达到这个要求。然而，成本和效率，对于广泛采用光伏技术的主要障碍，必须提高。新兴基于新的材料，如钙钛矿太阳能电池（PSC）光伏技术，有降低成本和提高效率的组合。这是通过廉价的材料是容易得到的，以及通过快速，简便，低能量处理路由的利用率达到相比硅基同行2,34。一个显着的提高电源转换效率（PCE），从3.8％到超过22％，有报道以来光伏建筑5，6，7，8日首次亮相的混合有机-无机铅卤化物钙钛矿。这种卓越的性能从强的光吸收源自具有非常尖锐的能带边缘，在非常低的高能紊乱，弱束缚的激子，很容易离解成具有大的扩散长度自由载流子，以及杂化有机 - 无机的光子循环能力铅卤化物钙钛矿9，10，11，12。这些材料被归类在钙钛矿系列，它是由有机卤化物和金属卤化物盐结晶，形成在ABX 3结晶</sub&gt;结构，其中X是阴离子，A和B是不同尺寸的阳离子（A为大于B）。对于A网站报道阳离子包括甲基铵（MA），formamidinium（FA）和铯（Cs）;这些阳离子的组合示出了最高性能13,14。此外，在B位的二价阳离子的主要候选是铅，其可通过锡取代;带隙可以成功红移在混合钙钛矿15铅锡超过1000纳米。同样，在X站点乘员已被广泛研究，其中，碘（I）和溴（Br）之间的混合物被引入作为主要候选16,17。因此，它是非常合理的，通过改变它们的化学组成来操纵的钙钛矿的结构，形态和光电特性。 尽管增强CRYSTAlline质量和钙钛矿薄膜的宏观均匀性是实现高效的装置18的关键参数，边界的多晶结构域，原点并在钙钛矿吸收剂电子缺陷的作用，且电荷收集层中时的作用之间的冲击在钙钛矿太阳能电池损失过程尚未很好地理解。关于在钙钛矿结构的电子缺陷的性质，它已经报道了许多缺陷，如I或Pb空位的，导致状态是非常接近或状态中的导带和价带中的连续体中，这可能对光伏器件19的负电子的影响。此外，铅阳离子和在所述钙钛矿平面碘化物阴离子之间的强共价键合相互作用可能导致本征缺陷的存在（ 例如，下协调铅二聚体和三聚体我），这可能创造带边缘，该装置20的操作期间充当电荷复合中心内ë站点。 在这里，我们研究了掺杂CH 3的影响NH 3碘化铅钙钛矿与单价阳离子卤化物，包括钠 ，铜+和Ag +，降低价金属离子比铅离子 。因此，我们通过增加他们的基于卤化物的盐的用量合理（ 例如，碘化钠，溴化亚铜，崔和AGI）进入钙钛矿原料液把这些阳离子。这些阳离子具有类似于铅离子的离子半径，所以置换掺杂内的晶体是可能的。我们已经表明，这些阳离子的存在强烈影响既形态和钙钛矿层的覆盖。此外，这些阳离子（ 如，Na +和Ag +）会的存在已被证实通过X射线光电子能谱（XPS），以及一个significan在钙钛矿的费米能级T改变由Kelvin探针力显微镜（KPFM）进行测定。通过将这些阳离子成依次沉积钙钛矿的太阳能电池中，我们在PSC的发电效率达到的改善（15.6％比较14％）。因此，为提高太阳能电池结构的吸收体层（ 例如，钙钛矿）的结构和光电特性以最大化电荷输送和钝化表面的陷阱，以达到最高的光伏性能是十分必要的。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Fluorine doped Tin Oxide (FTO)-coated glass</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">735264-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Resistivity&#8776;13 &#937;/sq</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Zinc powder</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">96454</td>
			<td>Molecular Weight 65.39&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Hydrochloric acid&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">84415</td>
			<td>&#8805;37 wt. %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Hellmanex detergent&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>Z805939-1EA</td>
			<td>pkg of 1 L&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Titanium diisopropoxide bis(acetylacetonate)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">325252</td>
			<td>75&#160;wt. % in isopropanol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Titania Paste</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">DYESOL</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MS002300</td>
			<td>30 NR-D Transparent Titania Paste</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Lead (II) iodide</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">211168</td>
			<td>99 wt. %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">N,N-Dimethylformamide&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">437573</td>
			<td>ACS reagent, &#8805;99.8%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Methylammonium iodide</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">DYESOL</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MS101000</td>
			<td>Powder&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">SpiroMeOTAD</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">792071</td>
			<td>99% (HPLC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium salt</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">544094</td>
			<td>99.95% trace metals basis&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">4-tert-Butylpyridine</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">142379</td>
			<td>Purity: 96%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Chlorobenzene&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">284513</td>
			<td>anhydrous, 99.8%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">2-Propanol&#160; (IPA)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">278475</td>
			<td>anhydrous, 99.5%&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">2860</td>
			<td>&#160;absolute alcohol, without additive, &#8805;99.8%&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

