The author would like to thank Karoline Dittmer and Andrew Brittingham for their insights and many helpful discussions. This work was supported in part by grants from the Iowa Osteopathic Education and Research Fund (IOER 03-17-05 and 03-20-04).

<ol>
	<li>Wilson, W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+glycogen+metabolism+in+yeast+and+bacteria.">Regulation of glycogen metabolism in yeast and bacteria.</a> FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 34 (6), 952-985 (2010).</li><li>Ralton, J. E., Sernee, M. F., McConville, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+and+function+of+carbohydrate+reserve+biosynthesis+in+parasitic+protists.">Evolution and function of carbohydrate reserve biosynthesis in parasitic protists.</a> Trends in Parasitology. 1471 (21), 00144-00146 (2021).</li><li>Roach, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+and+its+metabolism.">Glycogen and its metabolism.</a> Current Molecular Medicine. 2 (2), 101-120 (2002).</li><li>Thomas, J. A., Schlender, K. K., Larner, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+filter+paper+assay+for+UDPglucose-glycogen+glucosyltransferase,+including+an+improved+biosynthesis+of+UDP-14C-glucose.">A rapid filter paper assay for UDPglucose-glycogen glucosyltransferase, including an improved biosynthesis of UDP-14C-glucose.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 25 (1), 486-499 (1968).</li><li>Fox, J., Kawaguchi, K., Greenberg, E., Preiss, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biosynthesis+of+bacterial+glycogen.+Purification+and+properties+of+the+Escherichia+coli+B+ADPglucose:1,4-alpha-D-glucan+4-alpha-glucosyltransferase.">Biosynthesis of bacterial glycogen. Purification and properties of the Escherichia coli B ADPglucose:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 4-alpha-glucosyltransferase.</a> Biochemistry. 15 (4), 849-857 (1976).</li><li>Gilboe, D. P., Larson, K. L., Nuttall, F. Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Radioactive+method+for+the+assay+of+glycogen+phosphorylases.">Radioactive method for the assay of glycogen phosphorylases.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 47 (1), 20-27 (1972).</li><li>Brown, D. H., Illingworth, B., Cori, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+of+the+de+novo+synthesis+of+polysaccharide+by+phosphorylase.">The mechanism of the de novo synthesis of polysaccharide by phosphorylase.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 47 (4), 479-485 (1961).</li><li>Nelson, T. E., Larner, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+micro+assay+method+for+amylo-1,6-glucosidase.">A rapid micro assay method for amylo-1,6-glucosidase.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 33 (1), 87-101 (1970).</li><li>Leloir, L. F., Olavarria, J. M., Goldemberg, S. H., Carminatti, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biosynthesis+of+glycogen+from+uridine+diphosphate+glucose.">Biosynthesis of glycogen from uridine diphosphate glucose.</a> Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 81 (2), 508-520 (1959).</li><li>Danforth, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+synthetase+activity+in+skeletal+muscle.+Interconversion+of+two+forms+and+control+of+glycogen+synthesis.">Glycogen synthetase activity in skeletal muscle. Interconversion of two forms and control of glycogen synthesis.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 240, 588-593 (1965).</li><li>Wayllace, N. Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+enzyme-coupled+continuous+spectrophotometric+assay+for+glycogen+synthases.">An enzyme-coupled continuous spectrophotometric assay for glycogen synthases.</a> Molecular Biology Reports. 39 (1), 585-591 (2012).</li><li>Shapiro, B., Wertheimer, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphorolysis+and+synthesis+of+glycogen+in+animal+tissues.">Phosphorolysis and synthesis of glycogen in animal tissues.</a> Biochemical Journal. 37 (3), 397-403 (1943).</li><li>Mezl, V. A., Knox, W. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+two+methods+for+the+assay+of+glycogen+phosphorylase+in+tissue+homogenates.">Comparison of two methods for the assay of glycogen phosphorylase in tissue homogenates.</a> Enzyme. 13 (4), 197-202 (1972).</li><li>Mendicino, J., Afou-Issa, H., Medicus, R., Kratowich, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fructose-1,+6-diphosphatase,+phosphofructokinase,+glycogen+synthetase,+phosphorylase,+and+protein+kinase+from+swine+kidney.">Fructose-1, 6-diphosphatase, phosphofructokinase, glycogen synthetase, phosphorylase, and protein kinase from swine kidney.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 42, 375-397 (1975).</li><li>Schreiber, W. E., Bowling, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+automated+assay+of+glycogen+phosphorylase+in+the+direction+of+phosphorolysis.">An automated assay of glycogen phosphorylase in the direction of phosphorolysis.</a> Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 27, 129-132 (1990).</li><li>Nelson, T. E., Kolb, E., Larner, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purification+and+properties+of+rabbit+muscle+amylo-1,6-glucosidase-oligo-1,4-1,4-transferase.">Purification and properties of rabbit muscle amylo-1,6-glucosidase-oligo-1,4-1,4-transferase.</a> Biochemistry. 8 (4), 1419-1428 (1969).</li><li>Taylor, C., Cox, A. J., Kernohan, J. C., Cohen, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Debranching+enzyme+from+rabbit+skeletal+muscle.+Purification,+properties+and+physiological+role.">Debranching enzyme from rabbit skeletal muscle. Purification, properties and physiological role.</a> European Journal of Biochemistry. 51 (1), 105-115 (1975).</li><li>Makino, Y., Omichi, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purification+of+glycogen+debranching+enzyme+from+porcine+brain:+evidence+for+glycogen+catabolism+in+the+brain.">Purification of glycogen debranching enzyme from porcine brain: evidence for glycogen catabolism in the brain.</a> Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 70 (4), 907-915 (2006).</li><li>Lee, E. Y. C., Whelan, W. J., Boyer, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Enzymes Vol. 5. , 191-234 (1971).</li><li>Yu, X., Houtman, C., Atalla, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+complex+of+amylose+and+iodine.">The complex of amylose and iodine.</a> Carbohydrate Research. 292, 129-141 (1996).</li><li>Boyer, C., Preiss, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biosynthesis+of+bacterial+glycogen.+Purification+and+properties+of+the+Escherichia+coli+b+alpha-1,4,-glucan:+alpha-1,4-glucan+6-glycosyltansferase.">Biosynthesis of bacterial glycogen. Purification and properties of the Escherichia coli b alpha-1,4,-glucan: alpha-1,4-glucan 6-glycosyltansferase.</a> Biochemistry. 16 (16), 3693-3699 (1977).</li><li>Krisman, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+the+colorimetric+estimation+of+glycogen+with+iodine.">A method for the colorimetric estimation of glycogen with iodine.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 4, 17-23 (1962).</li><li>Friedman, D. L., Larner, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Studies+on+UDPG-alpha-glucan+transglucosylase.+iii.+Interconversion+of+two+forms+of+muscle+UDPG-alpha-glucan+transglucosylase+by+a+phosphorylation-dephosphorylation+reaction+sequence.">Studies on UDPG-alpha-glucan transglucosylase. iii. Interconversion of two forms of muscle UDPG-alpha-glucan transglucosylase by a phosphorylation-dephosphorylation reaction sequence.</a> Biochemistry. 2, 669-675 (1963).</li><li>Hanashiro, I., Roach, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+of+muscle+glycogen+synthase+that+disable+activation+by+glucose+6-phosphate.">Mutations of muscle glycogen synthase that disable activation by glucose 6-phosphate.</a> Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 397 (2), 286-292 (2002).</li><li>Huang, K. P., Cabib, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Yeast+glycogen+synthetase+in+the+glucose+6-phosphate-dependent+form.+I.+Purification+and+properties.">Yeast glycogen synthetase in the glucose 6-phosphate-dependent form. I. Purification and properties.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 249 (12), 3851-3857 (1974).</li><li>Pederson, B. A., Cheng, C., Wilson, W. A., Roach, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+glycogen+synthase.+Identification+of+residues+involved+in+regulation+by+the+allosteric+ligand+glucose-6-P+and+by+phosphorylation.">Regulation of glycogen synthase. Identification of residues involved in regulation by the allosteric ligand glucose-6-P and by phosphorylation.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (36), 27753-27761 (2000).</li><li>Roach, P. J., Depaoli-Roach, A. A., Hurley, T. D., Tagliabracci, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+and+its+metabolism:+some+new+developments+and+old+themes.">Glycogen and its metabolism: some new developments and old themes.</a> Biochemical Journal. 441 (3), 763-787 (2012).</li><li>Gosselin, S., Alhussaini, M., Streiff, M. B., Takabayashi, K., Palcic, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+continuous+spectrophotometric+assay+for+glycosyltransferases.">A continuous spectrophotometric assay for glycosyltransferases.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 220 (1), 92-97 (1994).</li><li>Wilson, W. A., Pradhan, P., Madhan, N., Gist, G. C., Brittingham, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+synthase+from+the+parabasalian+parasite+Trichomonas+vaginalis:+An+unusual+member+of+the+starch/glycogen+synthase+family.">Glycogen synthase from the parabasalian parasite Trichomonas vaginalis: An unusual member of the starch/glycogen synthase family.</a> Biochimie. 138, 90-101 (2017).</li><li>Krisman, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=alpha-1,4-glucan:+alpha-1,4-glucan+6-glycosyltransferase+from+liver.">alpha-1,4-glucan: alpha-1,4-glucan 6-glycosyltransferase from liver.</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 65, 307-315 (1962).</li><li>Sandhya Rani, M. R., Shibanuma, K., Hizukuri, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+fine+structure+of+oyster+glucogen.">The fine structure of oyster glucogen.</a> Carbohydrate Research. 227, 183-194 (1992).</li><li>Dittmer, K. E., Pradhan, P., Tompkins, Q. C., Brittingham, A., Wilson, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+and+characterization+of+glycogen+branching+and+debranching+enzymes+from+the+parasitic+protist+Trichomonas+vaginalis.">Cloning and characterization of glycogen branching and debranching enzymes from the parasitic protist Trichomonas vaginalis.</a> Biochimie. 186, 59-72 (2021).</li></ol>

