We thank Marie Persson Vejg&#229;rden for technical assistance. The research leading to these results has received funding from the New York Stem Cell Foundation, the European Research Council under the European Union&#39;s Seventh Framework Programme: FP/2007-2013 Neuro Stem Cell Repair (no. 602278) and ERC Grant Agreement no. 30971, the Swedish Research Council (grant agreement 521-2012-5624, 2016-00873 and 70862601/ Bagadilico), Swedish Parkinson Foundation (Parkinsonfonden), and the Strategic Research Area at Lund University Multipark (multidisciplinary research in Parkinson&#39;s disease). Janelle Drouin-Ouellet is supported by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) fellowship (#358492), and Roger Barker is supported by an NIHR Biomedical Research Centre grant to the University of Cambridge/Addenbrooke&#39;s Hospital. Malin Parmar is a New York Stem Cell Foundation Robertson Investigator. Shelby Shrigley is funded by the European Union Horizon 2020 Programme (H2020-MSCA-ITN-2015) under the Marie Sk&#322;odowska-Curie Innovative Training Network and Grant Agreement No. 676408.

Adult dermal fibroblasts were obtained from the Parkinson&#39;s Disease Research and Huntington&#39;s disease clinics at the John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair (Cambridge, UK) and used under local ethical approval (REC 09/H0311/88). For details on the skin biopsy sampling procedure, see reference8.
1. Preparation of Skin Fibroblasts for Reprogramming
<ol>
	<li>Using an automated cell thawing system or a 37 &#176;C water bath, thaw the adult human dermal fibroblasts (aHDFs) and plate 200,000 per T75 flask (count with an automated cell counter) in 10 mL of fibroblast medium (see Table 1) at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Perform a complete medium change with fibroblast medium on the next day.</li>
	<li>Change the fibroblast medium every 3&#8211;4 days until the cells reach 95% confluency. 
	NOTE: One confluent flask will contain approximately 1,000,000 cells. The aHDFs can be frozen to build a stock of the cell line (section 2) or directly re-plated ready for reprogramming (section 3).</li>
</ol>
2. Freezing of Skin Fibroblasts
<ol>
	<li>Place a controlled-rate freezing container in a box with ice or in the fridge at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Dissociate the cells with 0.05% trypsin (1.5 mL per T75 flask) at 37 &#176;C for 3&#8211;5 min.</li>
	<li>Add fibroblast medium (containing fetal bovine serum (FBS)) to neutralize the trypsin (3 mL per flush per T75 flask) and collect the detached cells in a 15 mL tube by flushing out the cells in the flask twice.</li>
	<li>Count the cells using the automated cell counter; (recommended) freeze approximately 500,000 aHDFs per vial.</li>
	<li>Spin down the cells at 400 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in 1 mL of freezing medium (see Table 1) and transfer into the cryogenic tube. Place the tubes directly into the controlled-rate freezing container.</li>
	<li>Store the controlled rate freezing apparatus at -80 &#176;C overnight. The following day, transfer the tubes to a -140 &#176;C freezer and store until needed.</li>
</ol>
3. Plating for Reprogramming (Day &#8722;1)
NOTE: It is recommended to use a gelatin coating for short term experiments (up to 30 days); alternatively, for long term experiments it is recommended to start on a poly-L-ornithine, fibronectin and laminin (PFL) coating.
<ol>
	<li>60 min before plating the aHDFs for reprogramming, coat a 24-well plate with 0.1% gelatin (250 &#181;L/well) and incubate at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the fibroblast medium on the aHDFs. Wash once with DPBS. Dissociate the cells with 0.05% trypsin (1.5 mL per T75 flask) at 37 &#176;C for 3&#8211;5 min.</li>
	<li>Add fibroblast medium to neutralize the trypsin (3 mL per flush per T75 flask) and collect the detached cells in a 15 mL tube by flushing out the cells in the flask twice.</li>
	<li>Spin down the cells at 400 x g for 5 min. Discard supernatant, and resuspend the cell pellet in 1 mL of fibroblast medium.</li>
	<li>Count the cells using an automated cell counter (to ensure a good quality conversion check that the cell viability is above 90% with trypan blue staining).</li>
	<li>For a complete 24-well plate, prepare a suspension of 1,320,000 cells in 13.2 mL of fibroblast medium to achieve a suspension of 100,000 cells/mL of medium (or 55,000 cells/well in 550 &#181;L of fibroblast medium multiplied by the number of wells needed).</li>
	<li>Aspirate the gelatin from the plate and wash twice with DPBS. Add 500 &#181;L of the cell suspension to each well and incubate overnight at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
</ol>
4. Viral Transduction (Day 0)
NOTE: Working with lentiviral particles requires category 2 equipment and the use of an agent to neutralize the virus. Wearing double pairs of gloves is also strongly recommended.
<ol>
	<li>Warm up 13.2 mL of fibroblast medium to 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Thaw a lentiviral vector containing the transcription factors Ascl1 and Brn2 with two short hairpin RNAs (shRNA) targeting REST at room temperature. 
	NOTE: Refer to reference8; the construct is available in a plasmid repository. For details on the procedure to produce lentiviruses please refer to reference9.</li>
	<li>Add the necessary volume of lentivirus to infect the aHDFs at multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 20 to the medium without any transduction enhancers. 
	<img alt="Equation" src="/files/ftp_upload/56904/56904eq1v2.jpg" /></li>
	<li>Replace the medium in the 24-well plate with fibroblast medium containing the lentiviral vector (500 &#181;L/well) and incubate overnight at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>The next day, replace the medium in the wells with fresh fibroblast medium without the lentiviral vector. 
	NOTE: The medium is considered infectious for 7 days and as such, adequate protection and handling procedures should be used during the first week following viral transduction.</li>
</ol>
5. Maintenance of the Converting Cells
NOTE: Once conversion begins cells are susceptible to lifting; take care to tip the plate up and use a 1,000 &#181;L pipette when removing media to avoid cells detaching.
<ol>
	<li>On day 3, remove the fibroblast medium and add 500 &#181;L of early neuronal conversion medium (see Table 1).</li>
	<li>Two to three times a week, take out 225 &#181;L of old medium from the well and add-in 250 &#181;L of fresh early neuronal conversion medium.</li>
	<li>On day 18, remove all of the medium from each well and replace with 500 &#181;L of late neuronal conversion medium (see Table 1).</li>
	<li>Continue to change half of the medium as above with late neuronal conversion medium every 2&#8211;3 days until day 25 or experiment endpoint (Figure 1A). 
	NOTE: If cells are not plated in every well for the experiment, fill empty wells with PBS or water to prevent overt evaporation of the medium and minimize variation between wells.</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Stock Concentration</td>