monovalent cation doping of ch3nh3pbi3 for efficient perovskite solar cells

在这里，我们证明，为了调整光学，激子，和电性能的一价阳离子的添加剂掺入CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿。掺杂的可能性通过加入单价阳离子卤化物与类似的离子半径的Pb 2+，包含Cu +，Na +和银离子的影响。在费米能级的转变和子带隙光吸收的显着降低，与钙钛矿低级高能紊乱一起被实现。顺序的数量级的增强在本体空穴迁移率和基于添加剂的钙钛矿装置内的显著减少运输活化能的混合物实现。在这些阳离子的存在下在上述改进的性质的合流导致的钙钛矿太阳能电池的光电参数的增强。在碘化银开路电压和70 mV的增加2毫安/厘米2小鬼rovement在基于溴化亚铜，NaI-和太阳能电池的光电流密度均达到较原始设备。我们的工作铺平了在CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿和随后的器件的光电质量进一步改善的方式。它强调了对结晶掺杂杂质的作用，调查了新的途径，并控制在钙钛矿结构中的电子缺陷密度。

场发射扫描电子显微镜（FESEM）来记录所制造的钙钛矿太阳能电池的两个横截面图像（ 图1）和沉积的碘化铅和CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3薄膜的顶视图图像（ 图2）。 X射线衍射（XRD）和X射线光电子能谱（XPS）进行了表征钙钛矿薄膜的结构特性（ 图3和4）。光热偏转谱（PDS）和开尔文探针力显微镜（KPFM）分别用来探测钙钛矿薄膜，光学和电学性能（ 图5和6）。此外，基于空间电荷限制电流（SCLC）随温度的散装运输测量于钙钛矿设备（ 图7）进行的。最后，一个标准photovolta进行的制造的装置的集成电路的测量（ 图8和表1）。 基于该顶视图中的碘化铅和CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3沉积在图2所示的介孔TiO 2的层（MP-TiO 2的）上，被示出在钙钛矿形态的添加剂的作用，其中的SEM图像碘化铅的大枝形水晶基于乃样品中得以实现。这导致了钙钛矿的较大的非对称晶体的形成。此外，我们得到基于AGI-CuI-和样品的均匀和无针孔的钙钛矿封盖层（ 图2c和2e）。调查价阳离子的卤化物添加剂对CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3和碘化铅转化成CH 3 NH 3碘化铅的晶体结构的效果进行3，X射线衍射（ 图3）。虽然最终钙钛矿的晶体结构保持不变所有样品，显而易见的是，在2θ衍射峰= 12.6，其对应于未转化的碘化铅，在碘化钠和溴化亚铜添加剂的存在被淘汰了。为了确认对CH 3内的这些单价阳离子的存在的NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿薄膜，我们进行了XPS分析， 如图4。对XPS数据的基础上，我们展示了钙钛矿薄膜内的Na和Ag离子的存在，而Cu的浓度无法估计，可能是由于碘（I 3P1 / 2）和铜的贴近（铜2P1 / 2）的峰。 示于图5a，其通过PDS测量了钙钛矿的吸收光谱的一价阳离子的添加剂的效果。显而易见的是，相对于原始样品的添加剂基于CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3有较低的子带隙的吸收。此外，观察到Cu基样本，其中来自卤化铜（ 图5b）的特性吸收的吸收尾巴。尽管吸收尾部证实铜阳离子在最终钙钛矿薄膜的存在，这是显而易见的，基于所述PDS之间的比较的CuI基于碘化铅2和CH 3 的 NH 3碘化铅3中 ，它们的掺入是不完整的。此外，Urbach能（铕），这是一种材料的充满活力的病症的程度的量度，估计为原始基础的AgI-NaI-，CuBr-，CuI-，和钙钛矿，和的值是15.6， 11.8，12.8，13.5，和15.2毫电子伏特，分别为（ 图5a的插图）。 为了探讨在ELECTR上述添加剂的影响CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3 ONIC结构，我们进行KPFM，其中测量线轮廓的接触电位差（CPD）。这对应于图6所示的钙钛矿的表面功函数（Φ）。在的CPD（ 即 0.1 V）的明确转变添加剂为基础的钙钛矿相对于原始的一所示的钙钛矿费米能级向价带移动。这种变化在钙钛矿的费米能级可以归因于任一取代对-掺杂（ 例如，更换铅2+与一价阳离子X +）或表面钝化在钙钛矿的晶体表面。 