There are no known conflicts of interest associated with this work and there has been no financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.

In general, the key advantages of all of the methods presented are their low cost, ease, speed, and lack of reliance upon specialized equipment. The major disadvantage that they all share is sensitivity compared to other available methods. The sensitivity of the procedures that involve production or consumption of NADH/NADPH are easy to estimate. Given that the extinction coefficient of NADH/NADPH is 6.22 M-1 cm-1, simple arithmetic indicates that ~10-20 &#181;M changes in concentration can be readily detected. With the assay volumes described in the current article, this corresponds to the ability to measure quantities in the range of ~10-20 nmol. Arguably, this is fairly sensitive. However, it is possible to adjust the specific activity of radiolabeled substrates such that sensitivity can be increased beyond the limit of the spectrophotometric assays quite readily. Although the branching enzyme assay and the qualitative assessment of glycogen branching both rely upon the formation of complexes between iodine and &#945;1,4-linked glucose polymers, the output from each assay is different and their sensitivities are likewise different. Specific considerations for each of the assays described are discussed below.
Determination of glycogen synthase activity 
The coupled enzyme assay described here allows for continuous assay of glycogen synthase activity, which is useful in the determination of kinetic parameters. It is also readily scalable and a very similar procedure has been described for use in microtiter plates, allowing for highly parallel measurements of enzyme activity to be made28. We routinely use this assay with purified, recombinant glycogen synthases29. However, the procedures described were originally developed for use in tissue homogenates (for examples, see Danforth10 and Leloir et al.9). A caveat here is that the tissue homogenate must be appropriately diluted prior to use. The dilution is necessary to reduce the turbidity of the homogenate and interference from competing enzymes/substrates in the homogenate. Furthermore, to account for NADH consumption that is not dependent upon glycogen synthase activity, blank reactions that contain all reaction components except UDP-glucose should be included. The glycogen synthase activity is then determined by subtracting the rate of change in NADH absorbance in the absence of UDP-glucose from that obtained in the presence of this compound.
Determination of glycogen phosphorylase activity 
Like the glycogen synthase assay, the spectrophotometric measurement of phosphorylase activity can be performed in a continuous manner, while other phosphorylases assays are stopped assays13. It is also readily adaptable for use in microtiter plates or other high-throughput applications15. Again, its use with tissue homogenates requires appropriate dilution to reduce turbidity/interfering reactions. For example, glucose-6-phosphate is a rather abundant metabolite and its presence in a tissue homogenate will result in NADPH production via the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase coupling enzyme independent of phosphorylase activity. When working with tissue homogenates, control reactions that contain appropriately diluted tissue homogenate and all other assay components except phosphate and glycogen should be included. Phosphorylase activity is then calculated by subtracting the NADPH production in the absence of glycogen/phosphate from that which occurs in the presence of these compounds. Specific recommendations relating to the appropriate degree of dilution of various types of mammalian tissue extract can be found in Mezl et al.13.
Determination of glycogen debranching enzyme activity 
Although described here as a stopped assay, this procedure can be readily adapted and performed in a continuous fashion16. Since the assay relies upon the production of glucose, its use in crude tissue extracts must consider the release of glucose from phosphorylase limit dextrin by enzymes other than debranching enzyme, and the generation of glucose by the action of such enzymes on endogenous glycogen present in the tissue extract. The question of endogenous glycogen is easily addressed with a control reaction to which no phosphorylase limit dextrin is added. The presence of other &#945;-glucosidase activities can be estimated in parallel reactions where maltose, rather than phosphorylase limit dextrin, is present as a substrate.
Determination of glycogen branching enzyme activity 
Of the various quantitative assays discussed, the colorimetric branching enzyme assay is by far the least sensitive. Indeed, it has been estimated that the sensitivity is around 50-100 fold less than that achieved with the radiochemical method, where stimulation of the glycogen phosphorylase reaction by the addition of branching enzyme is measured21. Similar to the debranching enzyme assay, the branching enzyme assay is also sensitive to the presence of contaminating glucosidase activities, since digestion of the amylose will impact iodine binding. Some workarounds have been proposed to allow the use of assays similar to that described here in the presence of contaminating glucosidase activities30. However, in our view this assay is best suited to the study of purified or partially purified glycogen branching enzymes, where such interfering activities are minimal or absent.
Qualitative assessment of the extent of glycogen branching 
The detailed analysis of glycogen branching is rather laborious, typically involving a combination of enzymatic digestion, chemical modification, and a variety of separation techniques to analyze the products generated31. While the colorimetric assay described here clearly cannot yield comparable information on the fine structure of glycogen, it does provide a simple and rapid measure of more or less branching. Furthermore, the spectra obtained do contain some additional information. For example, as discussed under Representative Results, samples of glycogen are typically present with absorbance peaks at ~400 nm and ~460 nm. The peak at ~400 nm apparently represents short outer chains in glycogen particles, since it is enhanced in glycogen isolated from yeast mutants lacking branching enzyme relative to wild type yeast32.

