We are very grateful to Anders Bovin who provided the music for our film and to Michael Elliot Stocks for volunteering to be the speaker voice. Support was provided by Carl Trygger Foundation, the strategic research program Agricultural Functional Genomics (AgriFunGen) at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, the Swedish Research Council (VR), and the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences, and Spatial Planning (FORMAS).

<ol>
	<li>Carr, S. M., Irish, V. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Floral+homeotic+gene+expression+defines+developmental+arrest+stages+in+Brassica+oleracea+L.+vars.+botrytis+and+italica.">Floral homeotic gene expression defines developmental arrest stages in Brassica oleracea L. vars. botrytis and italica.</a> Planta. 201 (2), 179-188 (1997).</li><li>Coen, E. S., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+war+of+the+whorls:+genetic+interactions+controlling+flower+development.">The war of the whorls: genetic interactions controlling flower development.</a> Nature. 353 (6339), 31-37 (1991).</li><li>Jackson, D., Gurr, S. J., McPherson, M. J., Bowles, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+hybridization+in+plants.">In situ hybridization in plants.</a> Molecular Plant Patology: a practical approach. , (1991).</li><li>Leitch, A. R., Schwarzacher, T., Jackson, D., Leitch, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> In situ hybridization: a practical guide. , (1994).</li><li>Smyth, D. R., Bowman, J. L., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+flower+development+in+Arabidopsis.">Early flower development in Arabidopsis.</a> Plant Cell. 2 (8), 755-767 (1990).</li><li>Azevedo, H., Lino-Neto, T., Tavares, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+method+for+high-quality+RNA+isolation+from+needles+of+adult+maritime+pine+trees.">An improved method for high-quality RNA isolation from needles of adult maritime pine trees.</a> Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. , 333-338 (2003).</li><li>Sundstrom, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MADS-box+genes+active+in+developing+pollen+cones+of+Norway+spruce+(Picea+abies)+are+homologous+to+the+B-class+floral+homeotic+genes+in+angiosperms.">MADS-box genes active in developing pollen cones of Norway spruce (Picea abies) are homologous to the B-class floral homeotic genes in angiosperms.</a> Dev Genet. 25 (3), 253-266 (1999).</li><li>Tandre, K., Svenson, M., Svensson, M. E., Engstrom, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conservation+of+gene+structure+and+activity+in+the+regulation+of+reproductive+organ+development+of+conifers+and+angiosperms.">Conservation of gene structure and activity in the regulation of reproductive organ development of conifers and angiosperms.</a> Plant J. 15 (5), 615-623 (1998).</li><li>Winter, K. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MADS-box+genes+reveal+that+gnetophytes+are+more+closely+related+to+conifers+than+to+flowering+plants.">MADS-box genes reveal that gnetophytes are more closely related to conifers than to flowering plants.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 96 (13), 7342-7347 (1999).</li><li>Savard, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloroplast+and+nuclear+gene+sequences+indicate+late+Pennsylvanian+time+for+the+last+common+ancestor+of+extant+seed+plants.">Chloroplast and nuclear gene sequences indicate late Pennsylvanian time for the last common ancestor of extant seed plants.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 91 (11), 5163-5167 (1994).</li><li>Jack, T., Brockman, L. L., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+homeotic+gene+APETALA3+of+Arabidopsis+thaliana+encodes+a+MADS+box+and+is+expressed+in+petals+and+stamens.">The homeotic gene APETALA3 of Arabidopsis thaliana encodes a MADS box and is expressed in petals and stamens.</a> Cell. 68 (4), 683-697 (1992).</li><li>Bowman, J. L., Smyth, D. R., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genes+directing+flower+development+in+Arabidopsis.">Genes directing flower development in Arabidopsis.</a> Plant Cell. 1 (1), 37-52 (1989).</li><li>Kramer, E. M., Irish, V. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+of+genetic+mechanisms+controlling+petal+development.">Evolution of genetic mechanisms controlling petal development.</a> Nature. 399 (6732), 144-148 (1999).</li><li>Sundstrom, J., Engstrom, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conifer+reproductive+development+involves+B-type+MADS-box+genes+with+distinct+and+different+activities+in+male+organ+primordia.">Conifer reproductive development involves B-type MADS-box genes with distinct and different activities in male organ primordia.</a> Plant J. 31 (2), 161-169 (2002).</li><li>Carlsson, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microarray+analysis+reveals+altered+expression+of+a+large+number+of+nuclear+genes+in+developing+cytoplasmic+male+sterile+Brassica+napus+flowers.">Microarray analysis reveals altered expression of a large number of nuclear genes in developing cytoplasmic male sterile Brassica napus flowers.