调查上的电荷的密度和在CH 3 NH 3其传输性碘化铅3掺杂的效果，我们进行了温度依赖散装运输测量（ 图7a </str翁&gt;）。然后，我们基于完整电子和基于添加剂空穴只有原始和钙钛矿设备的空间电荷限制电流（SCLC）所估计的散装载流子迁移（μSCL）。在导电性和在电子和空穴的迁移率都显着增加了实现的，特别是用于相对于原始的钙钛矿（ 表1）的碘化钠和溴化亚铜样品。值得注意的是，在电荷迁移率和电导率的改善是在短路电流（J SC）的增强一致和填图7b示出的装配式太阳能电池的因子（FF）。此外，我们估计用于电子和利用温度依赖性散装运输测量，其中，一个清晰的下降是基于添加剂的钙钛矿所取得的孔既电荷传输（E A）的活化能。这种改善是由于因为掺杂和填充个的载流子的高密度Ë运输陷阱，从而导致在运输屏障显著下跌。 我们制造根据上述的一价阳离子的卤化物，相应的合营曲线，并且总结在图8a和表1的光电参数的钙钛矿的太阳能电池。在开路电压的显著改善是两种CuI-（0.99 V）和AgI-基于由于提供了理想的表面覆盖的太阳能电池（1.02Ⅴ）（ 图2c和2e）来实现的。此外，被实现在短路电流（≈2毫安厘米-2）为CuBr-和基于碘化钠基太阳能电池的显着增加，这可以归因于碘化铅的完全转化成CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3。这种改善是通过在图8b中示出的入射光子-电流转换效率（IPCE）谱证实。最后，Higher电源转换效率（PCE）的15.2％，15.6％和15.3％水平为NaI-，CuBr-实现，基于翠设备，分别比较了原始的钙钛矿太阳能电池14.0％的价值。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig1.jpg" /> 图1:钙钛矿介观太阳能电池架构。具有以下结构的完整设备的SEM横截面显微照片:FTO /紧凑的 TiO 2 /孔-的TiO 2 / CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3 /螺OMeTAD / Au等。 <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig2.jpg" /> 图2:碘化铅钙钛矿结构的形态分析。 碘化铅（左侧）和CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3的顶视图的SEM图像（右侧）的结构:（1）原始，（ <st<html>荣&gt;二）CuBr-，（C）CuI-，（D）NaI-，和沉积在介孔TiO 2的（E）基于碘化银基钙钛矿样包被的FTO。这个数字已经从18引用转载。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图3" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig3.jpg" /> 图3:单价阳离子卤化物添加剂对钙钛矿结晶的影响。原始和添加剂基于CH 3的X射线衍射光谱的 NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿是生长在介孔二氧化钛膜，其沉积在FTO涂覆玻璃。这个数字已经从18引用转载。T ="_空白"&gt;点击此处查看该图的放大版本。 <img alt="图4" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig4.jpg" /> 图4:在CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3钙钛矿结构的一价阳离子的轨迹。质朴，基于AGI-CuBr-，CuI-，NaI-和钙钛矿薄膜XPS分析。这个数字已经从18引用转载。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图5" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig5.jpg" /> 图5:钙钛矿薄膜的光学性能。 （a）由原始和添加剂的铅来源钙钛矿薄膜的吸收光谱使用PDS技术测量。该插图示出所有样品相应的Urbach能量。误差棒是由SD在拟合Urbach末尾定义。 （ 二 ）的原始和基于溴化亚铜-碘化铅和钙钛矿薄膜，以及的CuBr的PDS吸收光谱的比较淀积在MS-TiO 2和加入CuBr-仅膜。这个数字已经从18引用转载。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图6" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig6.jpg" /> 图6:关于钙钛矿薄膜的表面电位的一价阳离子的添加剂的影响。