Glycogen is widely distributed in nature, with the compound being found in bacteria, many protists, fungi, and animals. In microorganisms, glycogen is important for cell survival when nutrients are limiting and, in higher organisms such as mammals, synthesis and degradation of glycogen serve to buffer blood glucose levels1,2,3. The study of glycogen metabolism is, therefore, of importance to such diverse fields as microbiology and mammalian physiology. Understanding glycogen metabolism requires studying the key enzymes of glycogen synthesis (glycogen synthase and the branching enzyme) and glycogen degradation (glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzyme). The gold standard assays of glycogen synthase, phosphorylase, branching, and debranching enzyme activities employ radioactive isotopes. For example, glycogen synthase is generally measured in a stopped radiochemical assay by following the incorporation of glucose from UDP-[14C]glucose (in the case of animal and fungal enzymes) or ADP-[14C]glucose (in the case of bacterial enzymes) into glycogen4,5. Similarly, glycogen phosphorylase is measured in the direction of glycogen synthesis, following the incorporation of glucose from [14C]glucose-1-phosphate into glycogen6. The branching enzyme is assayed by measuring the ability of this enzyme to stimulate the incorporation of [14C]glucose from glucose-1-phosphate into &#945;1,4-linked chains by glycogen phosphorylase7, and debranching enzyme activity is determined by following the ability of the enzyme to incorporate [14C]glucose into glycogen8. While very sensitive, allowing their use in crude cell extracts with low levels of enzyme activity, the radioactive substrates are expensive and subject to the regulatory requirements attendant to radioisotope use. These barriers place the use of certain assays out of the reach of many workers. However, over the course of many years, an impressive variety of spectrophotometric approaches to the measurement of these enzymes have been described. In general, these approaches ultimately rely upon measuring the production or consumption of NADH/NADPH, or the generation of colored complexes between glycogen and iodine. Thus, they are straightforward and can be carried out using simple spectrophotometers equipped with only tungsten or xenon flash lamps.
Spectrophotometric assays of glycogen synthase rely upon measuring the nucleoside diphosphate released from the sugar nucleotide donor as glucose is added to the growing glycogen chain9,10. The procedure for measuring glycogen synthase activity described in section 1 of the protocol, below, is a modification of that outlined by Wayllace et al.11, and the coupling scheme is shown below:
(Glucose)n + UPD-glucose &#8594; (Glucose)n+1 + UDP
UDP + ATP &#8594; ADP + UTP
ADP + phosphoenolpyruvate &#8594; pyruvate + ATP
Pyruvate + NADH + H+ &#8594; Lactate + NAD+
Glycogen synthase adds glucose from UDP-glucose onto glycogen. The UDP generated in this process is converted to UTP by nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDP kinase), in a reaction that generates ADP. The ADP, in turn, then serves as a substrate for pyruvate kinase, which phosphorylates the ADP using phosphoenolpyruvate as a phosphate donor. The resulting pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in a reaction that consumes NADH. The assay can, therefore, be performed in a continuous fashion, monitoring the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm as NADH is consumed. It is readily adapted for use with enzymes that require ADP-glucose as a glucose donor. Here, the coupling steps are simpler since the ADP released by the action of glycogen synthase is directly acted upon by pyruvate kinase.
There are a variety of spectrophotometric assays available for the determination of glycogen phosphorylase activity. In the classical version, the enzyme is driven backward, in the direction of glycogen synthesis, as shown below:
(Glucose)n + Glucose-1-phosphate &#8594; (Glucose)n+1 + Pi
At timed intervals, aliquots of the reaction mixture are removed, and the amount of phosphate liberated is quantified12,13. In our hands, this assay has been of limited use due to the presence of readily measurable free phosphate in many commercial preparations of glucose-1-phosphate, combined with the high concentrations of glucose-1-phosphate required for phosphorylase action. Rather, we have routinely employed an alternative assay that measures the glucose-1-phosphate released as glycogen is degraded by phosphorylase13. A coupled reaction scheme, illustrated below, is employed.
(Glucose)n + Pi &#8594; (Glucose)n-1 + Glucose-1-phosphate
Glucose-1-phosphate &#8594; Glucose-6-phosphate
Glucose-6-phosphate + NADP+ &#8594; 6-phosphogluconolactone + NADPH + H+
The glucose-1-phosphate is converted into glucose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase, and the glucose-6-phosphate is then oxidized to 6-phosphogluconolactone, with the concomitant reduction of NADP+ to NADPH. The procedure detailed in section 2 of the protocol, below, is derived from methods described by Mendicino et al.14 and Schreiber &#38; Bowling15. The assay can be readily performed in a continuous fashion, with the increase in absorbance at 340 nm over time, allowing the determination of the reaction rate.
Spectrophotometric determination of debranching enzyme activity relies upon the measurement of the glucose released by the action of the enzyme on phosphorylase limit dextrin16. This compound is made by treating glycogen exhaustively with glycogen phosphorylase. Since glycogen phosphorylase action stops 4 glucose residues away from an &#945;1,6-branch point, the limit dextrin contains glycogen, the outer chains of which have been shortened to ~4 glucose residues. Preparation of phosphorylase limit dextrin is described here, using a procedure derived from those developed by Taylor et al.17 and Makino &#38; Omichi18.
Debranching is a two-step process. The 4-&#945;-glucanotransferase activity of the bifunctional debranching enzyme first transfers three glucose residues from the branch point to the nonreducing end of a nearby &#945;1,4-linked glucose chain. The single, &#945;1,6-linked glucose residue remaining at the branch point is then hydrolyzed by the &#945;1,6-glucosidase activity19. The assay is typically performed in a stopped fashion, the glucose released after a given time (or series of times) being measured in a coupled enzyme assay as shown below:
(Glucose)n &#8594; (Glucose)n-1 + Glucose
Glucose + ATP &#8594; Glucose-6-phosphate + ADP
Glucose-6-phosphate + NADP+ &#8594; 6-phosphogluconolactone + NADPH + H+
The determination of NADPH produced gives a measure of glucose production. The procedure outlined in section 3 of the protocol, below, is based upon one described by Nelson et al.16. Like the other methods that rely upon the consumption or generation of NADH/NADPH, the assay is quite sensitive. However, the presence of amylases or other glucosidases, which can also liberate free glucose from phosphorylase limit dextrin, will cause significant interference (see Discussion).
The colorimetric determination of branching enzyme activity relies upon the fact that &#945;1,4-linked chains of glucose adopt helical structures that bind to iodine, forming colored complexes20. The color of the complex formed depends upon the length of the &#945;1,4-linked chains. Thus, amylose, which consists of long, largely unbranched chains of &#945;1,4-linked glucose forms a deep blue complex with iodine. In contrast, glycogens, the outer chains of which are generally in the order of only 6 to 8 glucose residues long, form orange-red complexes. If a solution of amylose is incubated with branching enzyme, the introduction of branches into the amylose results in the generation of shorter &#945;1,4-linked glucose chains. Thus, the absorption maximum of the amylose/iodine complexes shifts toward shorter wavelengths. The procedure discussed here is derived from that detailed by Boyer &#38; Preiss21 and branching enzyme activity is quantified as a reduction in absorption of the amylose/iodine complex at 660 nm over time.
As should be readily apparent from the discussion above, the fact that the colors of the complexes formed between iodine and &#945;1,4-glucose chains vary with the chain length means that the absorbance spectra of glycogen/iodine complexes should vary with the degree of glycogen branching. This is indeed the case, and less-branched glycogens/glycogens with longer outer chains absorb light at a longer wavelength than glycogens that are more branched/have shorter outer chains. The iodine staining reaction can therefore be used to gain rapid, qualitative data on the degree of glycogen branching22. The orange-brown color forms when glycogen complexes with iodine is not particularly intense. However, color development can be enhanced by the inclusion of saturated calcium chloride solution22. This boosts the sensitivity of the method some 10-fold and allows ready analysis of microgram quantities of glycogen. The assay for the determination of branching described in section 4 of the protocol, below, is adapted from a procedure developed by Krisman22. It is conducted simply by combining the glycogen sample with iodine solution and calcium chloride in a cuvette and collecting the absorption spectrum from 330 nm to 800 nm. The absorbance maximum shifts toward longer wavelengths as the degree of branching decreases.
Collectively, the methods described here provide simple, reliable means of assessing the activities of the key enzymes of glycogen metabolism, and for obtaining qualitative data on the extent of glycogen branching.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Amylopectin (amylose free) from waxy corn</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A0456</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amylose</td>
			<td>Biosynth Carbosynth</td>
			<td>YA10257</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ATP, disodium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>A3377</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate, potassium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>G6893</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-glucose-6-phosphate, sodium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>G7879</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, Grade I, from yeast</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>10127655001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycogen, Type II from oyster</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>G8751</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexokinase</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>11426362001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methacrylate cuvettes, 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-955-128</td>
			<td>Methacrylate is required since some procedures are conducted at 340 nm or below</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate sodium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>N0505</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced disodium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>43420</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucleoside 5&#39;-diphosphate kinase</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>N0379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphoenolpyruvate, monopotassium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P7127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphoglucomutase from rabbit muscle</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P3397</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphorylase A from rabbit muscle</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P1261</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyruvate Kinase/Lactic Dehydrogenase enzymes from rabbit muscle</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P0294</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UDP-glucose, disodium salt</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>U4625</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

spectrophotometric methods for the study of eukaryotic glycogen metabolism

Glycogen is synthesized as a storage form of glucose by a wide array of organisms, ranging from bacteria to animals. The molecule comprises linear chains of &#945;1,4-linked glucose residues with branches introduced through the addition of &#945;1,6-linkages. Understanding how the synthesis and degradation of glycogen are regulated and how glycogen attains its characteristic branched structure requires the study of the enzymes of glycogen storage. However, the methods most commonly used to study these enzyme activities typically employ reagents or techniques that are not available to all investigators. Here, we discuss a battery of procedures that are technically simple, cost-effective, and yet still capable of providing valuable insight into the control of glycogen storage. The techniques require access to a spectrophotometer, operating in the range of 330 to 800 nm, and are described assuming that the users will employ disposable, plastic cuvettes. However, the procedures are readily scalable and can be modified for use in a microplate reader, allowing highly parallel analysis.

Determination of glycogen synthase activity 
Figure 1 shows representative results from glycogen synthase assays using purified enzymes. In panel A, following a slight lag, there was a linear decrease in the absorption at 340 nm over time for a period of around 12 min. The rate of change in absorption in Figure 1A was ~0.12 absorbance units/min. A rate of change in absorbance between ~0.010 and ~0.20 absorbance units/min is optimal and the amount of glycogen synthase added should be adjusted to yield rates within this range. In panel B, the result of adding too much glycogen synthase to the assay is shown. Here, the reaction was complete within the first 2 min. The Control reaction, which in these cases contained no glycogen synthase, showed no measurable decrease in absorbance over time. As elaborated upon in the Discussion, the use of tissue homogenates in this assay is perfectly feasible, although additional Control reactions are required.
The protocol described here uses oyster glycogen as a substrate, which works well with glycogen synthases from many different species. However, it should be noted that glycogen synthases may display quite variable activity depending upon the type of glycogen employed. Therefore, it is advisable to survey a variety of forms of glycogen prior to beginning any detailed study.
The protocol given includes glucose-6-phoposphate in the reaction mixture, since many glycogen synthases are allosterically activated by this compound9,23,24,25,26. Conducting assays in the presence and absence of glucose-6-phosphate (making up the reaction volume with water), allows calculation of the -/+ glucose-6-phosphate activity ratio, which is a useful indication of the phosphorylation state of mammalian and fungal glycogen synthases1,27.
The determination of glycogen synthase activity from the change in absorbance is rather straightforward. The extinction coefficient of NADH is taken as 6220 M-1 cm-1, allowing calculation of the rate of change in NADH concentration from the rate of absorbance change as follows:
A rate of change in absorption of 0.12 units/min corresponds to 0.12/6220 = 1.93 x 10-5 mol/L/min change in NADH concentration. The volume in the cuvette was 0.8 mL, meaning that the change in amount of NADH was: 1.93 x 10-5 x 0.8 x 10-3 = 3.46 x 10-8 mol/min. The volume of enzyme added was 60 &#181;L, 3.46 x 10-8 x (1000 / 60) = 5.76 x 10-7 mol NADH consumed/min/mL enzyme.
Since there is a one-to-one relationship between the NADH consumed and the glucose incorporated into glycogen, the rate of reaction can be expressed as 5.76 x 10-7 mol glucose incorporated/min/mL.
When the protein content of the enzyme sample is known, the specific enzyme activity can be expressed as &#181;mol glucose incorporate/min/mg protein or nmol glucose incorporated/min/mg protein, as appropriate.
As mentioned in the Introduction, the protocol is easily adapted to measure the activity of glycogen synthases that use ADP-glucose as a glucose donor. This is achieved by the simple substitution of UDP-glucose with ADP-glucose in the reaction mixture. Furthermore, both NDP kinase and ATP are omitted from the reaction mixture, since the ADP that is released during glycogen synthase action is a direct substrate for pyruvate kinase.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Representative results from assays of glycogen synthase activity. The spectrophotometer was set to take one reading per min for a total time of 20 min. Panel A shows the expected short lag phase followed by a linear decrease in absorbance with time (Experimental). There was no decrease in the absorption noted in the Control reaction. Reaction rate is calculated from the slope of the absorbance change in the linear phase (from 5 to 16 min). Panel B shows the result of adding too much enzyme. Here, the NADH is exhausted within 2 min. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Determination of glycogen phosphorylase activity 
Figure 2&#160;shows representative data from a glycogen phosphorylase assay using purified enzyme. With the preparation used here, the assay was linear for approximately 3 min. The inset shows a regression line drawn through the points from time 0 to 2.5 min. The slope of this line shows the rate of absorbance change to be 0.022 absorbance units/min. A rate of absorbance increase of around 0.01 to 0.04 is optimal, since the assay will deviate from linearity quite rapidly if too much enzyme is present. The rate of NADPH formation is calculated from the extinction coefficient which, like that of NADH, is 6220 M-1 cm-1. For every 1 mol of NADPH formed, one mol of glucose-1-phosphate had been produced by the action of glycogen phosphorylase. Enzyme activity can therefore be expressed as the amount of glucose-1-phosphate released from glycogen per unit time, following a calculation similar to that outlined above.
The reaction conditions are readily adaptable for those phosphorylases that are sensitive to allosteric modulation. The requisite effectors are simply included in the reaction master mix, replacing some of the water. An important caveat is that the effector itself must be shown not to influence the activity of the coupling enzymes, phosphoglucomutase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Lastly, as with glycogen synthase described above, the type of glycogen used as the substrate may impact the rate of the reaction. While oyster glycogen works well with phosphorylases from many species, it may not always be the optimal choice.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Representative results from assays of glycogen phosphorylase activity. The spectrophotometer was set to take one reading every 30 s for a total time of 10 min. There was a steady increase in absorbance recorded in the presence of glycogen phosphorylase (Experimental), while the reaction without added phosphorylase remained at baseline (Control). The inset shows an enlargement of the initial reaction period, demonstrating the linearity of product formation with respect to time. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Determination of glycogen debranching enzyme activity 
The data shown in Figure 3 are representative of a glycogen debranching enzyme assay using purified debranching enzyme. At each time point, the change in absorption that occurred in the absence of added branching enzyme (Control) was subtracted from the change in absorption that occurred in the presence of branching enzyme (Reaction). The resulting absorbance values were then plotted. As above, a rate of change of NADPH concentration is calculated from the initial slope of the curve by regression analysis. In this example, the increase in NADPH per unit time was linear for 10 min, with a slope of 0.0079 absorbance units/min. While these data are perfectly useable, the addition of slightly less enzyme would have given a shallower slope and allowed for a longer linear phase. Alternatively, additional readings could be taken by removing aliquots for measurement at 2 min and 7 min incubation. Determination of debranching enzyme activity is very straightforward, since 1 mol of NADPH is formed for every 1 mol of glucose released by the &#945;1,6-glucosidase activity of debranching enzyme. Thus, reaction rate can be expressed as amount of glucose released from phosphorylase limit dextrin per unit time, following the same type of calculation as was used for the glycogen synthase and phosphorylases assays, above.
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative results from assays of glycogen debranching enzyme activity. Samples of phosphorylase limit dextrin were treated with debranching enzyme for 5, 10, 20, or 40 min. The increase in absorbance at 340 nm, produced as NADP was reduced to NADPH in a coupled enzyme assay, was measured in samples taken at each of these time points. The reaction showed a linear phase, persisting for at least 10 min. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Determination of glycogen branching enzyme activity 
Figure 4&#160;shows data from glycogen branching enzyme assays. At each of the indicated time points, the absorbance of the Control and Reaction samples were measured. The absorbance of the Reaction sample at 660 nm was subtracted from that of the corresponding Control sample, and the absorbance difference was plotted against time. A regression line was then drawn through the points (panel A). Reaction rate can be expressed simply as the change in absorbance at 660 nm per unit time. The maximum change in absorbance that can occur in this assay is only ~0.4 absorbance units, representing maximal branching of the added amylose by the branching enzyme (panel B). Furthermore, when the absorbance of the Reaction tubes drops more than ~0.2 absorbance units below that of the Control, the assay is no longer within the linear range and no estimation of reaction rate can be made (panel B).
The amylose used as a substrate in this procedure will begin to leave solution quite readily if chilled or frozen and then thawed. Therefore, it is important to make the amylose substrate solution fresh and to ensure that no precipitate has formed prior to use.
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Representative results from assays of glycogen branching enzyme activity. Samples of amylose were treated with branching enzyme. Aliquots were removed at the time points shown and added to an acidified iodine reagent. The absorbance of amylose/iodine complex formed was then measured at 660 nm. The data shown represent the difference in absorbance between control incubations that lacked branching enzyme and reactions that contained branching enzyme. Panel A shows a decrease in absorbance at 660 nm due to debranching enzyme activity, which was linear for ~20 min. Panel B illustrates the narrow dynamic range of the assay, where the maximum change in absorbance that can be produced is ~0.4 absorbance units and linearity is lost when the change in absorption is ~0.2 absorbance units. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Qualitative assessment of the extent of glycogen branching 
Amylose, amylopectin, phosphorylase limit dextrin, glycogen isolated from yeast were combined with iodine/saturated calcium chloride solution and the absorption spectra of the resulting complexes were collected (Figure 5). Using the masses of glycogen, amylopectin, and amylose given in the protocol described above, the maximum absorbance reading obtained should be around 0.7 to 0.8, as shown here (panels A and B). The absorbance maxima for amylose and amylopectin are around 660 nm and 500 nm, and 385 nm respectively. Phosphorylase limit dextrin was included here, since collecting the absorbance spectrum of phosphorylase limit dextrin/iodine complexes provides a quick check of the extent of phosphorylase digestion achieved during the preparation of this debranching enzyme substrate. Glycogen from most sources produces two peaks, one at approximately 400 nm and a second peak at 460 nm (Figure 5B). Leftward shifts in the absorbance spectra of glycogen indicate increased branching/decreased outer chain length. Conversely, rightward shifts indicate decreased branching/increased outer chain length.
The saturated calcium chloride solution is dense and the added glycogen samples will form a layer across the top when added. Therefore, careful mixing is needed to obtain a homogenous solution. In addition, if the carbohydrate samples used are not fully dissolved before mixing with the calcium chloride solution, dark-staining aggregates will form in the cuvette. These aggregates will obviously impede collection of an absorption spectrum and it is important to ensure that the solution in the cuvette is clear before proceeding with any measurements.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Representative results from the qualitative assessment of glycogen branching. Samples of purified phosphorylase limit dextrin, amylopectin, amylose (Panel A) or glycogen (Panel B) were combined with iodine/saturated calcium chloride solution and the absorption spectra of the resulting complexes were measured from 330 nm to 800 nm. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/63046/63046fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism at JoVE.com

Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism

Techniques to measure the activity of key enzymes of glycogen metabolism are presented, using a simple spectrophotometer operating in the visible range.

Glycogen is synthesized as a storage form of glucose by a wide array of organisms, ranging from bacteria to animals. The molecule comprises linear chains ...

spectrophotometric-methods-for-study-eukaryotic-glycogen

Nanyang Technological University

Education

Research

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Anatomy and Physiology

Analytical Chemistry

Unit 1

Chemical Applications of Statistical Analyses

Absorption of Nutrients

Biochemistry of the Cell

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

3.5K Views.  Des Moines University. Techniques to measure the activity of key enzymes of glycogen metabolism are presented, using a simple spectrophotometer operating in the visible range.

Video: Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism

A Method for Measuring Metabolism in Sorted Subpopulations of Complex Cell Communities Using Stable Isotope Tracing

Mammalian cell types exhibit specialized metabolism, and there is ample evidence that various co-existing cell types engage in metabolic cooperation. Moreover, even cultures of a single cell type may contain cells in distinct metabolic states, such as resting or cycling cells. Methods for measuring metabolic activities of such subpopulations are valuable tools for understanding cellular metabolism. Complex cell populations are most commonly separated using a cell sorter, and subpopulations isolated by this method can be analyzed by metabolomics methods. However, a problem with this approach is that the cell sorting procedure subjects cells to stresses that may distort their metabolism.
To overcome these issues, we reasoned that the mass isotopomer distributions (MIDs) of metabolites from cells cultured with stable isotope-labeled nutrients are likely to be more stable than absolute metabolite concentrations, because MIDs are formed over longer time scales and should be less affected by short-term exposure to cell sorting conditions. Here, we describe a method based on this principle, combining cell sorting with liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The procedure involves analyzing three types of samples: (1) metabolite extracts obtained directly from the complex population; (2) extracts of "mock sorted" cells passed through the cell sorter instrument without gating any specific population; and (3) extracts of the actual sorted populations. The mock sorted cells are compared against direct extraction to verify that MIDs are indeed not altered by the cell sorting procedure itself, prior to analyzing the actual sorted populations. We show example results from HeLa cells sorted according to cell cycle phase, revealing changes in nucleotide metabolism.

This article describes a method for studying cellular metabolism in complex communities of multiple cell types, using a combination of stable isotope tracing, cell sorting to isolate specific cell types, and mass spectrometry.

Mammalian cell types exhibit specialized metabolism, and there is ample evidence that various co-existing cell types engage in metabolic cooperation. ...

Tandem Affinity Purification of Protein Complexes from Eukaryotic Cells

The purification of active protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid complexes is crucial for the characterization of enzymatic activities and de novo identification of novel subunits and post-translational modifications. Bacterial systems allow for the expression and purification of a wide variety of single polypeptides and protein complexes. However, this system does not enable the purification of protein subunits that contain post-translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and acetylation), and the identification of novel regulatory subunits that are only present/expressed in the eukaryotic system. Here, we provide a detailed description of a novel, robust, and efficient tandem affinity purification (TAP) method using STREP- and FLAG-tagged proteins that facilitates the purification of protein complexes with transiently or stably expressed epitope-tagged proteins from eukaryotic cells. This protocol can be applied to characterize protein complex functionality, to discover post-translational modifications on complex subunits, and to identify novel regulatory complex components by mass spectrometry. Notably, this TAP method can be applied to study protein complexes formed by eukaryotic or pathogenic (viral and bacterial) components, thus yielding a wide array of downstream experimental opportunities. We propose that researchers working with protein complexes could utilize this approach in many different ways.