</a> Plant J. 49 (3), 452-462 (2007).</li><li>Teixeira, R. T., Farbos, I., Glimelius, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+levels+of+meristem+identity+and+homeotic+genes+are+modified+by+nuclear-mitochondrial+interactions+in+alloplasmic+male-sterile+lines+of+Brassica+napus.">Expression levels of meristem identity and homeotic genes are modified by nuclear-mitochondrial interactions in alloplasmic male-sterile lines of Brassica napus.</a> Plant J. 42 (5), 731-742 (2005).</li><li>Ying, S., Kay, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+technique+of+in+situ+hybridization.">The technique of in situ hybridization.</a> Methods in Molecular Medicine. 56, 263-283 (2001).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Two aspects of the P. abies protocol were optimized compared to the A. thaliana/B. napus protocol, RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration. The RNase removes background signals and thus increases the signal specificity 17. The proteinase K treatment is needed to permeabilize the tissues so the probe can enter and hybridize to the RNA pool of interest. The DAL13 antisense probe gave a higher signal without RNase-treatment (Fig. 3C, E, G) compared to sections treated with RNase for 30 min (Figure 2D, F and H). Since the RNase-treatment did not enhance the signal it was removed from the protocol. The proteinase K treatment were tested at three different concentrations; 1, 3 and 5 &micro;g/ml. In the case of P. abies a low or no signal was observed using 1 &micro;g/ml proteinase K (Fig. 3C-D). A strong signal was obtained with both 3 &micro;g/ml (Fig. 3E-F) and 5 &micro;g/ml (Fig. 3G-H) proteinase K. Since no apparent difference in signal strength was found when using 5 &micro;g/ml proteinase K compared to 3 &micro;g/ml, we chose to use 3 &micro;g/ml in our protocol. It is likely that the need of a higher proteinase K concentration in the P. abies male cones compared to the A. thaliana and B. napus floral buds is due to more compact tissue with higher levels of phenolics and polysaccharides.
During the fixation and embedding some differences between the A. thaliana/B. napus protocol and the P. abies protocol are evident. The tissue of interest is fixed to provide RNA retention and this is a critical step since poorly fixed materials might give a low or undetectable signal even though the mRNA is highly abundant. The tissue is dehydrated, cleared and embedded in wax in gradual changes to avoid tissue damage, and in some protocols 0.85% NaCl is added to the ethanol in the dehydration to further avoid shrinkage and swelling of the cells 3. The dehydration step during embedding can be performed on ice to keep RNase activity at minimum. In the P. abies protocol the 4% paraformaldehyde fix solution contains 0.25% glutaraldehyde, which is supposed to give a better RNA retention 17 even though that some argue that it probably make no difference 3. After sectioning the material is fixed onto slides and pretreated (i.e. dewaxed, rehydrated, permeabilized, treated to reduce non-specific binding of the probe and finally dehydrated) before the hybridization.
In the protocol presented here the whole detection procedure can be performed in ordinary laboratories, the signal develops usually within 1-3 days and the ratio between signal over background can continuously be monitored. The DIG-labeled probes usually give a more distinct signal as compared to radioactive labeled probes, are more stable and can be reused in consecutive experiments. On the other hand, the sensitivity is reduced compared to radioactive probes 17. In situ hybridization detects expression using a labeled probe specific for a certain mRNA. Radio-labeling is a robust and sensitive labeling method but it requires handling of radioactivity and it takes several weeks before the results can be detected. Antigen-labeled probes on the other hand, are more stable, less hazardous and require exposure to the detection medium for a few days only 17. Thus, antigen-labeling methods are currently dominating. The most critical step regardless of protocol is the probe design. Care should be taken to make sure the probe has a high specificity and is labeled with high quality UTPs. Sometimes the hybridization temperature and/or reaction length have to be adjusted for specific probes.
Our modified protocol based on DIG-labeled probes will facilitate localization of mRNA expression simultaneously in species ranging from A. thaliana to P. abies, and should with minor adjustments be usable in other plant species. The protocol has, beside male cones, also been tested on different stages of vegetative shoots and in both zygotic and somatic embryos from P. abies with good results (unpublished results; Karlgren et al.).

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<td>Triton X-100</td>
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<td>tRNA</td>
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<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>83853-100mg</td>
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<td>Tween-20</td>
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<td>Western Blue</td>
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<td>Promega Corp.</td>
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non-radioactive in situ hybridization protocol applicable for norway spruce and a range of plant species

The high-throughput expression analysis technologies available today give scientists an overflow of expression profiles but their resolution in terms of tissue specific expression is limited because of problems in dissecting individual tissues. Expression data needs to be confirmed and complemented with expression patterns using e.g. in situ hybridization, a technique used to localize cell specific mRNA expression. The in situ hybridization method is laborious, time-consuming and often requires extensive optimization depending on species and tissue. In situ experiments are relatively more difficult to perform in woody species such as the conifer Norway spruce (Picea abies). Here we present a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including P. abies. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, we could use the protocol to study tissue specific expression of homologous genes in male reproductive organs of one gymnosperm and two angiosperm species; P. abies, Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica napus. The protocol worked equally well for the species and genes studied. AtAP3 and BnAP3 were observed in second and third whorl floral organs in A. thaliana and B. napus and DAL13 in microsporophylls of male cones from P. abies. For P. abies the proteinase K concentration, used to permeablize the tissues, had to be increased to 3 g/ml instead of 1 g/ml, possibly due to more compact tissues and higher levels of phenolics and polysaccharides. For all species the RNase treatment was removed due to reduced signal strength without a corresponding increase in specificity. By comparing tissue specific expression patterns of homologous genes from both flowering plants and a coniferous tree we demonstrate that the DIG in situ protocol presented here, with only minute adjustments, can be applied to a wide range of plant species. Hence, the protocol avoids both extensive species specific optimization and the laborious use of radioactively labeled probes in favor of DIG labeled probes. We have chosen to illustrate the technically demanding steps of the protocol in our film.
Anna Karlgren and Jenny Carlsson contributed equally to this study.
Corresponding authors: Anna Karlgren at Anna.Karlgren@ebc.uu.se and Jens F. Sundstr&#246;m at Jens.Sundstrom@vbsg.slu.se

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species at JoVE.com

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

We describe a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including Norway spruce. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, the protocol may be used in studies of different tissues and species.

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

The high-throughput expression analysis technologies available today give scientists an overflow of expression profiles but their resolution in terms of ...

non-radioactive-situ-hybridization-protocol-applicable-for-norway

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20.9K Views.  Uppsala University. We describe a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including Norway spruce. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, the protocol may be used in studies of different tissues and species.

Video: Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

In situ Protocol for Butterfly Pupal Wings Using Riboprobes

Here we present, in video format, a protocol for in situ hybridizations in pupal wings of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana using riboprobes.  In situ hybridizations, a mainstay of developmental biology, are useful to study the spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression in developing tissues at the level of transcription. If antibodies that target the protein products of gene transcription have not yet been developed, and/or there are multiple gene copies of a particular protein in the genome that cannot be differentiated using available antibodies, in situs can be used instead. While an in situ technique for larval wing discs has been available to the butterfly community for several years, the current protocol has been optimized for the larger and more fragile pupal wings.

In order to examine gene expression in the pupal wing tissue of Bicyclus anynana, we present an optimized protocol for in situ hybridizations using riboprobes. We also provide guidelines for the further optimization of this protocol for use in pupal wings of other Lepidopteran species.

Here we present, in video format, a protocol for in situ hybridizations in pupal wings of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana using riboprobes.  In situ ...

Double Whole Mount in situ Hybridization of Early Chick Embryos

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  gene expression in brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia formation. This video demonstrates the different steps in 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, the embryo is processed for prehybridization. The embryo is then hybridized with two different probes, one coupled to DIG, and one coupled to FITC.  Following overnight hybridization, the embryo is incubated with DIG coupled antibody. Color reaction for DIG substrate is performed, and the region of interest appears blue. The embryo is then incubated with FITC coupled antibody. The embryo is processed for color reaction with FITC, and the region of interest appears red. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for phtograph and sectioning. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

This video demonstrates 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of 2 different genes can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by David Wilkinson, Domingos Henrique, Phil Ingham and David Ish -Horowicz.

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ...

Zebrafish Whole Mount High-Resolution Double Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology. Here, we present a high-resolution double fluorescent in situ hybridization protocol for analyzing the precise expression pattern of a single gene and for determining the overlap of the expression domains of two genes. The protocol is a modified version of the standard in situ hybridization using alkaline phosphatase and substrates such as NBT/BCIP and Fast Red 1,2. This protocol utilizes standard digoxygenin and fluorescein labeled probes along with tyramide signal amplification (TSA) 3. The commercially available TSA kits allow flexible experimental design as fluorescence emission from green to far-red can be used in combination with various nuclear stains, such as propidium iodide, or fluorescence immunohistochemistry for proteins. TSA produces a reactive fluorescent substrate that quickly covalently binds to moieties, typically tyrosine residues, in the immediate vicinity of the labeled antisense riboprobe. The resulting staining patterns are high resolution in that subcellular localization of the mRNA can be observed using laser scanning confocal microscopy 3,4. One can observe nascent transcripts at the chromosomal loci, distinguish nuclear and cytoplasmic staining and visualize other patterns such as cortical localization of mRNA. Studies in Drosophila indicate that roughly 70% of mRNAs exhibit specific patterns of subcellular localization that frequently correlate with the function of the encoded protein 5. When combined with computer-aided reconstruction of 3D confocal datasets, our protocol allows the detailed analysis of mRNA distribution with sub-cellular resolution in whole vertebrate embryos.

Zebrafish Whole Mount High-Resolution Double Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology. Here, we present a high-resolution double fluorescent in situ hybridization protocol for analyzing the precise expression pattern of a single gene and for determining the overlap of the expression domains of two genes. We include a propidium iodide nuclear counter-stain to highlight tissue organization.

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology.  Here, we present a high-resolution double ...

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) Protocol in Human Sperm

Aneuploidies are the most frequent chromosomal abnormalities in humans. Most of these abnormalities result from meiotic errors during the gametogenic process in the parents. In human males, these errors can lead to the production of spermatozoa with numerical chromosome abnormalities which represent an increased risk of transmitting these anomalies to the offspring.
For this reason, the technique of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) on sperm nuclei has become a protocol widely incorporated in the context of clinical diagnosis. This practice provides an estimate of the frequencies of numerical chromosome abnormalities in the gametes of the patients that seek for genetic reproductive advice.
To date, the chromosomes most frequently included in sperm FISH analysis are chromosomes X, Y, 13, 18 and 21.
This video-article describes, step by step, how to process and fix a human semen sample, how to decondense and denature the sperm chromatin, how to proceed to obtain sperm FISH preparations, and how to visualize the results at the microscope. Special remarks of the most relevant steps are given to achieve the best results.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization FISH Protocol in Human Sperm

This video-article describes, step by step, how to process a semen sample to achieve good-quality fluorescence in situ hybridization on human spermatozoa. Preparations obtained can be used for aneuploidy screening in the context of clinical diagnosis.

Aneuploidies are the most frequent chromosomal abnormalities in humans. Most of these abnormalities result from meiotic errors during the gametogenic ...