使用KPFM原始和添加剂为基础的钙钛矿电影记录CPD线轮廓。 AFM的地形影像显示在顶部。这个数字已经从18引用转载<html> 。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图7" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig7.jpg" /> 图7:钙钛矿薄膜的电荷传输特性。 （a）仅空穴设备（ITO / PEDOT:PSS /钙钛矿/金）的合资公司特征，用于估计SCLC空穴迁移率利用。注意，电流密度（J），按比例与钙钛矿层的厚度。 （ 二 ）在J SC的趋势，μ 小时 ，μe表示原始和添加剂为基础的钙钛矿。这个数字已经从18引用转载。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> T"FO:保together.within页="1"&gt; <img alt="图8" src="/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig8.jpg" /> 图8:光伏性能特性。 （ 一 ）为100毫瓦/厘米2的照射下的设备的电流-电压特性，获得使用不同类型添加到引线源溶液的一价阳离子的卤化物。 （ 二 ）事件光子-电流效率（IPCE）谱作为单色光的波长为原始基础的AgI-CuBr-，CuI-，NaI-，和钙钛矿的太阳能电池的功能。这个数字已经从18引用转载。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55307/55307fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td> 样品类型 </td><td>ĴSC </td><td> 开路电压 </td><td> FF </td><td> PCE </td><td> Ëμ </td><td> μH＆ </td><td> êA E </td><td> êA h 对 </td></tr><tr><td></td><td> （毫安厘米-2） </td><td> （V）的 </td><td></td><td> （％） </td><td> （ 平方厘米/ VS） </td><td> （ 平方厘米/ VS） </td><td> （兆电子伏） </td><td> （兆电子伏） </td></tr><tr><td> 精粹 </td><td> 21.03 </td><td> 0.95 </td><td> 0.70 </td><td> 14.01 </td><td> 0.02 </td><td> 0.008 </td><td> 135 </td><td> 198 </td></tr><tr><td> 溴化亚铜 </td><td> 22.92 </td><td> 0.95 </td><td> 0.72 </td><td> 15.61 </td><td> 0.05 </td><tD&gt; 0.04 </td><td> 88 </td><td> 132 </td></tr><tr><td> 碘化亚铜 </td><td> 21.81 </td><td> 0.99 </td><td> 0.71 </td><td> 15.25 </td><td> 0.02 </td><td> 0.036 </td><td> 94 </td><td> 157 </td></tr><tr><td> 碘化钠 </td><td> 22.97 </td><td> 0.9 </td><td> 0.73 </td><td> 15.14 </td><td> 0.04 </td><td> 0.07 </td><td> 77 </td><td> 137 </td></tr><tr><td> 碘化银 </td><td> 19.24 </td><td> 1.02 </td><td> 0.72 </td><td> 14.18 </td><td> 0.005 </td><td> 0.006 </td><td> 105 </td><td> 177 </td></tr></tbody></table> 表1:PSC 的光伏和电荷传输参数。从JV测量和电荷迁移率与该显示最佳性能和原始和添加剂的基于钙钛矿太阳能电池的活化能衍生，沿着光电参数的总结分别˚F使用两步淀积法abricated。值得注意的是，光伏参数的统计遵循同样的趋势，表现最好的设备。此表已从参考18再现。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells at JoVE.com