We describe here a novel, robust, and efficient tandem affinity purification (TAP) method for the expression, isolation, and characterization of protein complexes from eukaryotic cells. This protocol could be utilized for the biochemical characterization of discrete complexes as well as the identification of novel interactors and post-translational modifications that regulate their function.

The purification of active protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid complexes is crucial for the characterization of enzymatic activities and de novo ...

Determination of the Glycogen Content in Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria accumulate glycogen as a major intracellular carbon and energy storage&#160;during photosynthesis. Recent developments in research have highlighted complex mechanisms of glycogen metabolism, including the diel cycle of biosynthesis and catabolism, redox regulation, and the involvement of non-coding RNA. At the same time, efforts are being made to redirect carbon from glycogen to desirable products in genetically engineered cyanobacteria to enhance product yields. Several methods are used to determine the glycogen contents in cyanobacteria, with variable accuracies and technical complexities. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the reliable determination of the glycogen content in cyanobacteria that can be performed in a standard life science laboratory. The protocol entails the selective precipitation of glycogen from the cell lysate and the enzymatic depolymerization of glycogen to generate glucose monomers, which are detected by a glucose oxidase-peroxidase (GOD-POD) enzyme coupled assay. The method has been applied to Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002, two model cyanobacterial species that are widely used in metabolic engineering. Moreover, the method successfully showed differences in the glycogen contents between the wildtype and mutants defective in regulatory elements or glycogen biosynthetic genes.

Here, we present a reliable and easy assay to measure the glycogen content in cyanobacterial cells. The procedure entails precipitation, selectable depolymerization, and the detection of glucose residues. This method is suitable for both wildtype and genetically engineered strains and can facilitate the metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria accumulate glycogen as a major intracellular carbon and energy storage&#160;during photosynthesis. Recent developments in research have ...

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine whether there is an imbalance in age-related energy metabolism between mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and aerobic glycolysis. Here, we show the utilization of commercial colorimetric assay kits for lactate and pyruvate in the model organism C. elegans. Recently, the sensitivity and accuracy of the colorimetric/fluorimetric assay kits have been improved greatly by the research and development conducted by reagent manufacturers. The improved reagents have enabled the use of small-scale assays with a 96-well plate in C. elegans. In general, a fluorimetric assay is superior in sensitivity to a colorimetric assay; however, the colorimetric approach is more suitable for the use in common laboratories. Another important issue in these assays for quantitative determination is protein precipitation of homogenized C. elegans samples. In our protein precipitation method, common precipitants (e.g., trichloroacetic acid, perchloric acid and metaphosphoric acid) are used for sample preparation. A protein-free assay sample is prepared by directly adding cold precipitant (final concentration of 5%) during homogenization.

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

We describe a modified small-scale extraction and colorimetric assays of lactate and pyruvate in the nematode C. elegans. When utilizing commercial assay kits, the technical development of their sensitivity and accuracy is important. Protein precipitation in extraction is the most critical step for the quantitative determination of intracellular metabolites.

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine ...

Spectrophotometric Determination of Phycobiliprotein Content in Cyanobacterium Synechocystis

This is a simple protocol for the quantitative determination of phycobiliprotein content in the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis. Phycobiliproteins are the most important components of phycobilisomes, the major light-harvesting antennae in cyanobacteria and several algae taxa. The phycobilisomes of Synechocystis contain two phycobiliproteins: phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. This protocol describes a simple, efficient, and reliable method for the quantitative determination of both phycocyanin and allophycocyanin in this model cyanobacterium. We compared several methods of phycobiliprotein extraction and spectrophotometric quantification. The extraction procedure as described in this protocol was also successfully applied to other cyanobacteria strains such as Cyanothece sp., Synechococcuselongatus, Spirulina sp., Arthrospira sp., and Nostoc sp., as well as to red algae Porphyridium cruentum. However, the extinction coefficients of specific phycobiliproteins from various taxa can differ and it is, therefore, recommended to validate the spectrophotometric quantification method for every single strain individually. The protocol requires little time and can be performed in any standard life science laboratory since it requires only standard equipment.

Spectrophotometric Determination of Phycobiliprotein Content in Cyanobacterium Synechocystis

Here, we present a protocol to quantitatively determine phycobiliprotein content in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis using a spectrophotometric method. The extraction procedure was also successfully applied to other cyanobacteria and algae strains; however, due to variations in pigment absorption spectra, it is necessary to test the spectrophotometric equations for each strain individually.

This is a simple protocol for the quantitative determination of phycobiliprotein content in the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis. Phycobiliproteins are ...

Single Liposome Measurements for the Study of Proton-Pumping Membrane Enzymes Using Electrochemistry and Fluorescent Microscopy

Proton-pumping enzymes of electron transfer chains couple redox reactions to proton translocation across the membrane, creating a proton-motive force used for ATP production. The amphiphilic nature of membrane proteins requires particular attention to their handling, and reconstitution into the natural lipid environment is indispensable when studying membrane transport processes like proton translocation. Here, we detail a method that has been used for the investigation of the proton-pumping mechanism of membrane redox enzymes, taking cytochrome bo3 from Escherichia coli as an example. A combination of electrochemistry and fluorescence microscopy is used to control the redox state of the quinone pool and monitor pH changes in the lumen. Due to the spatial resolution of fluorescent microscopy, hundreds of liposomes can be measured simultaneously while the enzyme content can be scaled down to a single enzyme or transporter per liposome. The respective single enzyme analysis can reveal patterns in the enzyme functional dynamics that might be otherwise hidden by the behavior of the whole population. We include a description of a script for automated image analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to study the molecular mechanism of proton translocation across lipid membranes of single liposomes, using cytochrome bo3 as an example. Combining electrochemistry and fluorescence microscopy, pH changes in the lumen of single vesicles, containing single or multiple enzyme, can be detected and analyzed individually.

Proton-pumping enzymes of electron transfer chains couple redox reactions to proton translocation across the membrane, creating a proton-motive force used ...

Expression, Solubilization, and Purification of Eukaryotic Borate Transporters

The Solute Carrier 4 (SLC4) family of proteins is called the bicarbonate transporters and includes the archetypal protein Anion Exchanger 1 (AE1, also known as Band 3), the most abundant membrane protein in the red blood cells. The SLC4 family is homologous with borate transporters, which have been characterized in plants and fungi. It remains a significant technical challenge to express and purify membrane transport proteins to homogeneity in quantities suitable for&#160;structural or functional studies. Here we describe detailed procedures for the overexpression of borate transporters in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, isolation of yeast membranes, solubilization of protein by detergent, and purification of borate transporter homologs from S. cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana, and Oryza sativa. We also detail a glutaraldehyde cross-linking experiment to assay multimerization of homomeric transporters. Our generalized procedures can be applied to all three proteins and have been optimized for efficacy. Many of the strategies developed here can be utilized for the study of other challenging membrane proteins.

Here we present a protocol to express, solubilize, and purify several eukaryotic borate transporters with homology to the SLC4 transporter family using yeast. We also describe a chemical cross-linking assay to assess the purified homomeric proteins for multimeric assembly. These protocols can be adapted for other challenging membrane proteins.

The Solute Carrier 4 (SLC4) family of proteins is called the bicarbonate transporters and includes the archetypal protein Anion Exchanger 1 (AE1, also ...

Study on the Metabolism of Six Systemic Insecticides in a Newly Established Cell Suspension Culture Derived from Tea (Camellia Sinensis L.) Leaves

A platform for studying insecticide metabolism using in vitro tissues of tea plant was developed. Leaves from sterile tea plantlets were induced to form loose callus on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal media with the plant hormones 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D, 1.0 mg L-1) and kinetin (KT, 0.1 mg L-1). Callus formed after 3 or 4 rounds of subculturing, each lasting 28 days. Loose callus (about 3 g) was then inoculated into B5 liquid media containing the same plant hormones and was cultured in a shaking incubator (120 rpm) in the dark at 25 &#177; 1 &#176;C. After 3&#8722;4 subcultures, a cell suspension derived from tea leaf was established at a subculture ratio ranging between 1:1 and 1:2 (suspension mother liquid: fresh medium). Using this platform, six insecticides (5 &#181;g mL-1 each thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, imidaclothiz, dimethoate, and omethoate) were added into the tea leaf-derived cell suspension culture. The metabolism of the insecticides was tracked using liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. To validate the usefulness of the tea cell suspension culture, the metabolites of thiamethoxan and dimethoate present in treated cell cultures and intact plants were compared using mass spectrometry. In treated tea cell cultures, seven metabolites of thiamethoxan and two metabolites of dimethoate were found, while in treated intact plants, only two metabolites of thiamethoxam and one of dimethoate were found. The use of a cell suspension simplified the metabolic analysis compared to the use of intact tea plants, especially for a difficult matrix such as tea.

Study on the Metabolism of Six Systemic Insecticides in a Newly Established Cell Suspension Culture Derived from Tea Camellia Sinensis L. Leaves

This work presents a protocol for establishing a cell suspension culture derived from tea (Camellia sinensis L.) leaves that can be used to study the metabolism of external compounds that can be taken up by the whole plant, such as insecticides.

A platform for studying insecticide metabolism using in vitro tissues of tea plant was developed. Leaves from sterile tea plantlets were induced to form ...

SUMO-Binding Entities (SUBEs) as Tools for the Enrichment, Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of the SUMO Proteome in Liver Cancer

Post-translational modification is a key mechanism regulating protein homeostasis and function in eukaryotic cells. Among all ubiquitin-like proteins in liver cancer, the modification by SUMO (Small Ubiquitin MOdifier) has been given the most attention. Isolation of endogenous SUMOylated proteins in vivo is challenging due to the presence of active SUMO-specific proteases. Initial studies of SUMOylation in vivo were based on the molecular detection of specific SUMOylated proteins (e.g., by western blot). However, in many cases, antibodies, generally made with non-modified recombinant protein, did not immunoprecipitate SUMOylated forms of the protein of interest.&#160;Nickel chromatography has been the other approach to study SUMOylation by capturing histidine-tagged versions of SUMO molecules. This approach is mainly used in cells stably expressing or transiently transfected with His-SUMO molecules. To overcome these limitations, SUMO-binding entities (SUBEs) were developed to isolate endogenous SUMOylated proteins. Herein, we describe all the steps required for the enrichment, isolation, and identification of SUMOylated substrates from human hepatoma cells and hepatic tissues from a liver cancer mouse model by using SUBEs. Firstly, we describe methods involved in the preparation and lysis of the human hepatoma cells and liver tumor tissue samples. Then, a thorough explanation of the preparation of SUBEs and controls is detailed along with the protocol for the protein pull-down assays. Finally, some examples are provided regarding the options available for the identification and characterization of the SUMOylated proteome, namely the use of western-blot analysis for the detection of a specific SUMOylated substrate from liver tumors or the use of proteomics by mass spectrometry for high-throughput characterization of the SUMOylated proteome and interactome in hepatoma cells.

SUMO-Binding Entities SUBEs as Tools for the Enrichment, Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of the SUMO Proteome in Liver Cancer

Here, we present a protocol to enrich, isolate, identify, and characterize proteins modified by SUMO in vivo both from human hepatoma cells and liver tumors obtained from mouse models of hepatocellular carcinoma by using SUMO-binding entities (SUBEs).

Post-translational modification is a key mechanism regulating protein homeostasis and function in eukaryotic cells. Among all ubiquitin-like proteins in ...

An Integrated Raman Spectroscopy and Mass Spectrometry Platform to Study Single-Cell Drug Uptake, Metabolism, and Effects

Cells are known to be inherently heterogeneous in their responses to drugs. Therefore, it is essential that single-cell heterogeneity is accounted for in drug discovery studies. This can be achieved by accurately measuring the plethora of cellular interactions between a cell and drug at the single-cell level (i.e., drug uptake, metabolism, and effect). This paper describes a single-cell Raman spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS) platform to monitor metabolic changes of cells in response to drugs. Using this platform, metabolic changes in response to the drug can be measured by Raman spectroscopy, while the drug and its metabolite can be quantified using mass spectrometry in the same cell. The results suggest that it is possible to access information about drug uptake, metabolism, and response at a single-cell level.

This protocol presents an integrated Raman spectroscopy-mass spectrometry (MS) platform that is capable of achieving single-cell resolution. Raman spectroscopy can be used to study cellular response to drugs, while MS can be used for targeted and quantitative analysis of drug uptake and metabolism.

Cells are known to be inherently heterogeneous in their responses to drugs. Therefore, it is essential that single-cell heterogeneity is accounted for in ...