A Noninvasive Hair Sampling Technique to Obtain High Quality DNA from Elusive Small Mammals

Noninvasive genetic sampling approaches are becoming increasingly important to study wildlife populations. A number of studies have reported using noninvasive sampling techniques to investigate population genetics and demography of wild populations1. This approach has proven to be especially useful when dealing with rare or elusive species2. While a number of these methods have been developed to sample hair, feces and other biological material from carnivores and medium-sized mammals, they have largely remained untested in elusive small mammals. In this video, we present a novel, inexpensive and noninvasive hair snare targeted at an elusive small mammal, the American pika (Ochotona princeps). We describe the general set-up of the hair snare, which consists of strips of packing tape arranged in a web-like fashion and placed along travelling routes in the pikas&#x2019; habitat. We illustrate the efficiency of the snare at collecting a large quantity of hair that can then be collected and brought back to the lab. We then demonstrate the use of the DNA IQ system (Promega) to isolate DNA and showcase the utility of this method to amplify commonly used molecular markers including nuclear microsatellites, amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), mitochondrial sequences (800bp) as well as a molecular sexing marker. Overall, we demonstrate the utility of this novel noninvasive hair snare as a sampling technique for wildlife population biologists. We anticipate that this approach will be applicable to a variety of small mammals, opening up areas of investigation within natural populations, while minimizing impact to study organisms.

We present a noninvasive sampling approach to efficiently collect hair samples from elusive small mammals, as shown for the American pika. We demonstrate the utility of this method by extracting DNA from sampled hair and amplifying several types of molecular markers commonly used in studies of wildlife ecology and conservation.

Noninvasive genetic sampling approaches are becoming increasingly important to study wildlife populations. A number of studies have reported using ...

In Situ Hybridization for the Precise Localization of Transcripts in Plants

With the advances in genomics research of the past decade, plant biology has seen numerous studies presenting large-scale quantitative analyses of gene expression. Microarray and next generation sequencing approaches are being used to investigate developmental, physiological and stress response processes, dissect epigenetic and small RNA pathways, and build large gene regulatory networks1-3. While these techniques facilitate the simultaneous analysis of large gene sets, they typically provide a very limited spatiotemporal resolution of gene expression changes. This limitation can be partially overcome by using either profiling method in conjunction with lasermicrodissection or fluorescence-activated cell sorting4-7. However, to fully understand the biological role of a gene, knowledge of its spatiotemporal pattern of expression at a cellular resolution is essential. Particularly, when studying development or the effects of environmental stimuli and mutants can the detailed analysis of a gene's expression pattern become essential. For instance, subtle quantitative differences in the expression levels of key regulatory genes can lead to dramatic phenotypes when associated with the loss or gain of expression in specific cell types. 
Several methods are routinely used for the detailed examination of gene expression patterns. One is through analysis of transgenic reporter lines. Such analysis can, however, become time-consuming when analyzing multiple genes or working in plants recalcitrant to transformation. Moreover, an independent validation to ensure that the transgene expression pattern mimics that of the endogenous gene is typically required. Immunohistochemical protein localization or mRNA in situ hybridization present relatively fast alternatives for the direct visualization of gene expression within cells and tissues. The latter has the distinct advantage that it can be readily used on any gene of interest. In situ hybridization allows detection of target mRNAs in cells by hybridization with a labeled anti-sense RNA probe obtained by in vitro transcription of the gene of interest. 
Here we outline a protocol for the in situ localization of gene expression in plants that is highly sensitivity and specific. It is optimized for use with paraformaldehyde fixed, paraffin-embedded sections, which give excellent preservation of histology, and DIG-labeled probes that are visualized by immuno-detection and alkaline-phosphatase colorimetric reaction. This protocol has been successfully applied to a number of tissues from a wide range of plant species, and can be used to analyze expression of mRNAs as well as small RNAs8-14.

In Situ Hybridization for the Precise Localization of Transcripts in Plants

The in situ hybridization protocol described here allows a direct localization of mRNA and small RNA expression at the cellular level with high sensitivity and specificity. The procedure is optimized for paraffin-embedded plant tissue sections, is applicable to a wide range of plants and tissues, and can be completed within ten days.

With the advances in genomics research of the past decade, plant biology has seen numerous studies presenting large-scale quantitative analyses of gene ...

Detection of Viral RNA by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH)

Viruses that infect cells elicit specific changes to normal cell functions which serve to divert energy and resources for viral replication. Many aspects of host cell function are commandeered by viruses, usually by the expression of viral gene products that recruit host cell proteins and machineries. Moreover, viruses engineer specific membrane organelles or tag on to mobile vesicles and motor proteins to target regions of the cell (during de novo infection, viruses co-opt molecular motor proteins to target the nucleus; later, during virus assembly, they will hijack cellular machineries that will help in the assembly of viruses). Less is understood on how viruses, in particular those with RNA genomes, coordinate the intracellular trafficking of both protein and RNA components and how they achieve assembly of infectious particles at specific loci in the cell. The study of RNA localization began in earlier work. Developing lower eukaryotic embryos and neuronal cells provided important biological information, and also underscored the importance of RNA localization in the programming of gene expression cascades. The study in other organisms and cell systems has yielded similar important information. Viruses are obligate parasites and must utilise their host cells to replicate. Thus, it is critical to understand how RNA viruses direct their RNA genomes from the nucleus, through the nuclear pore, through the cytoplasm and on to one of its final destinations, into progeny virus particles 1.
FISH serves as a useful tool to identify changes in steady-state localization of viral RNA. When combined with immunofluorescence (IF) analysis 22, FISH/IF co-analyses will provide information on the co-localization of proteins with the viral RNA3. This analysis therefore provides a good starting point to test for RNA-protein interactions by other biochemical or biophysical tests 4,5, since co-localization by itself is not enough evidence to be certain of an interaction. In studying viral RNA localization using a method like this, abundant information has been gained on both viral and cellular RNA trafficking events 6. For instance, HIV-1 produces RNA in the nucleus of infected cells but the RNA is only translated in the cytoplasm. When one key viral protein is missing (Rev) 7, FISH of the viral RNA has revealed that the block to viral replication is due to the retention of the HIV-1 genomic RNA in the nucleus 8. 
Here, we present the method for visual analysis of viral genomic RNA in situ. The method makes use of a labelled RNA probe. This probe is designed to be complementary to the viral genomic RNA. During the in vitro synthesis of the antisense RNA probe, the ribonucleotide that is modified with digoxigenin (DIG) is included in an in vitro transcription reaction. Once the probe has hybridized to the target mRNA in cells, subsequent antibody labelling steps (Figure 1) will reveal the localization of the mRNA as well as proteins of interest when performing FISH/IF.

Detection of Viral RNA by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization FISH

A fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method was developed to visually detect viral genomic RNA using fluorescence microscopy. A probe is made with specificity to the viral RNA that can then be identified using a combination of hybridization and immunofluorescence techniques. This technique offers the advantage of identifying the localization of the viral RNA or DNA at steady-state, providing information on the control of intracellular virus trafficking events.

Viruses  that infect cells elicit specific changes to normal cell functions which serve  to divert energy and resources for viral replication. Many ...

RNA In situ Hybridization in Whole Mount Embryos and Cell Histology Adapted for Marine Elasmobranchs

Marine elasmobranchs are valued animal models for biomedical and genomic studies as they are the most primitive vertebrates to have adaptive immunity and have unique mechanisms for osmoregulation 1-3. As the most primitive living jawed-vertebrates with paired appendages, elasmobranchs are an evolutionarily important model, especially for studies in evolution and development. Marine elasmobranchs have also been used to study aquatic toxicology and stress physiology in relationship to climate change 4. Thus, development and adaptation of methodologies is needed to facilitate and expand the use of these primitive vertebrates to multiple biological disciplines. Here I present the successful adaptation of RNA whole mount in situ hybridization and histological techniques to study gene expression and cell histology in elasmobranchs.
Monitoring gene expression is a hallmark tool of developmental biologists, and is widely used to investigate developmental processes 5. RNA whole mount in situ hybridization allows for the visualization and localization of specific gene transcripts in tissues of the developing embryo. The expression pattern of a gene's message can provide insight into what developmental processes and cell fate decisions a gene may control. By comparing the expression pattern of a gene at different developmental stages, insight can be gained into how the role of a gene changes during development.
While whole mount in situ's provides a means to localize gene expression to tissue, histological techniques allow for the identification of differentiated cell types and tissues. Histological stains have varied functions. General stains are used to highlight cell morphology, for example hematoxylin and eosin for general staining of nuclei and cytoplasm, respectively. Other stains can highlight specific cell types. For example, the alcian blue stain reported in this paper is a widely used cationic stain to identify mucosaccharides. Staining of the digestive tract with alcian blue can identify the distribution of goblet cells that produce mucosaccharides. Variations in mucosaccharide constituents on short peptides distinguish goblet cells by function within the digestive tract 6. By using RNA whole mount in situ's and histochemical methods concurrently, cell fate decisions can be linked to gene-specific expression.
Although RNA in situ's and histochemistry are widely used by researchers, their adaptation and use in marine elasmobranchs have met limited and varied success. Here I present protocols developed for elasmobranchs and used on a regular basis in my laboratory. Although further modification of the RNA in situ's hybridization method may be needed to adapt to different species, the protocols described here provide a strong starting point for researchers wanting to adapt the use of marine elasmobranchs to their scientific inquiries.

RNA In situ Hybridization in Whole Mount Embryos and Cell Histology Adapted for Marine Elasmobranchs

By combining methods for RNA whole mount in situ hybridization and histology, gene expression can be linked with cell fate decisions in the developing embryo. These methods have been adapted to marine elasmobranchs and facilitate the use of these animals as model organisms for biomedical, toxicology and comparative studies.

Marine  elasmobranchs are valued animal models for biomedical and genomic studies as  they are the most primitive vertebrates to have adaptive immunity ...

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for using FISH to quantify the number of mRNAs in single yeast cells. Cells can be grown in any condition of interest and then fixed and made permeable. Subsequently, multiple single-stranded deoxyoligonucleotides conjugated to fluorescent dyes are used to label and visualize mRNAs. Diffraction-limited fluorescence from single mRNA molecules is quantified using a spot-detection algorithm to identify and count the number of mRNAs per cell. While the more standard quantification methods of northern blots, RT-PCR and gene expression microarrays provide information on average mRNAs in the bulk population, FISH facilitates both the counting and localization of these mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for ...

MicroRNA In situ Hybridization for Formalin Fixed Kidney Tissues

In this article we describe a method for colorimetric detection of miRNA in the kidney through in situ hybridization with digoxigenin tagged microRNA probes. This protocol, originally developed by Kloosterman and colleagues for broad use with Exiqon miRNA probes1, has been modified to overcome challenges inherent in miRNA analysis in kidney tissues. These include issues such as structure identification and hard to remove residual probe and antibody. Use of relatively thin, 5 mm thick, tissue sections allowed for clear visualization of kidney structures, while a strong probe signal was retained in cells. Additionally, probe concentration and incubation conditions were optimized to facilitate visualization of microRNA expression with low background and nonspecific signal. Here, the optimized protocol is described, covering the initial tissue collection and preparation through the mounting of slides at the end of the procedure. The basic components of this protocol can be altered for application to other tissues and cell culture models.

MicroRNA In situ Hybridization for Formalin Fixed Kidney Tissues

This article describes an in situ hybridization protocol optimized for colormetric detection of microRNA expression in formalin fixed kidney sections.

In this article we describe a method for colorimetric detection of miRNA in the kidney through in situ hybridization with digoxigenin tagged microRNA ...

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

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In Situ Hybridization for the Precise Localization of Transcripts in Plants

Detection of Viral RNA by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH)

RNA In situ Hybridization in Whole Mount Embryos and Cell Histology Adapted for Marine Elasmobranchs

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

MicroRNA In situ Hybridization for Formalin Fixed Kidney Tissues