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

在这里，我们提出了一个协议，以实现高效率的钙钛矿的太阳能电池以调节溶液处理的CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3的通过一价阳离子添加剂的掺入的属性。

CH的单价阳离子兴奋剂<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; NH<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt;碘化铅<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt;对钙钛矿型高效太阳能电池

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical ...

monovalent-cation-doping-ch3nh3pbi3-for-efficient-perovskite-solar

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

16.5K 次观看.  University of Cambridge. 在这里，我们提出了一个协议，以实现高效率的钙钛矿的太阳能电池以调节溶液处理的CH 3 NH 3碘化铅3的通过一价阳离子添加剂的掺入的属性。 

视频: Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-film Solar cells with Plasmonic-enhanced Light-trapping

One of major approaches to cheaper solar cells is reducing the amount of semiconductor material used for their fabrication and making cells thinner. To compensate for lower light absorption such physically thin devices have to incorporate light-trapping which increases their optical thickness. Light scattering by textured surfaces is a common technique but it cannot be universally applied to all solar cell technologies. Some cells, for example those made of evaporated silicon, are planar as produced and they require an alternative light-trapping means suitable for planar devices. Metal nanoparticles formed on planar silicon cell surface and capable of light scattering due to surface plasmon resonance is an effective approach.
The paper presents a fabrication procedure of evaporated polycrystalline silicon solar cells with plasmonic light-trapping and demonstrates how the cell quantum efficiency improves due to presence of metal nanoparticles.
To fabricate the cells a film consisting of alternative boron and phosphorous doped silicon layers is deposited on glass substrate by electron beam evaporation. An Initially amorphous film is crystallised and electronic defects are mitigated by annealing and hydrogen passivation. Metal grid contacts are applied to the layers of opposite polarity to extract electricity generated by the cell. Typically, such a ~2 &mu;m thick cell has a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 14-16 mA/cm2, which can be increased up to 17-18 mA/cm2 (~25% higher) after application of a simple diffuse back reflector made of a white paint.
To implement plasmonic light-trapping a silver nanoparticle array is formed on the metallised cell silicon surface. A precursor silver film is deposited on the cell by thermal evaporation and annealed at 23&deg;C to form silver nanoparticles. Nanoparticle size and coverage, which affect plasmonic light-scattering, can be tuned for enhanced cell performance by varying the precursor film thickness and its annealing conditions. An optimised nanoparticle array alone results in cell Jsc enhancement of about 28%, similar to the effect of the diffuse reflector. The photocurrent can be further increased by coating the nanoparticles by a low refractive index dielectric, like MgF2, and applying the diffused reflector. The complete plasmonic cell structure comprises the polycrystalline silicon film, a silver nanoparticle array, a layer of MgF2, and a diffuse reflector. The Jsc for such cell is 21-23 mA/cm2, up to 45% higher than Jsc of the original cell without light-trapping or ~25% higher than Jsc for the cell with the diffuse reflector only.
Introduction
Light-trapping in silicon solar cells is commonly achieved via light scattering at textured interfaces. Scattered light travels through a cell at oblique angles for a longer distance and when such angles exceed the critical angle at the cell interfaces the light is permanently trapped in the cell by total internal reflection (Animation 1: Light-trapping). Although this scheme works well for most solar cells, there are developing technologies where ultra-thin Si layers are produced planar (e.g. layer-transfer technologies and epitaxial c-Si layers) 1 and or when such layers are not compatible with textures substrates (e.g. evaporated silicon) 2. For such originally planar Si layer alternative light trapping approaches, such as diffuse white paint reflector 3, silicon plasma texturing 4 or high refractive index nanoparticle reflector 5 have been suggested.
Metal nanoparticles can effectively scatter incident light into a higher refractive index material, like silicon, due to the surface plasmon resonance effect 6. They also can be easily formed on the planar silicon cell surface thus offering a light-trapping approach alternative to texturing. For a nanoparticle located at the air-silicon interface the scattered light fraction coupled into silicon exceeds 95% and a large faction of that light is scattered at angles above critical providing nearly ideal light-trapping condition (Animation 2: Plasmons on NP). The resonance can be tuned to the wavelength region, which is most important for a particular cell material and design, by varying the nanoparticle average size, surface coverage and local dielectric environment 6,7. Theoretical design principles of plasmonic nanoparticle solar cells have been suggested 8. In practice, Ag nanoparticle array is an ideal light-trapping partner for poly-Si thin-film solar cells because most of these design principle are naturally met. The simplest way of forming nanoparticles by thermal annealing of a thin precursor Ag film results in a random array with a relatively wide size and shape distribution, which is particularly suitable for light-trapping because such an array has a wide resonance peak, covering the wavelength range of 700-900 nm, important for poly-Si solar cell performance. The nanoparticle array can only be located on the rear poly-Si cell surface thus avoiding destructive interference between incident and scattered light which occurs for front-located nanoparticles 9. Moreover, poly-Si thin-film cells do not requires a passivating layer and the flat base-shaped nanoparticles (that naturally result from thermal annealing of a metal film) can be directly placed on silicon further increases plasmonic scattering efficiency due to surface plasmon-polariton resonance 10.
The cell with the plasmonic nanoparticle array as described above can have a photocurrent about 28% higher than the original cell. However, the array still transmits a significant amount of light which escapes through the rear of the cell and does not contribute into the current. This loss can be mitigated by adding a rear reflector to allow catching transmitted light and re-directing it back to the cell. Providing sufficient distance between the reflector and the nanoparticles (a few hundred nanometers) the reflected light will then experience one more plasmonic scattering event while passing through the nanoparticle array on re-entering the cell and the reflector itself can be made diffuse - both effects further facilitating light scattering and hence light-trapping. Importantly, the Ag nanoparticles have to be encapsulated with an inert and low refractive index dielectric, like MgF2 or SiO2, from the rear reflector to avoid mechanical and chemical damage 7. Low refractive index for this cladding layer is required to maintain a high coupling fraction into silicon and larger scattering angles, which are ensured by the high optical contrast between the media on both sides of the nanoparticle, silicon and dielectric 6. The photocurrent of the plasmonic cell with the diffuse rear reflector can be up to 45% higher than the current of the original cell or up to 25% higher than the current of an equivalent cell with the diffuse reflector only.

Polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells on glass are fabricated by deposition of boron and phosphorous doped silicon layers followed by crystallisation, defect passivation and metallisation. Plasmonic light-trapping is introduced by forming Ag nanoparticles on the silicon cell surface capped with a diffused reflector resulting in ~45% photocurrent enhancement.

多晶硅薄膜太阳能电池电浆增强光捕获

One of major approaches to cheaper solar cells is reducing the amount of semiconductor material used for their fabrication and making cells thinner. To ...

科研

工程学

Monolayer Contact Doping of Silicon Surfaces and Nanowires Using Organophosphorus Compounds

Monolayer Contact Doping (MLCD) is a simple method for doping of surfaces and nanostructures1. MLCD results in the formation of highly controlled, ultra shallow and sharp doping profiles at the nanometer scale. In MLCD process the dopant source is a monolayer containing dopant atoms.
In this article a detailed procedure for surface doping of silicon substrate as well as silicon nanowires is demonstrated. Phosphorus dopant source was formed using tetraethyl methylenediphosphonate monolayer on a silicon substrate. This monolayer containing substrate was brought to contact with a pristine intrinsic silicon target substrate and annealed while in contact. Sheet resistance of the target substrate was measured using 4 point probe. Intrinsic silicon nanowires were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process using a vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism; gold nanoparticles were used as catalyst for nanowire growth. The nanowires were suspended in ethanol by mild sonication. This suspension was used to dropcast the nanowires on silicon substrate with a silicon nitride dielectric top layer. These nanowires were doped with phosphorus in similar manner as used for the intrinsic silicon wafer. Standard photolithography process was used to fabricate metal electrodes for the formation of nanowire based field effect transistor (NW-FET). The electrical properties of a representative nanowire device were measured by a semiconductor device analyzer and a probe station.

A detailed procedure for surface doping of Silicon interfaces is provided. The ultra-shallow surface doping is demonstrated by using phosphorus containing monolayers and rapid annealing process. The method can be used for doping of macroscopic area surfaces as well as nanostructures.

Monolayer Contact Doping (MLCD) is a simple method for doping of surfaces and nanostructures1. MLCD results in the formation of highly controlled, ultra ...

