我们感谢"哈利·弗兰克·古根海姆基金会和自然科学与工程研究理事会，加拿大赠款，支持SMP，研究这些方法​​的发展。

1。设备和室内设置<ol><li>播放箱装置，是一种透明的有机玻璃盒测量50厘米X 50厘米X 50厘米1-2厘米的标准玉米芯床上用品。 </li><li>所有的拍摄是在黑暗中进行，通过手持式摄录一体机在夜间拍摄选项。 </li><li>被放置在一个45°角朝下向播放盒在三脚架上的摄像机。所有的四角必须是可见的拍摄，获得设备的完整视图。 </li></ol> 2。方法<ol><li>动物之间日龄的断奶21日至23日。根据实验设计，动物可以被容纳在组2-4中的所需的男性和女性的组合一起。 </li><li>游戏测试过程中出现的动物的光周期，，测试虽然发生在一个黑暗的房间。必须是黑暗的入口前的动物试验室。 </li><li>三，连续30分钟，会议服务，在测试之前，习惯于住在一起的群体ING后如果被测试（见2.5）相同的序列。 </li><li>习惯之后，对被单独隔离24小时前测试，以最大限度地提高俏皮的相互作用（参见2.5节）。 </li><li>动物被输送到一个黑暗的测试室中，然后，单独放置在播放装置中，作为对测试10分钟。的主题，然后删除，并在自己的笼子放在一起。 </li><li>每次玩会话，床上用品将被丢弃，并彻底清洗使用的防腐剂卫康消毒剂（或等值）的游乐器具。这是一个优越的用于清洁从先前对大鼠气味剂，它不会留下强烈和持续的气味酒精擦拭或喷雾剂。量喷雾也可以用于屏蔽由受试者发出任何气味。然后添加新的床上用品。 </li><li>重复步骤（2.4-2.6）额外的试验。 </li></ol> 3。行为分析:考核内容的游戏首先，将独特的竞争老鼠在两个严重的战斗目标和发挥战斗使这个物种，特别是宝贵的学习发挥作为研究对象，升级从俏皮的激烈战斗，可以明确地检测在体内转变的目标35。其次，对颈背的合作伙伴发起的攻击的数量可以衡量的。第三，由于队伍的攻击防御是防御性攻击的收件人，相对可以衡量的攻击辩护的比例。第四，当一个颈背攻击防御，收件人可以使用多种策略之一，以保护他们的颈背从他们的合作伙伴的吻部，15，25，26或中解脱出来。这些策略可分为两大类。 <ol><li>在逃避，防守方可以走，跑，跳跃或闪避了（ 图2a），并通过这样做，它不仅将其颈背远离它的攻击，但也结束了面对它的攻击距离（ 回避的高清视频<html>恩瑟）。 </li><li>在面对防守，后卫转身面对它的攻击，从而不仅撤回其颈背远，但它的牙齿也并列之间的颈背和攻击者的鼻。面对防御分为两个主要类别:旋转主体和旋转的纵向轴线的周围，水平，绕一垂直轴线（通常的臀部和中期体之间，虽然这可以两性27）之间的不同。此外，身体的纵向轴线周围的旋转可以采取两种形式之一。 </li></ol><ol class="lalpha"><li>完整的旋转涉及的老鼠，把从站立的姿势完全仰卧位（ 图2B）。局部旋转涉及的大鼠，将其前躯，但离开它的后爪中的一者或两者与地面接触（ 图2C中，视频显示充分旋转和局部旋转的区别 ）。 </li></ol>2"佛:内容的宽度="5英寸的FO:src ="/ files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig2highres.jpg"SRC ="/ files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig2.jpg"/&gt; 图2。在响应一个俏皮的颈背攻击的防御在61天的雄性大鼠（AC）三种类型。 A.回避。按照攻击者的弓步在颈背（一，二），后卫突然转向远离其攻击者（三）。 B.完整的旋转。从后面的一个颈背接触（一）导致的后卫转动（B，C），直到它被仰卧和阻止攻击者与它伸出爪子（D）。 C.部分旋转。攻击者的弓步其合作伙伴的颈背从侧面（一，b）是随后由一个旋转的头部，颈部和肩膀的防守者，所以撤销其颈背其攻击者的口鼻部，而维护支持在地面上用它的后腿脚（c）所示。从Pellis 等26 S.卡尔格公司，巴塞尔许可转载。 <ol class="lalpha" start="2"><li>绕垂直轴的必需参数的水平旋转ES后卫将其臀部离它的攻击，同时将其头部向它的合作伙伴（ 图3，水平旋转视频 ）。 </li><li>在其直接绕其垂直轴或绕其纵轴部分，中后卫可以抚养反推其合作伙伴，显示的结果，当使用这两种战术，可以是相似的。混杂战术配合的结果，更引人注目的当考虑全部和部分旋转。当一名防守执行一个完整的旋转，动作的流畅-如果在一个标准的30帧记录，旋转完全平卧需要2-3帧的运动是连续的（ 视频 ）录像。 </li><li>部分旋转也可以结束在一个完全仰卧位，但是这通常涉及到一致行动的攻击。在这种情况下，防守方可以部分地旋转它的前躯，保持身体水平，甚至接触的地面上，但攻击者就可以按体重上的后卫。