			<td>Working Concentration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Fibroblast medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Basal medium</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>10,000 U/mL</td>
			<td>100 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Freezing medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fibroblast medium</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>45%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>45%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Early neuronal conversion medium (ENM)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neural differentiation medium&#160;</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>10,000 U/mL</td>
			<td>100 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CHIR99021</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
			<td>2 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SB-431542</td>
			<td>20 mM</td>
			<td>10 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Noggin</td>
			<td>100 &#181;g/mL</td>
			<td>0.5 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LDN-1931189</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
			<td>0.5 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VPA</td>
			<td>1 M</td>
			<td>1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LM-22A4</td>
			<td>20 mM</td>
			<td>2 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GDNF</td>
			<td>20 &#181;g/mL</td>
			<td>2 ng/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NT3</td>
			<td>10 &#181;g/mL</td>
			<td>10 ng/&#181;L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>db-cAMP</td>
			<td>50 mM</td>
			<td>0.5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Late neuronal conversion medium (LNM)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neural differentiation medium&#160;</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>10,000 U/mL</td>
			<td>100 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LM-22A4</td>
			<td>20 mM</td>
			<td>2 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GDNF</td>
			<td>20 &#181;g/mL</td>
			<td>2 ng/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NT3</td>
			<td>10 &#181;g/mL</td>
			<td>10 ng/&#181;L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>db-cAMP</td>
			<td>50 mM</td>
			<td>0.5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">FACS Buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS 1x [-calcium, -magnesium, - phenol red]</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>1%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAase</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>0.05%</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Composition of the different media used. Full description of the composition for all media needed in this protocol including fibroblast medium, freezing medium, early neuronal conversion medium, late neuronal conversion medium, and FACS buffer.
6. Glass Coverslips for Electrophysiological Recordings
NOTE: It is recommended to wear a lab coat, goggles, double gloves, and complete all of the work in a fume hood. This protocol is adapted from 10.
<ol>
	<li>Place glass coverslips at the bottom of a glass dish without overlap.</li>
	<li>Add general lab cleaning detergent to submerge all of the coverslips without risking overflow during shaking (approximately 30 mL). Place onto an orbital shaker at slow speed for 2 h.</li>
	<li>Wash six times (30 min each) with autoclaved deionized water.</li>
	<li>Add 95% ethanol for 2 h.</li>
	<li>Remove the ethanol and wait until coverslips are dry.</li>
	<li>Once dry, transfer the coverslips into a glass beaker and add 70% nitric acid until the coverslips are submerged.</li>
	<li>Place the glass beaker into a sonicator bath for 60 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the nitric acid and wash three times with autoclaved deionized water. 
	Caution: Always add acid to water, never the other way around as this can lead to a violent reaction.</li>
	<li>Remove as much water from the beaker as possible and add concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCI) until the coverslips are submerged; swirl the beaker and cover with paraffin film.</li>
	<li>Sonicate for 60 min (50&#8211;60 Hz, 30 W).</li>
	<li>Remove as much HCI from coverslips as possible and place into an appropriate waste bin. Rinse with autoclaved deionized water twice.</li>
	<li>Take the coverslips out of the hood and rinse 20 times (or more) with autoclaved deionized water until all of the HCI is removed.</li>
	<li>Once dry, place coverslips into sterile 24-well plates.</li>
	<li>Place the plates under ultraviolet (UV) light overnight. The next day the coverslips are ready to use. 
	NOTE: If glass coverslips are being used, it is recommended to use the PFL coating. Simply place one coverslip into each well of a 24-well plate (using sterile forceps) and follow the protocol as below.</li>
</ol>
7. PFL Coating for Long Term Culture
<ol>
	<li>Coat the 24-well plate with poly-L-ornithine (500 &#181;L/well) and leave overnight at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the poly-L-ornithine and wait until it is dry enough to form drops on top.</li>
	<li>Make a drop (approximately 60 &#181;L) of laminin in the center of each well and spread to cover the entire surface of the coverslip. Leave for 2 h 45 min at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Wash three times with DPBS.</li>
	<li>Add fibronectin (500 &#181;L/well) and leave overnight at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Wash once with DPBS before adding cells. 
	NOTE: The PFL coating can be used for long term cultures of iNs (over 100 days), although progressive cell death is to be expected from day 30.</li>
</ol>
8. FACS
NOTE: To re-plate the cells after FACS sorting prepare a PFL-coated plate 48 h in advance. Cells can be sorted using a neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) antibody from day 20 onwards following transduction.
<ol>
	<li>Remove the media with a 1,000 &#181;L pipette (do not wash to avoid cells detaching).</li>
	<li>Add cell dissociating agent (250 &#181;L/well), leave for 10&#8211;20 min until the cells lift, and float as single cells.</li>
	<li>During this time prepare the FACS buffer.</li>
	<li>Triturate gently with a 1,000 &#181;L pipette. If some clumps remain, incubate a little bit longer.</li>
	<li>Once a single cell suspension is obtained, remove it from the well and place into a 1.5 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Flush out the well twice with late neuronal conversion medium and place into the same 1.5 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Spin down at 400 x g for 5 min and discard the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in 200 &#181;L of FACS buffer.</li>