Ambient Method for the Production of an Ionically Gated Carbon Nanotube Common Cathode in Tandem Organic Solar Cells

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two solution-processed polymeric cells connected in parallel by a transparent carbon nanotubes (CNT) interlayer. This structure includes improvements in fabrication techniques for tandem OPV devices. First the need for ambient-processed cathodes is considered. The CNT anode in the tandem device is tuned via ionic gating to become a common cathode. Ionic gating employs electric double layer charging to lower the work function of the CNT electrode. Secondly, the difficulty of sequentially stacking tandem layers by solution-processing is addressed. The devices are fabricated via solution and dry-lamination in ambient conditions with parallel processing steps. The method of fabricating the individual polymeric cells, the steps needed to laminate them together with a common CNT cathode, and then provide some representative results are described. These results demonstrate ionic gating of the CNT electrode to create a common cathode and addition of current and efficiency as a result of the lamination procedure.

A method of fabricating, in ambient conditions, organic photovoltaic tandem devices in a parallel configuration is presented. These devices feature an air-processed, semi-transparent, carbon nanotube common cathode.

对于一个以离子门控碳纳米管共阴极的串联有机太阳能电池的生产环境法

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two ...

Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent thermal evaporation, and it absorbs visible light strongly. However, for a long time the record power conversion efficiency of SnS solar cells remained below 2%. Recently we demonstrated new certified record efficiencies of 4.36% using SnS deposited by atomic layer deposition, and 3.88% using thermal evaporation. Here the fabrication procedure for these record solar cells is described, and the statistical distribution of the fabrication process is reported. The standard deviation of efficiency measured on a single substrate is typically over 0.5%. All steps including substrate selection and cleaning, Mo sputtering for the rear contact (cathode), SnS deposition, annealing, surface passivation, Zn(O,S) buffer layer selection and deposition, transparent conductor (anode) deposition, and metallization are described. On each substrate we fabricate 11 individual devices, each with active area 0.25 cm2. Further, a system for high throughput measurements of current-voltage curves under simulated solar light, and external quantum efficiency measurement with variable light bias is described. With this system we are able to measure full data sets on all 11 devices in an automated manner and in minimal time. These results illustrate the value of studying large sample sets, rather than focusing narrowly on the highest performing devices. Large data sets help us to distinguish and remedy individual loss mechanisms affecting our devices.

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication procedure of the SnS solar cells employing atomic layer deposition, which yields 4.36% certified power conversion efficiency, and thermal evaporation which yields 3.88%.

通过热蒸发和原子层沉积使记录效率的SnS太阳能电池

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent ...

Integration of Light Trapping Silver Nanostructures in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Transfer Printing

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly known as plasmonic effects, play an important role. Research in this field has, however, been impeded owing to the difficulty of fabricating devices containing the desired functional metal nanostructures. In order to provide a viable strategy to this issue, we herein show a transfer printing-based approach that allows the quick and low-cost integration of designed metal nanostructures with a variety of device architectures, including solar cells. Nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps were fabricated from a commercially available nanohole plastic film as a master mold. On this nanopatterned PDMS stamps, Ag films were deposited, which were then transfer-printed onto block copolymer (binding layer)-coated hydrogenated microcrystalline Si (&#181;c-Si:H) surface to afford ordered Ag nanodisk structures. It was confirmed that the resulting Ag nanodisk-incorporated &#181;c-Si:H solar cells show higher performances compared to a cell without the transfer-printed Ag nanodisks, thanks to plasmonic light trapping effect derived from the Ag nanodisks. Because of the simplicity and versatility, further device application would also be feasible thorough this approach.

A viable transfer printing-based methodology to introduce plasmonic metal nanostructures in solar cells is described. Using nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) stamps, an Ag-based ordered nanodisk array was integrated with standard hydrogenated microcrystalline Si solar cells, which led to improved device performances due to plasmonic light trapping.

灯光诱杀银纳米结构通过转移印花在氢化微晶硅太阳能电池集成

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly ...

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices have used devices prepared by spin coating, a process that is not amenable to large-scale fabrication. This mismatch in device fabrication makes it difficult to translate quantitative results obtained in the laboratory to the commercial level, making optimization difficult. Using a mini-slot die coater, this mismatch can be resolved by translating the commercial process to the laboratory and characterizing the structure formation in the active layer of the device in real time and in situ as films are coated onto a substrate. The evolution of the morphology was characterized under different conditions, allowing us to propose a mechanism by which the structures form and grow. This mini-slot die coater offers a simple, convenient, material efficient route by which the morphology in the active layer can be optimized under industrially relevant conditions. The goal of this protocol is to show experimental details of how a solar cell device is fabricated using a mini-slot die coater and technical details of running in situ structure characterization using the mini-slot die coater.