持久性紧迫和深远的颈背的攻击，防守者越来越多，旋转，直至完全仰卧。出现这样的"强迫"仰卧在断奏的方式，增量旋转的身体，可以大幅超过3视频帧（ 视频呈现出局部旋转导致的捍卫者采用仰卧位 ）。 </li></ol>由于多数研究有兴趣的科目具体操作上的影响，这是最好的得分战术，试图通过这个问题，而不是最终的结果可能会被迫通过其合作伙伴的行动。这样的判断可以通过检查内的后卫的防守动作开始（突出的前2-3帧，一帧一帧的视频）第2-3帧的运动。 <ol start="3"><li>俏皮的攻击时，可以测量的吻一只老鼠或者合作ntacts或在1-2厘米，其合作伙伴的颈背（ 视频显示一个俏皮攻击附近的合作伙伴大鼠相比，的非俏皮的运动 ）。 </li></ol><ol class="lalpha"><li>如上所述，在防守战术的收件人可以分为前几帧的袭击之后。一个新的序列开始，一种新的攻击（ 视频显示扩展俏皮会议的相比单独的俏皮攻击 ）。 </li><li>在扩展俏皮的角力，如在图1所示的，老鼠可以反击，一旦他们成功地为自己辩护，但这些类型的攻击更难以得分，特别是在考虑到合作伙伴的防御反应。因为反击是高度相关的，不会被计分的频率发起攻击，16的相互作用，这些更复杂的阶段，除非有很好的理由这样做23。发起攻击的得分和战术使用版，抵御这样的攻击足以捕获的相对差异在嬉闹和防御行为的影响在不同的实验条件下，26日，29。 </li></ol><img alt="图3" fo:content-width="3.23in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig3highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig3.jpg" /> 图3。面对防守涉及一名后卫转身面对攻击，而旋转它的后腿在水平面上围绕垂直轴（A，B）。从这个位置，防守方可以阻止到其颈背（C）的访问，并发动反击（D）。从Pellis 等 。25，调整和许可APA转载。 最好玩的互动开始用俏皮的攻击，这种攻击的绝对数量来衡量的时间内的测试试验。我们的研究试验的最佳大小有EEN 10分钟后，24小时的社会隔离15，16。短暂的社会隔离，增加了动力，从事社会发挥类似的效果，而不必对其他社会行为，如社会调查9。虽然任何数量的隔离具有这种作用，发挥隔离的影响接近渐近线的24小时27左右。虽然5分钟的试验可以检测到这种隔离引起的变化，他们太短，检测到细微的差别，如两性之间由于天花板效应 - 在这个例子中，发挥更倾向于男性大多出现后的第5分钟。即便如此，15分钟，动物出现审美疲劳，大力发挥，因此，试验持续10分钟，是一个很好的折衷协议和经济能力检测实验效果，15，16，27。无论是在光或暗的老鼠的每日循环阶段测试，我们的经验是，增加的发挥，如果日Ë大鼠的测试，在红光下，而不是白色光15，16。随着摄像机夜拍能力，在黑暗中拍摄是可能的，这也增加了量的打法进行的测试试验29。 <ol start="4"><li>由于防御上的攻击发生，防卫应得的比例导致防御的攻击。同样，任何特定类型的防御是偶然发生的免责辩护，得分类型的防御，也应该在条款的比例（ 例如 ，所发生的抗辩，X％是完整的旋转）。作为一个绝对的衡量得分防御可能会产生误导。例如，低频率可能出现的，因为低利率的攻击或完整的旋转，因为在这特定的实验条件下的主体使用的完整的旋转，即使很少，他们已经被攻击，正如经常为在控制条件下的动物。 </li></ol><ol claSS ="lalpha"&gt; <li>因此，当得分发挥，是一个连续的分析:推出的科目（数/单位时间）多少攻击，多少攻击的抵御（ 即概率防御 ），而在防守时，什么是可能的使用不同的防守战术（战术）。 </li></ol> 4。行为分析:使用，发挥评估的内容播放合作伙伴关系随着青春期的到来，是打打架，40量的整体下降。这是，因为他们的他们的颈背攻击的发射频率降低，但维持相同的，概率高防御17。在雄性大鼠中，游戏的格局被修改的发展优势的关系，凝聚在青春期37。这体现在防守战术的使用。 <ol><li>在男性，青春期的到来，有一个相对的在使用下降完整的旋转策略（ 在上面的部分显示不同的视频全旋转 ），并在使用局部旋转策略（ 在上面的部分显示不同的视频部分旋转 ）的增加，与其他战术保持在大约相同的所有16岁的频率。 </li><li>然而，在下属的男性，它是依赖于他们的合作伙伴，他们将使用这些策略。当玩另一个下属的男性或女性，下属雄性大鼠是最有可能受到攻击时，使用局部旋转战术，但播放时的男性占主导地位的殖民地，它更可能使用完整的轮换战术攻击时，18 ，19，24，36。因此，与发病的统治关系，相对使用的战术是一个很好的标记，以监测变化的大鼠实验下属的社会关系12。 </li></ol>

<ol>
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没有利益冲突的声明。

游戏的战斗是一个复杂的，动态的互动中，参与者不断地影响彼此的行为。其结果是，那些动态和执行的动作然性质是敏感的一个评分机制是必要的。本文中概述的计划已经证明是成功的跨性别，个体差异比较，通过研发，的应变差异和实验性的治疗4，14，16，20，24，29，30，31，32，32，36。此外，该计划可用于为骨架的建立精炼。例如，在大鼠的距离响应攻击者的方法可以影响的类型和执行的策略25的成功。同样，这种机会上的差异可以方法论反击得分的防守选项只有在非常具体的和可比较的背景下28。在打打架的情况下，这可能是当阿塔买卖者接近垂直的角度从一个颈部和收件人是至少一个主体长度远离墙壁，从而消除可能产生的机会，而不是能力22的混淆。因此，目前提出的框架得分在播放过程中执行的操作可以被认为作为骨架，根据需要，可以掺入额外的测量。在某些情况下，目前的框架是可能是不够的，如果单独使用。例如，最近的一项分析的青少年发挥在野生型鼠相比，Long-Evans大鼠，结果表明，由于防守动作开始在一个更大的动物间的距离比野生大鼠，测量颈背单独攻击低估程度的发挥。评分结果的措施，如追逐，拳击重要的是要获得更平衡的差异，在剧中这两个品系（希姆莱等人 ，在建工程）。因此，虽然目前提出的FRamework可能有限制的唯一方法研究发挥使用时，修改可以通过介绍的方式，以满足具体的研究目标，并因此而保留的指导原则或然性和动态性等相互作用13。

大鼠最繁忙的动物已经在实验室研究打10，21，41，和几个已经尝试开发计分计划，以衡量影响的实验性治疗上发挥战斗8，9，37，38， 39。然而，虽然这些计划取得了一些成功，监测频率的比赛，他们是不太适合的方法来监测的发挥，由于他们缺乏灵敏度的动态的相互作用13中的内容发生变化。主要的问题是一个合作伙伴，在战斗中，战术的运用往往是队伍的表现特别的战术等2，15。我们已经制定了一个评分机制，需要考虑的相互作用的动态，因此更适合于检测和表征在播放过程中发生的微妙的变化，实验操作16，20，26。在本文中，我们重点测量的防守战术执行的收件人俏皮的攻击。 在激烈战斗中，动物的攻击，捍卫特定的身体指标，用种典型武器系统5。在大鼠中，主要武器是牙齿，是用来咬的侧面和背部2。这种严重的战斗很容易表现在居民入侵者的背景下，在一个陌生的成年男性被引入到笼子里的居民的成年男性，15。由于严重的战斗，在游戏中的战斗，动物也竞争，另1获得一些优势。大鼠，例如，攻击和防御的颈背颈部15，如果接触的吻11，32，轻轻地蹭着。因此，可以看出俏皮的攻击进取的攻击不仅基于物理相互作用的方式（亲昵在一起和咬），而且还对身体的攻击目标（颈背与侧面和较低的背部）。此外，俏皮爱抚不应该混淆与社会调查或相互理毛。社会调查涉及的嗅探的合作伙伴，最常见于面部及肛门生殖器区域。由于这些行为的出现，以配合俏皮的行为，因此可能会被认为是俏皮的相互作用方面，它已被证明，这些社会互动游戏行为之前。此外，在从事社会调查的动机是独立的类似的变化在播放9。有几个特点，区分理毛从打20个 。首先，理毛，通常会出现当老鼠挤在一起了漫长的玩。二，俏皮的攻击集中在颈背，理毛可能涉及许多地方的伴侣的身体接触，虽然它有时是专注于颈背。第三，这个修饰包括温和的剪切和拉的T他的合作伙伴的皮毛与牙齿。第四，不像理毛，最好玩的攻击，颈背辩护的收件人，从而导致摔跤复杂的序列。 本文的主要焦点是显示什么可以卓有成效地在这些复杂的序列，包括摔跤的比赛，可以测量的。如下图所示，使用各种战术的后卫，以保护其颈背导致不同的可能结果。这些成果，在地面上，如摔跤，拳击或追逐，在一些研究中被作为独立的行为模式计量，但我们发现，在大多数情况下，这些结果取决于通过收件人的防守战术颈背攻击15。例如，回避战术往往会导致追逐，滚来滚去到后面，导致摔跤。因此，结果测量，如拳击和摔跤，实际上是两个参与者的行动所产生的复合材料。使用动态的方法，我们的框架提供了一个装置相互作用中的得分的时刻测量的动作时，是由于只有一个参与者28，一种方法，将是更明显的读者一次给出的实施例的使用如何测量框架。 正如图1中所示，大鼠在左边被看作接近另一个从后部（一），然后猛扑朝向颈背其颈部（二）。然而，在接触时，防守方绕其体（c）至面对其攻击者（四）的纵向轴线。由于攻击者不断向前发展，中后卫推到它的边（E），然后翻转到其背后的攻击者继续达到其颈背（FH）。从仰卧位，后卫启动的攻击朝其合作伙伴的颈背（I），但被阻止通过其合作伙伴的后脚（J，K）。另一企图获得其合作伙伴的颈背，老鼠在TOP是被关闭（L）仰卧动物的后腿（M），从而使原始的后卫重新站稳脚跟（n）和弓步攻击其合作伙伴的颈背（O）。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig1.jpg" alt="图1"/> 图1。对幼年雄性大鼠的过程中发挥战斗的进攻和防守的颈背。从Pellis＆Pellis 15的John Wiley＆Sons出版许可转载。

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 设备 </td><td> 评论（可选） </td></tr><tr><td>索尼DCR-DVD103摄像机</td><td>光学变焦20倍，夜拍 见下面</td></tr><tr><td>播放设备</td><td> 50 X 50 X 50CM有机玻璃</td></tr><tr><td></td><td> *所有摄像机会记录，虽然希望优化变焦光学变焦20倍或以上。 </td></tr></tbody></table>

peering into the dynamics of social interactions: measuring play fighting in rats

播放战斗在大鼠的攻击和防御的脖子颈背，如果接触的吻，轻轻地蹭着。因为一个动物的变动所抵消其合作伙伴的行动，打打架是一个复杂的，动态的互动。这种动态的复杂性提出了什么分数实验研究方法上的问题。我们提出了一个得分架构执行的动作的相关性质是敏感的。打打架的频率可以计算俏皮的颈背单位时间内发生的攻击的数量来衡量。然而，俏皮的防守，因为它只能发生在响应攻击，必然是一项措施，是最佳的百分比来衡量（＃攻击辩护/总数＃的攻击×100％）。特定的攻击是如何抵御可能涉及的几个策略之一，而这些都是队伍在防守上发生，因此，防守的类型也是最好的表达然一个百分比。两个实验说明了如何将这些测量结果可以用来玩格斗检测的脑损伤的影响，即使当没有影响整体嬉闹。也就是说，这里介绍的模式，设计，检测和评价的实验性治疗后，在播放的内容 。

<html>两项研究说明了如何多方位的得分方案，我们已经开发出可用于诊断上发挥战斗作用的影响，实验操作。首先表明，该方法可以用来查明改变的实验操作和所述第二显示如何使用该方法可用于测量的关系的变化的实验操作后的特定成分发挥。 （1）新生儿剥脱术的影响彻底清除皮质可导致成年大鼠，可以在实验室环境中42，然而，由于假定的作用，在促进发挥在哺乳动物中3大脑袋，我们要测试是否是降低大鼠皮层没有发挥比较正常运作。脱皮出生时的幼年和成年大鼠进行了比较，假处理的对照组26打打架。 ontent"&gt;一种常用的措施进行播放，&#39;拼接&#39;9，基本上涉及的主体定位仰卧与其伙伴站在顶部（参见图1中的帧g），当测量脱皮的影响使用钉扎，是关于一个减少50％这一措施在少年时期10，26。拍摄本身，这样的措施可能会导致剥皮减少了从事游戏的动机的解释。然而，测量颈背接触，或在我们的概念中，颈背攻击26，不存在启动播放完整和剥皮大鼠之间的频率差异，因此，剥皮似乎正常要从事游戏的动机，发现防御的概率并不不同于完整大鼠的结论支持26，问题仍然存在，为什么被寄予厚望的频率减少了一半，剥皮，得到的答复是，当卫冕吨hemselves，有一个显着的区别-剥皮表现得比较像大人一样，在使用局部旋转往往比完整的旋转（ 表1）。因此，剥皮经常采取防守策略 - 完整的旋转 - 这是最常见的途径引脚产生。 随后的分析表明，损害仅限于运动皮层是足以复制此影响幼鼠6。对照组大鼠的列于表1中显示了这些措施的典型值，当使用长期埃文斯连帽大鼠。研究者应该关注其他一些菌株4，27，30，31，33，34宽偏离这些"典型"的值。因此，应建立从各自的应变未经处理的对实验过程开始前的基线值。 <table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 玩措施 </td><td> 完整 </td><td> 剥皮 </td><td> 性差异（t检验）＃ </td></tr><tr><td>销</td><td> 40 + </td><td> 18 </td><td> * </td></tr><tr><td>俏皮的攻击</td><td> 53 </td><td> 49 </td><td> NS </td></tr><tr><td>概率防御</td><td> 0.91 </td><td> 0.93 </td><td> NS </td></tr><tr><td>闪避（％） </td><td> 20 </td><td> 25 </td><td> NS </td></tr><tr><td>完全旋转（％） </td><td> 60 </td><td> 20 </td><td> * </td></tr><tr><td>局部旋转（％） </td><td> 20 </td><td> 60 </td><td> * </td></tr></tbody></tabLE&gt; +平均值用于说明目的。查看原等引文获得感的变异，这些措施。 在这些情况下，是在P &lt;0.05或更低*＃意义表示。 NS表示无显着差异。 表1。比较完整的和剥皮少年的雄性大鼠的各项措施发挥战斗。从Pellis 等26改编 （2）的前额皮层和调制发挥在去顶减压术的实验测试的条件之一，老鼠住在一起的男性，与皮质和两个组。作为成年人，剥皮似乎失败时面临的主要组的成员修改自己的发挥。眶额叶皮层（OFC）作为一个可能的候选结构进行了测试在这种调制TURE，它的作用在调节社会行为一般为7。三个成年人群体形成 - 两个男性和女性，女性，她的输卵管绑，以避免怀孕的干扰影响。两周后，将动物在配对试验测试，以确定其中的每个三元组的男性是从属酮（见Smith 等人 ，35，为标准来确定显性）。在一些黑社会的下属OFC删除，在其他黑社会，下属为假处理。然后，从手术中恢复两个星期后，确保重新建立社会关系，每个三元组的老鼠进行了重新测试，配对29。无论是术前或术后俏皮的攻击，防御的概率或在面对防御之间的下属在实验组和对照条件下使用的频率没有显着差异。然而，在ab应对WTO的的OFC作用发挥不同的两种不同类型的合作伙伴受到影响。 为了评估这一点，使用完整的旋转与阴的概率中减去从该发生与显性雄性不育播放时，然后，转换为一个百分比 - 当从属男性由主导被攻击，防御这种类型的应该是高男性和攻击时的女性。这会产生一个不对称指数，所以，得分越接近100％，更不对称，越接近0％，更对称。病灶和社会关系的重新建立，控制业务继续表现出高度的不对称，而OFC损伤大鼠表现出几乎没有任何区别，他们的防御模式时，占主导地位的男性或女性的攻击（ 图4 ）。也就是说，即使OFC受损的下属只打了多作为对照，他们是没有寿命长ŕ能够区分他们对配偶，支持这一假设的合作伙伴相关的调制介导的打法和其他社会行为的OFC 29。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig4.jpg" alt="图4" fo:content-width="4.25in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4288/4288fig4highres.jpg"/> 图4。更改下属雄性大鼠播放时显示的优势菌群男性的的殖民地女相比，在不对称。这项措施的百分比差异，在使用完整的旋转时，与这两种类型的合作伙伴（见正文）。病变的OFC取消下属的能力发挥与它的笼子队友差异。深水处理下属的男性（麻醉后，颅骨打开，但没有给出病变）继续表现出强烈的不对称，手术后。从Pellis 等人 （2006年），从AP的许可转载A.

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Peering into the Dynamics of Social Interactions: Measuring Play Fighting in Rats

播放战斗在大鼠的攻击和防御的脖子颈背，如果接触的吻，轻轻地蹭着。因为一个动物的变动所抵消其合作伙伴的行动，打打架是一个复杂的，动态的互动。这种动态的复杂性提出了什么分数实验研究方法上的问题。我们提出了一个得分架构执行的动作的相关性质是敏感的。两个实验说明了如何将这些测量结果可以用来玩格斗检测的脑损伤的影响，即使当没有影响整体嬉闹。也就是说，这里提出的模式被设计为检测和评估变化<em&gt;内容</em，发挥下列一种实验性治疗。

窥视到社会相互作用的动力学测量打打架的影响

Play fighting in the rat involves attack and defense of the nape of the neck, which if contacted, is gently nuzzled with the snout. Because the movements ...

peering-into-dynamics-social-interactions-measuring-play-fighting

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.2K 次观看.  University of Lethbridge. 播放战斗在大鼠的攻击和防御的脖子颈背，如果接触的吻，轻轻地蹭着。因为一个动物的变动所抵消其合作伙伴的行动，打打架是一个复杂的，动态的互动。这种动态的复杂性提出了什么分数实验研究方法上的问题。我们提出了一个得分架构执行的动作的相关性质是敏感的。两个实验说明了如何将这些测量结果可以用来玩格斗检测的脑损伤的影响，即使当没?...

视频: Peering into the Dynamics of Social Interactions: Measuring Play Fighting in Rats

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in rodents have shown a direct link between testosterone and aggressive behavior1 and folk wisdom adapts these findings to humans, suggesting that testosterone induces antisocial, egoistic or even aggressive behavior2. However, many researchers doubt a direct testosterone-aggression link in humans, arguing instead that testosterone is primarily involved in status-related behavior3,4. As a high status can also be achieved by aggressive and antisocial means it can be difficult to distinguish between anti-social and status seeking behavior.
We therefore set up an experimental environment, in which status can only be achieved by prosocial means. In a double-blind and placebo-controlled experiment, we administered a single sublingual dose of 0.5 mg of testosterone (with a hydroxypropyl-&beta;-cyclodextrin carrier) to 121 women and investigated their social interaction behavior in an economic bargaining paradigm. Real monetary incentives are at stake in this paradigm; every player A receives a certain amount of money and has to make an offer to another player B on how to share the money. If B accepts, she gets what was offered and player A keeps the rest. If B refuses the offer, nobody gets anything. A status seeking player A is expected to avoid being rejected by behaving in a prosocial way, i.e. by making higher offers.
The results show that if expectations about the hormone are controlled for, testosterone administration leads to a significant increase in fair bargaining offers compared to placebo. The role of expectations is reflected in the fact that subjects who report that they believe to have received testosterone make lower offers than those who say they believe that they were treated with a placebo. These findings suggest that the experimental economics approach is sensitive for detecting neurobiological effects as subtle as those achieved by administration of hormones. Moreover, the findings point towards the importance of both psychosocial as well as neuroendocrine factors in determining the influence of testosterone on human social behavior.

The procedure described in this protocol shows that testosterone administration and folk beliefs about testosterone may be associated with directly opposed social behaviors.

睾酮和社会决策，结合行为内分泌和实验经济学:

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in ...

科研

神经科学

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

The ability to gauge social interactions is crucial in the assessment of others&#x2019; intentions. Factors such as facial expressions and body language affect our decisions in personal and professional life alike 1. These "friend or foe" judgements are often based on first impressions, which in turn may affect our decisions to "approach or avoid". Previous studies investigating the neural correlates of social cognition tended to use static facial stimuli 2. Here, we illustrate an experimental design in which whole-body animated characters were used in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recordings. Fifteen participants were presented with short movie-clips of guest-host interactions in a business setting, while fMRI data were recorded; at the end of each movie, participants also provided ratings of the host behaviour. This design mimics more closely real-life situations, and hence may contribute to better understanding of the neural mechanisms of social interactions in healthy behaviour, and to gaining insight into possible causes of deficits in social behaviour in such clinical conditions as social anxiety and autism 3.

This article demonstrates an experimental design in which whole-body animated characters are used in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the neural correlates of observing virtual social interactions.

观察虚拟社会交往中的神经关联的脑成像研究

The ability to gauge social interactions is crucial in the assessment of others&#x2019; intentions. Factors such as facial expressions and body language ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

双突触诱发的星形胶质细胞和神经元的反应，在急性海马脑片电生理记录

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Inducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing Rates

Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be stimulated by neuronally-released transmitter. However, the ability of astrocytic receptors to exhibit plasticity in response to changes in neuronal activity has received little attention. Here we describe a model system that can be used to globally scale up or down astrocytic group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in acute brain slices. Included are methods on how to prepare parasagittal hippocampal slices, construct chambers suitable for long-term slice incubation, bidirectionally manipulate neuronal action potential frequency, load astrocytes and astrocyte processes with fluorescent Ca2+ indicator, and measure changes in astrocytic Gq GPCR activity by recording spontaneous and evoked astrocyte Ca2+ events using confocal microscopy. In essence, a &#8220;calcium roadmap&#8221; is provided for how to measure plasticity of astrocytic Gq GPCRs. Applications of the technique for study of astrocytes are discussed. Having an understanding of how astrocytic receptor signaling is affected by changes in neuronal activity has important implications for both normal synaptic function as well as processes underlying neurological disorders and neurodegenerative disease.

Here we describe an adaptation of protocols used to induce homeostatic plasticity in neurons for the study of plasticity of astrocytic G protein-coupled receptors. Recently used to examine changes in astrocytic group I mGluRs in juvenile mice, the method can be applied to measure scaling of various astrocytic GPCRs, in tissue from adult mice in situ and in vivo, and to gain a better appreciation of the sensitivity of astrocytic receptors to changes in neuronal activity.

诱导星形胶质细胞受体的可塑性由神经元的放电频率操作

Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be ...

Microelectrode Guided Implantation of Electrodes into the Subthalamic Nucleus of Rats for Long-term Deep Brain Stimulation

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used and effective therapy for several neurologic disorders, such as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease, dystonia or tremor. DBS is based on the delivery of electrical stimuli to specific deep anatomic structures of the central nervous system. However, the mechanisms underlying the effect of DBS remain enigmatic. This has led to an interest in investigating the impact of DBS in animal models, especially in rats. As DBS is a long-term therapy, research should be focused on molecular-genetic changes of neural circuits that occur several weeks after DBS. Long-term DBS in rats is challenging because the rats move around in their cage, which causes problems in keeping in place the wire leading from the head of the animal to the stimulator. Furthermore, target structures for stimulation in the rat brain are small and therefore electrodes cannot easily be placed at the required position. Thus, a set-up for long-lasting stimulation of rats using platinum/iridium electrodes with an impedance of about 1 M&#937; was developed for this study. An electrode with these specifications allows for not only adequate stimulation but also recording of deep brain structures to identify the target area for DBS. In our set-up, an electrode with a plug for the wire was embedded in dental cement with four anchoring screws secured onto the skull. The wire from the plug to the stimulator was protected by a stainless-steel spring. A swivel was connected to the circuit to prevent the wire from becoming tangled. Overall, this stimulation set-up offers a high degree of free mobility for the rat and enables the head plug, as well as the wire connection between the plug and the stimulator, to retain long-lasting strength.

A method for implanting electrodes into the subthalamic nucleus (STN) of rats is described. Better localization of the STN was achieved by using a microrecording system. Furthermore, a stimulation set-up is presented that is characterized by long-lasting connections between the head of the animal and the stimulator.

微电极引导电极植入到大鼠丘脑底核的长期深部脑刺激

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used and effective therapy for several neurologic disorders, such as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease, ...

Peering at Brain Polysomes with Atomic Force Microscopy

The translational machinery, i.e., the polysome or polyribosome, is one of the biggest and most complex cytoplasmic machineries in cells. Polysomes, formed by ribosomes, mRNAs, several proteins and non-coding RNAs, represent integrated platforms where translational controls take place. However, while the ribosome has been widely studied, the organization of polysomes is still lacking comprehensive understanding. Thus much effort is required in order to elucidate polysome organization and any novel mechanism of translational control that may be embedded. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy that allows the acquisition of 3D images at nanoscale resolution. Compared to electron microscopy (EM) techniques, one of the main advantages of AFM is that it can acquire thousands of images both in air and in solution, enabling the sample to be maintained under near physiological conditions without any need for staining and fixing procedures. Here, a detailed protocol for the accurate purification of polysomes from mouse brain and their deposition on mica substrates is described. This protocol enables polysome imaging in air and liquid with AFM and their reconstruction as three-dimensional objects. Complementary to cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), the proposed method can be conveniently used for systematically analyzing polysomes and studying their organization.

While ribosome structure has been extensively characterized, the organization of polysomes is still understudied. To overcome this lack of knowledge, we present here a detailed preparation protocol for accurate imaging of mammalian polysomes by atomic force microscopy (AFM) in air and liquid.

在脑核糖凝视与原子力显微镜

The translational machinery, i.e., the polysome or polyribosome, is one of the biggest and most complex cytoplasmic machineries in cells. Polysomes, ...

Autonomous and Rechargeable Microneurostimulator Endoscopically Implantable into the Submucosa

Gastric dysmotility can be a sign of common diseases such as longstanding diabetes mellitus. It is known that the application of high-frequency low-energetic stimulation can help to effectively moderate and alleviate the symptoms of gastric dysmotility. The goal of the research was the development of a miniature, endoscopically implantable device to a submucosal pocket. The implantable device is a fully customized electronic package which was specifically designed for the purpose of experiments in the submucosa. The device is equipped with a lithium-ion battery which can be recharged wirelessly by receiving an incident magnetic field from the charging/transmitting coil. The uplink communication is achieved in a MedRadio band at 432 MHz. The device was endoscopically inserted into the submucosal pocket of a live domestic pig used as an in vivo model, specifically in the stomach antrum. The experiment confirmed that the designed device can be implanted into the submucosa and is capable of bidirectional communication. The device can perform bipolar stimulation of muscle tissue.

The application of high-frequency low-energetic stimulation can alleviate the symptoms of gastric dysmotility. In this research, a miniature, endoscopically implantable and wirelessly rechargeable device which is implanted into a submucosal pocket is presented. Successful both-way communication and stimulation control were achieved during an experiment on live pig.

自主和可充电 Microneurostimulator 内窥镜植入黏膜下层

Gastric dysmotility can be a sign of common diseases such as longstanding diabetes mellitus. It is known that the application of high-frequency ...

Establishment of Acute Pontine Infarction in Rats by Electrical Stimulation

Pontine infarction is the most common stroke subtype in the posterior circulation, while there lacks a rodent model mimicking pontine infarction. Provided here is a protocol for successfully establishing a rat model of acute pontine infarction. Rats weighing about 250 g are used, and a probe with an insulated sheath is injected into the pons using a stereotaxic apparatus. A lesion is produced by the electrical stimulation with a single pulse. The Longa score, Berderson score, and beam balance test are used to assess neurological deficits. Additionally, the adhesive-removal somatosensory test is used to determine sensorimotor function, and the limb placement test is used to evaluate proprioception. MRI scans are then used to assess the infarction in vivo, and TTC staining is used to confirm the infarction in vitro. Here, a successful infarction is identified that is located in the anterolateral basis of the rostral pons. In conclusion, a new method is described to establish an acute pontine infarction rat model.

Presented here is a protocol for establishing acute pontine infarction in a rat model via electrical stimulation with a single pulse.

电刺激在大鼠中建立急性庞廷梗死

Pontine infarction is the most common stroke subtype in the posterior circulation, while there lacks a rodent model mimicking pontine infarction. Provided ...

Laser-Induced Brain Injury in the Motor Cortex of Rats

A common technique for inducing stroke in experimental rodent models involves the transient (often denoted as MCAO-t) or permanent (designated as MCAO-p) occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) using a catheter. This generally accepted technique, however, has some limitations, thereby limiting its extensive use. Stroke induction by this method is often characterized by high variability in the localization and size of the ischemic area, periodical occurrences of hemorrhage, and high death rates. Also, the successful completion of any of the transient or permanent procedures requires expertise and often lasts for about 30 minutes. In this protocol, a laser irradiation technique is presented that can serve as an alternative method for inducing and studying brain injury in rodent models.
When compared to rats in the control and MCAO groups, the brain injury by laser induction showed reduced variability in body temperature, infarct volume, brain edema, intracranial hemorrhage, and mortality. Furthermore, the use of a laser-induced injury caused damage to the brain tissues only in the motor cortex unlike in the MCAO experiments where destruction of both the motor cortex and striatal tissues is observed.
Findings from this investigation suggest that laser irradiation could serve as an alternative and effective technique for inducing brain injury in the motor cortex. The method also shortens the time for completing the procedure and does not require expert handlers.

The protocol presented here shows a technique to create a rodent model of brain injury. The method described here uses laser irradiation and targets motor cortex.

大鼠运动皮层中的激光诱发脑损伤

A common technique for inducing stroke in experimental rodent models involves the transient (often denoted as MCAO-t) or permanent (designated as MCAO-p) ...

Induction of Diffuse Axonal Brain Injury in Rats Based on Rotational Acceleration

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is the predominant mechanism of injury in a large percentage of TBI patients requiring hospitalization. DAI involves widespread axonal damage from shaking, rotation or blast injury, leading to rapid axonal stretch injury and secondary axonal changes that are associated with a long-lasting impact on functional recovery. Historically, experimental models of DAI without focal injury have been difficult to design. Here we validate a simple, reproducible and reliable rodent model of DAI that causes widespread white matter damage without skull fractures or contusions.

This protocol validates a reliable, easy-to-perform and reproducible rodent model of brain diffuse axonal injury (DAI) that induces widespread white matter damage without skull fractures or contusions.

基于旋转加速大鼠漫射性无羟基脑损伤的诱导

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is the predominant mechanism of injury in a large ...