	<li>Spin down the cells at 400 x g for 5 min and discard the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 8.8 and 8.9 twice.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in 50 &#181;L of FACS buffer containing human CD56 (NCAM) antibody at a concentration of 1:50 for 15 min on ice. Protect from light.</li>
	<li>Spin down the cells at 400 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Resuspend in 200 &#181;L FACS buffer to wash and spin down the cells at 400 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 8.13.</li>
	<li>Resuspend in 200 &#181;L of FACS buffer containing propidium iodide (PI; 10 &#181;g/mL). Sort the NCAM positive (iNs) and PI negative (live) cells using FACS by gating based on the fluorescence intensity level of control samples that were not stained with the NCAM antibody or PI.</li>
	<li>Collect the NCAM positive cells in a tube containing late neuronal conversion medium.</li>
	<li>Count the cells using an automated cell counter and re-plate the cells at a high density (50,000 cells/cm2) in late neuronal conversion medium in a PFL coated dish.</li>
	<li>Continue to change half of the medium 2&#8211;3 times a week with late neuronal conversion medium until the experiment endpoint (Figure 1A).</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This one-step/one vector reprogramming method provides an efficient way to obtain iNs from human adult fibroblasts. Human adult fibroblasts are normally much more difficult to covert than fetal fibroblasts, with limited studies previously reporting efficiencies of approximately 5-10%12,13. However, with this new protocol it is possible to achieve a neuronal yield (measured as MAP2+ cells) of approximately 50%8. Additionally, our protocol can be used on dermal fibroblasts that have been passaged multiple times without losing efficiency of conversion. Thus far we have used cells passaged up to 14 times without detecting any decrease in conversion efficiency. Also, there is no difference in reprogramming efficiency in our hands with fibroblasts from donors of age between 52 and 87. For more details on the age and disease of other cell lines tested with this construct see reference8. Other studies have also reported no difference in conversion efficiency using a lentiviral-based and small molecule-enhanced protocol with donors between 0 and 89 years4. Furthermore, consistent applicability with miRNA-based neuronal reprogramming has been reported in fibroblasts of all ages, with donors between 0 and 86 years7. Through this route, mature neurons can be obtained in approximately 12&#8211;15 weeks in vitro or approximately 8 weeks following transplantation in vivo8. This is advantageous because it gives access to both disease and patient specific human iNs from tissue that is easily accessible. Although this protocol is efficient, it will not produce a 100% neuronal yield, and as such a purification step using FACS for instance is required.
The most critical step within this protocol is viral transduction (protocol section 4). It is crucial that the virus titer is precise, in addition to having plated an accurate number of aHDFs for conversion. The recommended titer for use with this protocol is between 4 x 108 and 4 x 109. Using a titer of anything below 1 x 108 would not be recommended as adding large volumes of virus will be toxic to the cells. Moreover, as the fibroblasts begin to covert to iNs they will become more fragile and susceptible to lifting. It is essential to be gentle when changing the media as not to disturb the cells too much. This can be done by removing the fluid slowly with a 1,000 &#181;L pipette. Finally, when plating for reprogramming (protocol section 3) it is important to ensure a healthy fibroblast population before beginning an experiment; this is indicated by a cell viability of above 90% with trypan blue staining. The aHDFs should always be passaged before reaching 95% confluency.
If there is noticeable cell death before viral transduction, do not begin conversion: double check that the cell viability is above 90% and that there were no problems with coating of the plate. It is expected to have a small amount of cell death following viral transduction, however, this should not be significant. In this case, confirm accurate seeding of 50,000 aHDFs/well and check the virus titer. If there is noticeable inconsistency between wells during conversion, first check that every well contains an equal amount of media and overt evaporation is not occurring at the edges (if necessary extra media can be added to the edge wells). Alternatively, check step 4.4, and ensure appropriate mixing for a homogenous suspension when transducing. It is crucial to add the lentivirus to the medium first, before adding this into the wells. Directly adding lentivirus into the wells will increase well to well variability and is also likely to be toxic to the cells. Lastly, always check that the medium is warmed to 37 &#176;C before adding to cells.
This protocol includes optional sections for coating conditions for long term culture of iNs and FACS sorting to increase neuronal purity. For experiments wishing to investigate functional characterization of iNs, a protocol for preparation of glass coverslips for electrophysiology has also been included. The conversion protocol here is set up for use with a 24-well plate; if desired this can be modified to a 6-, 12-, 48-, 96-well plate or flasks. In this case, please adjust all volumes to the surface area of the plate or flask utilized.
This protocol uses the forced expression of Ascl1 and Brn2 in combination with a REST knockdown all packaged in one single vector8 to generate iNs of a pan-neuronal phenotype. The generation of any glial subtypes with this method, however, has not been assessed. This method would thus need to be modified for use with other reprogramming factors to obtain subtype specific neurons. Direct reprogramming has previously shown the possibility to generate motor neurons, sensory neurons, photoreceptors, striatal medium spiny neurons, and dopaminergic neurons10,14. This will be beneficial when investigating neurological diseases in which specific neuronal subtype are preferentially affected, for example Parkinson&#39;s disease and dopaminergic neurons.
Until very recently, direct neural reprogramming technology did not allow for the production of iNs in a standardized and efficient manner &#8212; to a level that is required for toxicology and drug screening assays on a large scale. This new method is very efficient and can be used on fibroblasts that have been passaged many times, such that it now removes these restrictions and opens up for a vast array of studies, not only in a human neural system, but also in a system that can be patient specific. The simplicity of this approach renders the iN technology accessible for any groups wanting to perform similar studies in-house and can be easily used not only for large scale biomedical applications, such as drug screening and toxicology assays, but also to support data derived from animal models and human post mortem tissue samples.

Development of efficacious treatments for neurological disorders have been hampered by the limited access to living human brain cells to perform mechanistic studies and functional assays. About a decade ago, this situation radically changed with the development of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs) technology1,2. This, combined with a better understanding of the neural differentiation mechanisms occurring during normal human development, has allowed for the generation of defined and diverse neuronal subtypes from patient and disease specific material. With such material, it is now possible to study intracellular mechanisms underlying neurological diseases and the potential of different compounds to alleviate those pathological features3.
While iPSCs have been revolutionary to the field of neuroscience, one major drawback of these cells is that their ageing signature is erased during the reprogramming process in such a way that the rejuvenated neuron does not retain the vulnerability associated with aging4,5,6. This particular feature of the neurons that are produced may end up being critical for recapitulating many aspects of the intracellular pathogenic cascade, particularly in the case of diseases for which old age is an important risk factor.
Direct neural reprogramming is a technology where a somatic cell is directly converted into an iN without going through a pluripotent intermediate stage. This allows for rapid generation of human neurons in vitro that can be both patient and disease specific. One remarkable characteristic of direct reprogramming is that the starting age of the donor cell is maintained, and with that, its vulnerability to ageing processes such as increased production of oxidative stress4,7. As a result, iNs from patients with neurological diseases associated with ageing, such as Alzheimer&#39;s and Parkinson&#39;s disease, are well suited for a broad range of biomedical applications including disease modeling, drug screening assays, and toxicology studies.
The main caveat that has prevented iNs from patients with neurodegenerative disorders being widely used is that they are not easy to reprogram, and this becomes even more difficult with expansion of the fibroblasts. As a result, generation of iN cells in quantities required for these types of applications has not been achieved until only recently8. We have now developed a simple method to reprogram fibroblasts from donors of any age in a very efficient manner. This method combines the forced expression of the neuronal transcription factors Ascl1 and Brn2 with a knockdown of the repressor protein RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) using a single vector. Here, we describe the different steps leading to the generation of iNs converted from skin fibroblasts biopsied from elderly donors.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1603">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;width:1603px;">Cell Lines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Adult human dermal fibroblasts&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:219px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:756px;">[C2 passage #7] Donor was a 67 year old male. Cells obtained from the Parkinson&#8217;s Disease Research and Huntington&#8217;s disease clinics at the John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair (Cambridge, UK).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Reagents for Fibroblast Culture, Transduction and Conversion</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS) [-CaCl2, -MgCl2]</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14190094</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Trypsin-EDTA [0.5%]</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15400-054</td>
			<td>Dilute to 0.05% in DPBS.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Virkon (agent used to neutralize virus)</td>
			<td>Viroderm</td>
			<td>7511&#160;</td>
			<td>Dilute to 1% solution with warm water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Milli-Q Water</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Basal medium - Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) + GlutaMax</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>61965059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Penicillin/Streptomycin [10,000 U/mL]</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10270-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CryoMACS&#174;&#160;dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) 10</td>
			<td>Miltenyi</td>
			<td>170-076-303</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Neural differentiation medium - NDiff 227</td>
			<td>Takara-Clontech</td>
			<td>Y40002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">LM-22A4&#160;</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>4607</td>
			<td style="width:756px;">Dilute 10 mg in 1450 &#181;L DMSO. Stock concentration: 20 mM.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) [recombinant human]</td>
			<td>R&#38;D systems</td>
			<td>212-GD-010</td>
			<td style="width:756px;">Dilute 10 ug in 500 &#181;L 0,1% BSA in DPBS. Stock concentration: 20 &#181;g/mL.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">NT3 [recombinant human]</td>
			<td>R&#38;D systems</td>
			<td>267-N3-025</td>
			<td>Dilute 25 &#181;g in 2,5 mL 0,1% BSA in DPBS. Stock concentration: 10 &#181;g/mL.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">db-cAMP&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D0627</td>
			<td>Dilute 1 g in 40,7 mL Milli-Q water. Filter and make 500 &#181;L aliquots or stock tubes of 10 mL. Stock concentration: 50 mM.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CHIR99021</td>
			<td>Axon</td>
			<td>1386</td>
			<td>Dilute 2 &#181;g in 429,8 &#181;L DMSO. Stock concentration: 10 mM.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">SB-431542</td>
			<td>Axon</td>
			<td>1661</td>
			<td>Dilute 5 mg in 595 &#181;L DMSO. Stock concentration: 20 mM.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Noggin [recombinant human]</td>
			<td>Miltenyi</td>
			<td>130-103-456</td>
			<td>Dilute 100 &#181;g in 100 &#181;L of Milli-Q water + 900 &#181;L 0,1% BSA in DPBS. Stock concentration: 100 &#181;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">LDN-193189</td>
			<td>Axon</td>
			<td>1509</td>
			<td>Dilute 2 mg in 360 &#181;L DMSO. Stock concentration: 10 mM.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Valproic acid sodium salt (VPA)</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>676380</td>
			<td style="width:756px;">Dilute 5 g in Milli-Q water to acheive a stock concentration of 1 M. CAUTION: Avoid ingestion, contact with skin, and breathing dust formation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Reagents for Coatings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Gelatin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G2500</td>
			<td>Dilute to 0.1% in Milli-Q water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Poly-L-ornithine</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3655</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Milli-Q water. Use at 15&#181;g/mL.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Fibronectin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">33010-018</td>
			<td style="width:756px;">2 mL of Milli-Q water + 70 &#181;L 0,25 M NaOH. Use at 5 &#181;g/mL.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Laminin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">23017-015</td>
			<td style="width:756px;">Store at -80&#176;C. Thaw on ice, keep cool and aliquot 30 &#181;L. Use at 5 &#181;g/mL.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Reagents for Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cell dissociation agent - Accutase (Stem Pro)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A1110501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Hanks&#39; Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) 1X [-calcium, -magnesium, - phenol red]</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14175-046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2153</td>
			<td>Use at 1% concentration for Anti-Human CD56 (NCAM).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">DNAase</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>DN-25</td>
			<td>Use at 0.05% concentration.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Anti-Human CD56 (NCAM) Antibody [Mouse]</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>555518</td>
			<td>Use at 1 : 50.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Propidium iodide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4170</td>
			<td>Dilute to 1mg/mL in PBS and keep sterile. Use at 1:1000 to achieve a concentration of 10&#181;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Reagents for Glass Coverslips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Autoclaved deionized water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Alconox detergent</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z273228</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Ethanol 95%</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Nitric Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>438073-M</td>
			<td>CAUTION: Concentrated nitric acid is highly corrosive, and its vapours are potentially harmful.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCI)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CAUTION: Concentrated hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive, and its vapours are potentially harmful.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Reagents for Immunocytochemistry</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>1040051000</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 4%. CAUTION: PFA is a potent fixative. Avoid ingestion and contact with skin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10254640</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 0.1%.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Serum [Donkey]</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>S30-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Anti-MAP2 Antibody [Chicken]</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab5392</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 1 : 5,000.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:469px;">Tau HT7 Monoclonal Antibody [Mouse]</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>MN1000</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 1 : 500.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cy3 Anti-Chicken Antibody [Donkey]</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>703-165-155</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 1 : 400.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Alexa Fluor488 Anti-Mouse Antibody [Donkey]</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>715-545-150</td>
			<td>Use at a concentration of 1 : 400.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:469px;">4&#8242;,6-Diamidine-2&#8242;-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D9542</td>
			<td>Reconstitute the powder in Milli-Q water to 1 mg/mL. Aliquot and store at -20&#176;C, light sensitive. Use at a concentration of 1 : 500.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td colspan="4" height="40" style="height:40px;">Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">T75 flask [Nunclon Delta Surface]</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>156499</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">24-well plate [Nunc]</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>142485</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">1.5 mL polypropylene tube</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z336769</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">15 mL falcon tube&#160;</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>62.554.502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">50 mL falcon tube&#160;</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>62.547.254</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CryoPure tube 1.6 mL</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>72.380</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Pippette controller</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For pipetting volumes 1-25 mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Sterile serological pipettes: 5, 10 and 25 mL&#160;</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">86.1253.001, 86.1254.001, 86.1685.001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Adjustable volume pipettors: 5, 20, 200, and 1,000 &#181;L&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Sterile pipette tips</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For pipetting volumes of 0.5 - 1,000 &#181;L.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glass coverslips</td>
			<td>NeuVitro</td>
			<td>GG-12-1.5-oz</td>
			<td>#1.5 thickness, 12mm diameter, 0.5oz, CE certified, fit 24 well plates.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glass dish</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Approximately 150mm diameter.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glass beaker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td style="width:756px;">Make sure to have an appropriate size beaker for the sonicator bath available. Water from the sonicator bath should not overflow into the glass beaker.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Parafilm M</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">ThawSTAR Automated Cell Thawing System</td>
			<td>BioCision</td>
			<td>BCS-601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Countess II Automated Cell Counter</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AMQAX1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:469px;">Cell counting chambers [50 slides] and trypan blue [0.4%]</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C10228</td>
			<td>For use with Countess II Automated Cell Counter.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CoolCell Cell LX Controlled-rate Freezing Container</td>
			<td>Biocision</td>
			<td>BCS-405</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Laminar flow hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Humidified 5% CO2 37 &#176;C incubator</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Suitable for 1,5, 15 and 50 mL tubes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Orbital shaker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Sonicator - Bransonic Model B200 cleaner</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z305359</td>
			<td>Frequency = 50-60Hz, Amplitude = 30 Watts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">FACS Aria III cell sorter</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Phase contrast microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>CKX31</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Inverted fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMI6000 B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simple generation of a high yield culture of induced neurons from human adult skin fibroblasts

Induced neurons (iNs), the product of somatic cells directly converted to neurons, are a way to obtain patient-derived neurons from tissue that is easily accessible. Through this route, mature neurons can be obtained in a matter of a few weeks. Here, we describe a straightforward and rapid one-step protocol to obtain iNs from dermal fibroblasts obtained through biopsy samples from adult human donors. We explain each step of the process, including the maintenance of the dermal fibroblasts, the freezing procedure to build a stock of the cell line, seeding of the cells for reprogramming, as well as the culture conditions during the conversion process. In addition, we describe the preparation of glass coverslips for electrophysiological recordings, long-term coating conditions, and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). We also illustrate examples of the results to be expected. The protocol described here is easy to perform and can be applied to human fibroblasts derived from human skin biopsies from patients with various different diagnoses and ages. This protocol generates a sufficient amount of iNs which can be used for a wide array of biomedical applications, including disease modeling, drug screening, and target validation.

A clear change in cell morphology should be visible from day 5 onwards (Figure 1B). Some cell death is to be expected after viral transduction, although not overtly. From each well in a 24-well plate a total cell yield of 20,000-40,000 cells should be expected by day 25, of which about half should have become neurons. It is important to note that the yield and purity can vary across cell line, as well as with disease state and virus batches.
Cells will express most standard neuronal markers including MAP2 and TAU (Figure 1C) at day 25 in addition to exhibiting a mature neuronal morphology. It is possible to get a pure iN population by doing FACS based on the marker NCAM (see references8,11). Cells can thereafter be either re-plated onto PFL triple coating (see reference10) or directly frozen for biomolecular analyses.
If the cells are not sorted, immunofluorescence labeling with either MAP2 or TAU should be performed to identify the successfully converted cells and co-labeled with the protein of interest.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56904/56904fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Evolution of the iN conversion over time. (A) Timeline of the experiment and map of the construct packaged in a lentivirus used to reprogram the adult human dermal fibroblasts. Each black arrow represents a medium change. (B) Representative phase contrast images depicting the changes in morphology of cells during the conversion process between day 0 to day 22 (as indicated on the upper right corner of each panel). Images were taken on a phase contrast microscope using the 10X objective. (C) Immunofluorescence image of a TAU and MAP2 double staining at day 35 post-transduction. Cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and permeabilized with 0.1% Triton in DPBS for 10 min. Cells were blocked for 30 min in a 5% serum solution in DPBS. The antibodies were diluted in blocking solution and applied overnight at 4 &#176;C. Fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibodies were diluted in blocking solution and applied for 2 h. Cells were counterstained with DAPI for 15 min followed by 3 washes with DPBS. Images were taken on an inverted fluorescence microscope using the 20X objective. Scale bars = 100 &#181;m (B, C). Abbreviations: ENM: early neuronal medium; LNM: late neuronal medium. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56904/56904fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simple Generation of a High Yield Culture of Induced Neurons from Human Adult Skin Fibroblasts at JoVE.com

Simple Generation of a High Yield Culture of Induced Neurons from Human Adult Skin Fibroblasts

Direct neuronal reprogramming generates neurons that maintain the age of the starting somatic cell. Here, we describe a single vector-based method to generate induced neurons from dermal fibroblasts obtained from adult human donors.

Induced neurons (iNs), the product of somatic cells directly converted to neurons, are a way to obtain patient-derived neurons from tissue that is easily ...

simple-generation-high-yield-culture-induced-neurons-from-human-adult

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

10.2K Views.  Lund University. Direct neuronal reprogramming generates neurons that maintain the age of the starting somatic cell. Here, we describe a single vector-based method to generate induced neurons from dermal fibroblasts obtained from adult human donors.

Video: Simple Generation of a High Yield Culture of Induced Neurons from Human Adult Skin Fibroblasts

Dissection and Culture of Commissural Neurons from Embryonic Spinal Cord

Commissural neurons have been widely used to investigate the mechanisms underlying axon guidance during embryonic spinal cord development. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in the dorsal spinal cord and their axons follow stereotyped trajectories during embryonic development. Commissural axons initially project ventrally towards the floorplate. After crossing the midline, these axons turn anteriorly and project towards the brain. Each of these steps is regulated by the action of several guidance cues. Cultures highly enriched in commissural neurons are ideally suited for many experiments addressing the mechanisms of axon pathfinding, including turning assays, immunochemistry and biochemistry. Here, we describe a method to dissect and culture commissural neurons from E13 rat dorsal spinal cord. First, the spinal cord is isolated and dorsal strips are dissected out. The dorsal tissue is then dissociated into a cell suspension by trypsinization and mechanical disruption. Neurons are plated onto poly-L-lysine-coated glass coverslips or tissue-culture dishes. After 30 hours in vitro, most neurons have extended an axon. The purity of the culture (Yam et al. 2009), typically over 90%, can be assessed by immunolabeling with the commissural neuron markers DCC, LH2 and TAG1 (Helms and Johnson, 1998). This neuronal preparation is a useful tool for in vitro studies of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of commissural axon growth and guidance during spinal cord development.

This video demonstrates a method to dissect and culture commissural neurons from E13 rat dorsal spinal cord. Dissociated commissural neurons are useful to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of axon growth and guidance.

Commissural neurons have been widely used to investigate the mechanisms underlying axon guidance during embryonic spinal cord development. The cell bodies ...

DiOLISTIC Labeling of Neurons from Rodent and Non-human Primate Brain Slices

DiOLISTIC staining uses the gene gun to introduce fluorescent dyes, such as DiI, into neurons of brain slices (Gan et al., 2009; O'Brien and Lummis, 2007; Gan et al., 2000). Here we provide a detailed description of each step required together with exemplary images of good and bad outcomes that will help when setting up the technique. In our experience, a few steps proved critical for the successful application of DiOLISTICS. These considerations include the quality of the DiI-coated bullets, the extent of fixative exposure, and the concentration of detergent used in the incubation solutions. Tips and solutions for common problems are provided. This is a versatile labeling technique that can be applied to multiple animal species at a wide range of ages. Unlike other fluorescent labeling techniques that are limited to preparations from young animals or restricted to mice because they rely on the expression of a fluorescent transgene, DiOLISTIC labeling can be applied to animals of all ages, species and genotypes and it can be used in combination with immunostaining to identify a specific subpopulation of cells. Here we demonstrate the use of DiOLISTICS to label neurons in brain slices from adult mice and adult non-human primates with the purpose of quantifying dendrite branching and dendritic spine morphology.

We demonstrate the use of the gene gun to introduce fluorescent dyes, such as DiI, into neurons in brain slices from rodents and non-human primates of different ages. In this particular case, we use adult mice (3-6 months old) and adult cynomologus monkeys (9-15 years old). This technique, originally described by the laboratory of Dr. Lichtman (Gan et al., 2000), is well suited for the study of dendritic branching and dendritic spine morphology and can be combined with traditional immunostaining, if detergents are kept at a low concentration.

DiOLISTIC staining uses the gene gun to introduce fluorescent dyes, such as DiI, into neurons of brain slices (Gan et al., 2009; O'Brien and Lummis, 2007; ...

Organotypic Culture of Full-thickness Adult Porcine Retina

There is a recognized demand for in vitro models that can replace or reduce animal experiments. Porcine retina has a similar neuronal structure to human retina and is therefore a valuable species for studying mechanisms of human retinal injury and degenerative disease. Here we describe a cost-effective technique for organotypic culture of adult porcine retina isolated from eyes obtained from an abattoir. After removing the anterior segment, a trephine blade was used to create multiple neural retina-Bruch's membrane-RPE-choroid-sclera explants from the posterior segment of adult porcine eyes. A piece of sterile filter paper was used to lift the neural retina off from each explant. The filter paper-retina complex was cultured (photoreceptor side up) atop an insert, which was held away from the bottom of the culture dish by a custom-made stand. The stand allows for good circulation of the culture medium to both sides of the retina. Overall, this procedure is simple, reproducible, and permits preservation of native retinal structure for at least seven days, making it a useful model for a variety of morphological, pharmacological, and biochemical studies on mammalian retina.

Here we describe a cost-effective technique for organotypic culture of adult porcine retina for seven days. Briefly, a sterile filter paper was used to lift the neural retina off from the RPE and place photoreceptor side up on an insert raised by a custom-made stand.

There is a recognized demand for in vitro models that can replace or reduce animal experiments. Porcine retina has a similar neuronal structure to human ...

Isolation and Culture of Hippocampal Neurons from Prenatal Mice

Primary cultures of rat and murine hippocampal neurons are widely used to reveal cellular mechanisms in neurobiology. By isolating and growing individual neurons, researchers are able to analyze properties related to cellular trafficking, cellular structure and individual protein localization using a variety of biochemical techniques. Results from such experiments are critical for testing theories addressing the neural basis of memory and learning. However, unambiguous results from these forms of experiments are predicated on the ability to grow neuronal cultures with minimum contamination by other brain cell types. In this protocol, we use specific media designed for neuron growth and careful dissection of embryonic hippocampal tissue to optimize growth of healthy neurons while minimizing contaminating cell types (i.e. astrocytes). Embryonic mouse hippocampal tissue can be more difficult to isolate than similar rodent tissue due to the size of the sample for dissection. We show detailed dissection techniques of hippocampus from embryonic day 19 (E19) mouse pups. Once hippocampal tissue is isolated, gentle dissociation of neuronal cells is achieved with a dilute concentration of trypsin and mechanical disruption designed to separate cells from connective tissue while providing minimum damage to individual cells. A detailed description of how to prepare pipettes to be used in the disruption is included. Optimal plating densities are provided for immuno-fluorescence protocols to maximize successful cell culture. The protocol provides a fast (approximately 2 hr) and efficient technique for the culture of neuronal cells from mouse hippocampal tissue.

We provide a protocol for the culture of highly purified hippocampal neurons from prenatal mouse brains without the use of a feeder glial cell layer.

Primary cultures of rat and murine hippocampal neurons are widely used to reveal cellular mechanisms in neurobiology. By isolating and growing individual ...

Laser Capture Microdissection of Neurons from Differentiated Human Neuroprogenitor Cells in Culture

Neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the human fetal brain were expanded under proliferative conditions in the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) to provide an abundant supply of cells. NPCs were differentiated in the presence of a new combination of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), dibutyryl cAMP (DBC) and retinoic acid on dishes coated with poly-L-lysine and mouse laminin to obtain neuron-rich cultures. NPCs were also differentiated in the absence of neurotrophins, DBC and retinoic acid and in the presence of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) to yield astrocyte-rich cultures. Differentiated NPCs were characterized by immunofluorescence staining for a panel of neuronal markers including NeuN, synapsin, acetylcholinesterase, synaptophysin and GAP43. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and STAT3, astrocyte markers, were detected in 10-15% of differentiated NPCs. To facilitate cell-type specific molecular characterization, laser capture microdissection was performed to isolate neurons cultured on polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) membrane slides. The methods described in this study provide valuable tools to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanism of neurodegeneration.

Human neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) were expanded under proliferating conditions. NPCs were differentiated into neuron-rich cultures in the presence of a combination of neurotrophins. Neuronal markers were detected by immunofluorescence staining. To isolate a pure population of neurons, NPCs were differentiated on PEN membrane slides and laser capture microdissection was performed.

Neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the human fetal brain were expanded under proliferative conditions in the presence of epidermal growth factor ...

Lineage-reprogramming of Pericyte-derived Cells of the Adult Human Brain into Induced Neurons

Direct lineage-reprogramming of non-neuronal cells into induced neurons (iNs) may provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying neurogenesis and enable new strategies for in vitro modeling or repairing the diseased brain. Identifying brain-resident non-neuronal cell types amenable to direct conversion into iNs might allow for launching such an approach in situ, i.e. within the damaged brain tissue. Here we describe a protocol developed in the attempt of identifying cells derived from the adult human brain that fulfill this premise. This protocol involves: (1) the culturing of human cells from the cerebral cortex obtained from adult human brain biopsies; (2) the in vitro expansion (approximately requiring 2-4 weeks) and characterization of the culture by immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry; (3) the enrichment by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) using anti-PDGF receptor-&#946; and anti-CD146 antibodies; (4) the retrovirus-mediated transduction with the neurogenic transcription factors sox2 and ascl1; (5) and finally the characterization of the resultant pericyte-derived induced neurons (PdiNs) by immunocytochemistry (14 days to 8 weeks following retroviral transduction). At this stage, iNs can be probed for their electrical properties by patch-clamp recording. This protocol provides a highly reproducible procedure for the in vitro lineage conversion of brain-resident pericytes into functional human iNs.

Targeting brain-resident cells for direct lineage-reprogramming offers new perspectives for brain repair. Here we describe a protocol of how to prepare cultures enriched for brain-resident pericytes from the adult human cerebral cortex and convert these into induced neurons by retrovirus-mediated expression of the transcription factors Sox2 and Ascl1.

Direct lineage-reprogramming of non-neuronal cells into induced neurons (iNs) may provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying neurogenesis ...

Derivation of Adult Human Fibroblasts and their Direct Conversion into Expandable Neural Progenitor Cells

Generation of&#160;induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs) from adult skin fibroblasts and subsequent differentiation into somatic cells provides fascinating prospects for the derivation of autologous transplants that circumvent histocompatibility barriers. However, progression through a pluripotent state and subsequent complete differentiation into desired lineages remains a roadblock for the clinical translation of iPSC technology because of the associated neoplastic potential and genomic instability. Recently, we and others showed that somatic cells cannot only be converted into iPSCs but also into different types of multipotent somatic stem cells by using defined factors, thereby circumventing progression through the pluripotent state. In particular, the direct conversion of human fibroblasts into induced neural progenitor cells (iNPCs) heralds the possibility of a novel autologous cell source for various applications such as cell replacement, disease modeling and drug screening. Here, we describe the isolation of adult human primary fibroblasts by skin biopsy and their efficient direct conversion into iNPCs by timely restricted expression of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, as well as c-Myc. Sox2-positive neuroepithelial colonies appear after 17 days of induction and iNPC lines can be established efficiently by monoclonal isolation and expansion. Precise adjustment of viral multiplicity of infection and supplementation of leukemia inhibitory factor during the induction phase represent critical factors to achieve conversion efficiencies of up to 0.2%. Thus far, patient-specific iNPC lines could be expanded for more than 12 passages and uniformly display morphological and molecular features of neural stem/progenitor cells, such as the expression of Nestin and Sox2. The iNPC lines can be differentiated into neurons and astrocytes as judged by staining against TUJ1 and GFAP, respectively. In conclusion, we report a robust protocol for the derivation and direct conversion of human fibroblasts into stably expandable neural progenitor cells that might provide a cellular source for biomedical applications such as autologous neural cell replacement and disease modeling.

Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells provides fascinating prospects for the derivation of autologous transplants. However, progression through a pluripotent state and laborious re-differentiation still hinders clinical translation. Here we describe the derivation of adult human fibroblasts and their direct conversion into induced neural progenitor cells and the subsequent differentiation into neural lineages.

Generation of&#160;induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs) from adult skin fibroblasts and subsequent differentiation into somatic cells provides ...

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the molecular and cellular basis of higher brain functions. A whole-mount preparation of adult brains with well-preserved morphology is critical for such whole brain-based studies, but can be technically challenging and time-consuming. This protocol describes an easy-to-learn, one-step dissection approach of an adult fly head in less than 10 s, while keeping the intact brain attached to the rest of the body to facilitate subsequent processing steps. The procedure helps remove most of the eye and tracheal tissues normally associated with the brain that can interfere with the later imaging step, and also places less demand on the quality of the dissecting forceps. Additionally, we describe a simple method that allows convenient flipping of the mounted brain samples on a coverslip, which is important for imaging both sides of the brains with similar signal intensity and quality. As an example of the protocol, we present an analysis of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in adult brains of WT (w1118) flies. The high efficacy of the dissection method makes it particularly useful for large-scale adult brain-based studies in Drosophila.

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

The adult Drosophila brain is a valuable system for studying neuronal circuitry, higher brain functions, and complex disorders. An efficient method to dissect whole brain tissue from the small fly head will facilitate brain-based studies. Here we describe a simple, one-step dissection protocol of adult brains with well-preserved morphology.

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the ...

Method for High Speed Stretch Injury of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Neurons in a 96-well Format

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major clinical challenge with high morbidity and mortality. Despite decades of pre-clinical research, no proven therapies for TBI have been developed. This paper presents a novel method for pre-clinical neurotrauma research intended to complement existing pre-clinical models. It introduces human pathophysiology through the use of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons (hiPSCNs). It achieves loading pulse duration similar to the loading durations of clinical closed head impact injury. It employs a 96-well format that facilitates high throughput experiments and makes efficient use of expensive cells and culture reagents. Silicone membranes are first treated to remove neurotoxic uncured polymer and then bonded to commercial 96-well plate bodies to create stretchable 96-well plates. A custom-built device is used to indent some or all of the well bottoms from beneath, inducing equibiaxial mechanical strain that mechanically injures cells in culture in the wells. The relationship between indentation depth and mechanical strain is determined empirically using high speed videography of well bottoms during indentation. Cells, including hiPSCNs, can be cultured on these silicone membranes using modified versions of conventional cell culture protocols. Fluorescent microscopic images of cell cultures are acquired and analyzed after injury in a semi-automated fashion to quantify the level of injury in each well. The model presented is optimized for hiPSCNs but could in theory be applied to other cell types.

Here we present a method for a human in vitro model of stretch injury in a 96-well format on a timescale relevant to impact trauma. This includes methods for fabricating stretchable plates, quantifying the mechanical insult, culturing and injuring cells, imaging, and high content analysis to quantify injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major clinical challenge with high morbidity and mortality. Despite decades of pre-clinical research, no proven ...

Preparation of a High-quality Primary Cell Culture from Fish Pituitaries

Primary cell culture is a powerful tool commonly used by scientists to study cellular properties and mechanisms of isolated cells in a controlled environment. Despite vast differences in the physiology between mammals and fish, primary cell culture protocols from fish are often based on mammalian culture conditions, often with only minor modifications. The environmental differences affect not only body temperature, but also blood serum parameters such as osmolality, pH, and pH buffer capacity. As cell culture media and similar working solutions are meant to mimic characteristics of the extracellular fluid and/or blood serum to which a cell is adapted, it is crucial that these parameters are adjusted specifically to the animal in question.
The current protocol describes optimized primary culture conditions for medaka (Oryzias latipes). The protocol provides detailed steps on how to isolate and maintain healthy dissociated pituitary cells for more than one week and includes the following steps: 1. the adjustment of the osmolality to the values found in medaka blood plasma, 2. the adjustment of the incubation temperature to normal medaka temperature (here in the aquarium facility), and 3. the adjustment of the pH and bicarbonate buffer to values comparable to other fish species living at similar temperatures. The results presented using the described protocol promote physiologically meaningful results for medaka and can be used as a reference guide by scientists making primary cell cultures from other non-mammalian species.

Here we describe a protocol to prepare and maintain primary pituitary cell cultures from medaka (Oryzias latipes). The optimized conditions in this protocol take important parameters such as temperature, osmolality, and pH into consideration by mimicking the physiological conditions of the fish, thereby enabling physiologically more meaningful results.