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate organic thin film solar cells using a mini-slot die coater and related in-line structure characterizations using synchrotron scattering techniques.

散装异质结太阳能电池的印刷和制作<em&gt;原位</em&gt;形态特征

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less environmentally damaging with lower processing temperatures presenting a viable and low cost alternative to conventional production. This paper further enhances these environmental credentials by evaluating the digital printing and therefore additive production route for these cells. This is achieved here by investigating the formation and performance of a metal oxide photoelectrode using nanoparticle sized titanium dioxide. An ink-jettable material was formulated, characterized and printed with a piezoelectric inkjet head to produce a 2.6 &#181;m thick layer. The resultant printed layer was fabricated into a functioning cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and a power conversion efficiency of 3.5%. The binder-free formulation resulted in a reduced processing temperature of 250 &#176;C, compatible with flexible polyamide substrates which are stable up to temperatures of 350 &#730;C. The authors are continuing to develop this process route by investigating inkjet printing of other layers within dye sensitized solar cells.

This paper investigates the suitability of inkjet printing for the manufacturing of dye-sensitized solar cells. A binder-free TiO2 nanoparticle ink was formulated and printed onto a FTO glass substrate. The printed layer was fabricated into a cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and an efficiency of 3.5%.

钛白粉用于染料敏化太阳能电池的数码印刷

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less ...

Electrospinning of Photocatalytic Electrodes for Dye-sensitized Solar Cells

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of electrospun titanium dioxide nanofibers (TiO2-NFs) on top of a blocking layer made of commercially available titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs). This is achieved by first electrospinning a solution of titanium (IV) butoxide, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and glacial acetic acid in ethanol to obtain composite PVP/TiO2 nanofibers. These are then calcined at 500 &#176;C to remove the PVP and to obtain pure anatase-phase titania nanofibers. This material is characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). The photoanode is prepared by first creating a blocking layer through the deposition of a TiO2-NPs/terpineol slurry on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass slide using doctor blading techniques. A subsequent thermal treatment is performed at 500 &#176;C. Then, the light-scattering layer is formed by depositing a TiO2-NFs/terpineol slurry on the same slide, using the same technique, and calcinating again at 500 &#176;C. The performance of the photoanode is tested by fabricating a dye-sensitized solar cell and measuring its efficiency through J-V curves under a range of incident light densities, from 0.25-1 Sun.

The overall goal of this project was to use electrospinning to fabricate a photoanode with improved performance for dye-sensitized solar cells.

染料敏化太阳能电池的光催化电极的电纺丝

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

就地太阳能电池和模块加速性能退化的监测: 铜 (in, Ga) Se2太阳能电池的实例研究

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Well-aligned Vertically Oriented ZnO Nanorod Arrays and their Application in Inverted Small Molecule Solar Cells

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule (SMPV1) and [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM), by utilizing ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO NRs that grew on both a sputtered and sol-gel processed AZO seed layer are fabricated. Compared with the AZO thin film prepared by the sol-gel method, the sputtered AZO thin film exhibits better crystallization and lower surface roughness, according to X-ray diffraction (XRD) and atomic force microscope (AFM) measurements. The orientation of the ZnO NRs grown on a sputtered AZO seed layer shows better vertical alignment, which is beneficial for the deposition of the subsequent active layer, forming better surface morphologies. Generally, the surface morphology of the active layer mainly dominates the fill factor (FF) of the devices. Consequently, the well-aligned ZnO NRs can be used to improve the carrier collection of the active layer and to increase the FF of the solar cells. Moreover, as an anti-reflection structure, it can also be utilized to enhance the light harvesting of the absorption layer, with the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of solar cells reaching 6.01%, higher than the sol-gel based solar cells with an efficiency of 4.74%.

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The well-aligned vertically oriented ZnO NRs exhibit high crystalline properties. The power conversion efficiency of solar cells can reach 6.01%.

定向定向 ZnO 纳米阵列及其在倒小分子太阳电池中的应用

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule ...