We thank Robert Rosenbauer (USGS, Menlo Park) in sharing his expertise on the flexible gold-titanium reaction cells, and Georg Scheeder (BGR) for his input during the initial phase of setting up the modified system in Hannover. We would like to thank many scientists (including Katja Heeschen, Andreas Risse, Jens Gr&#246;ger-Trampe, Theodor Alpermann) using the setup in Hannover in numerous projects that contributed in little improvements along the way and Christian Seeger for developing the rocking device for the high-pressure reactors. We thank Laura Castro (Complutense University of Madrid) for SEM observations. And finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Nils W&#246;lki for producing this high-quality video for the article. This work was supported by the European Union Horizon 2020 project BIOMOre (Grant agreement # 642456).

1. Preparation of the medium and inoculation of the microbial culture
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a basal salt medium for autotrophic prokaryotes according to published techniques13. Dissolve and mix the chemicals below in distilled water (mg/L): Na2SO4&#183;10H2O (150) (NH4)2SO4 (450), KCl (50), MgSO4&#183;7H2O (500), KH2PO4 (50), and Ca(NO3)2&#183;4H2O (7).</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL/L of a 1,000x concentrated trace element solution containing (g/L): ZnSO4&#183;7H2O (10), CuSO4&#183;5H2O (1), MnSO4&#183;H2O (0.76), CoSO4&#183;7H2O (1), CrK(SO4)2&#183;12H2O (0.4), H3BO3 (0.6), NaMoO4&#183;2H2O (0.5), NiSO4&#183;6H2O (1), Na2SeO4 (0.51), Na2WO4&#183;2H2O (0.1), and NaVO3 (0.1). Adjust the pH to 1.8 by adding 5 M sulfuric acid.</li>
	<li>Sterilize the medium in an autoclave at 121 &#176;C and 1.2 bar for 20 min and sterilize the ferric iron solution by filtration through a 0.22 &#181;m pore size syringe filter.</li>
	<li>Transfer 50 mL of the sterilized basal salt medium into a serum bottle and add ferric iron solution and elemental sulfur to a final concentration of 50 mM and 10 g/L, respectively.</li>
	<li>Inoculate the medium with a mixed culture composed of several mesoacidophilic iron-oxidizing prokaryotes14.</li>
	<li>Cap the serum bottle with sterilized butyl rubber stoppers and seal with aluminum crimps.</li>
	<li>Vigorously bubble the culture medium with N2 to strip dissolved oxygen for 25 min. Use two needles, place one deeper in the bottle head, the other one close to the cap.</li>
	<li>Inject CO2 to obtain a 90% N2 and 10% CO2 atmosphere in the headspace of the serum bottle. Incubate the culture without stirring at 30 &#176;C in the dark.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of the gold-titanium reaction cell and the high-pressure reactor
<ol>
	<li>Clean the gold-titanium reaction cell.
	<ol>
		<li>Disassemble the reaction cell into the individual parts to avoid the contact of acid with the stainless-steel parts, or the exposure of the assembled parts with different thermal expansion properties to heat.</li>
		<li>Clean the surfaces that will be in contact with the sample during the experiment (i.e., the gold bag, the titanium head, titanium sampling tube, and titanium valve).
		<ol>
			<li>Put the gold bag and the titanium head in a glass beaker.</li>
			<li>Add enough 10% HCl to cover all the parts.</li>
			<li>Heat the acid on a heating plate to 50 &#176;C for 3 h while stirring it.</li>
			<li>Remove the parts with PTFE tweezers from the acid solution and rinse them with deionized water.</li>
			<li>Rinse the inner surface of the gold bag and the titanium head thoroughly with 65% HNO3 and then with deionized water.</li>
			<li>Rinse the inner surface of the titanium sampling tube and the titanium valve with 10% HCl, followed by deionized water, 65% HNO3, and then deionized water again.</li>
			<li>Clean all parts from organic contamination by rinsing them with acetone.</li>
			<li>Dry all parts in the oven at 105 &#176;C for at least 1 h.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Heat the surfaces of the gold bag, the titanium head, and the titanium sampling tube by exposing them to a temperature of 450 &#176;C for 4 h in a muffle furnace in an air atmosphere. 
		NOTE: This procedure sterilizes the surfaces and results in the formation of a passivating titanium dioxide layer on all titanium surfaces. The titanium parts should have a yellow to blue color after the heat treatment.</li>
		<li>Anneal the gold cell to increase the flexibility of the gold by resetting small crystallization domains by applying heat with a propane torch. Heat the gold surface all around to reduce kinks in the gold that might have formed during the last shrinking of the gold bag volume in an experiment. Make sure not to heat the gold too much in one place to avoid its melting. 
		NOTE: A red glow of the gold surface shows sufficient heating.</li>
		<li>Assemble the gold bag into the titanium collar, and the titanium sampling tubing into the titanium head using a torque of 10 Nm for the glands.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Inspect the high-pressure reactor.
	<ol>
		<li>Visually check the reactor for possible damage, corrosion, and loose parts. 
		NOTE: Special attention should be paid to the seal and the kerf where the sealing takes place. If a graphite gasket was previously used to seal the reactor, remains of it may still be in the kerf and should be removed with a plastic pin before the next experiment.</li>
		<li>Apply copper sulfide paste to the thrust bolts in the high-pressure reactor head. Ensure the grease is distributed over the whole thread.</li>
		<li>Check the screw-fitting compression seal for the length of the remaining graphite packing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Filling and assembling the gold-titanium reaction cell under anoxic conditions
<ol>
	<li>Load the glove box.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the culture medium in the serum bottles according to section 1.</li>
		<li>Wrap the parts of the goldtitanium reaction cell that will later be in contact with the sample in aluminum foil to minimize any potential contamination.</li>
		<li>Open and unlock the antechamber of the glove box, load all the inbound material onto the moveable tray, and close and lock the front cover.</li>
		<li>Evacuate the antechamber 3x and flood it with high-purity nitrogen.</li>
		<li>Wear a pair of gloves and get as close as possible to the inner cover. Unlock and open the inner cover to remove the inbound material from the movable tray.</li>
		<li>Close and lock the inner cover.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fill the gold cell.
	<ol>
		<li>Unwrap the clean gold bag and stand it up with a glass beaker, for example. Open the serum bottle containing 100 mL of bacterial culture and elemental sulfur.</li>
		<li>Gently shake the serum bottle and transfer the bacterial culture into the gold bag.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Assemble the reaction cell.
	<ol>
		<li>Insert the titanium head with the attached titanium sampling tube into the titanium collar enclosing the upper rim of the gold bag. 
		NOTE: Make sure that the sealing surface of the conical lower part of the titanium head fits in smoothly by turning it 90&#176; back and forth.</li>
		<li>Slide the washer and the compression bolt ring over the titanium sampling tube onto the titanium head. 
		NOTE: Turn the compression bolt ring in the titanium collar by 30&#176; to align the flanges of the titanium collar and the thrust bolt ring.</li>
		<li>Fasten the six Allen screws to the same extent to ensure an even pressure distribution of the titanium head on the uppermost rim of the gold bag in the titanium collar (i.e., the sealing surface of the reaction cell). 
		NOTE: Fasten the Allen screws in the compression bolt ring until hand-tight so that the torque for the opposite screws is increased first (crisscrossing) before continuing clockwise.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Reinstall the sampling valve at the top of the titanium tube. Fasten the connection hand-tight and make sure to close the valve.</li>
	<li>Remove all parts from the glove box.</li>
</ol>
4. Assembling the high-pressure reactor with the reaction cell
<ol>
	<li>Assemble the reaction cell into the reactor head. 
	NOTE: The installation of the high-pressure reactor comes with a very short exposure of the open end of the sampling tube to the surrounding atmosphere, as the sampling valve must be removed to guide the tube through the screw seal in the reactor head. For the installation, the reactor head should already be placed into a bench vise. A 45&#176; angle allows for easier handling. The compression seal fitting (situated in the central position of the reactor head&#39;s gage block assembly), which holds the sampling tube in place, needs to be open.
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the titanium sampling valve, the screw, and the collar on top of the sampling tube.</li>
		<li>Guide the tube with the reaction cell attached through the central hole in the reactor head until about 5 cm of the tube pass through. Slide the large screw over the tube and fasten the small collar. 
		NOTE: Now the reaction cell assembly cannot slide back through the reactor head and both hands are free to reinstall the sampling valve.</li>
		<li>Re-attach the titanium valve.</li>
		<li>Tighten the compression seal fitting.</li>
		<li>Remove the reactor head from the bench vise to install it on the reactor vessel.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare to seal the reactor.
	<ol>
		<li>Put the graphite sealing on the kerf of the reactor vessel.</li>
		<li>Carefully place the reactor head with the attached reaction cell onto the reactor vessel. 
		NOTE: The reactor head, including the thermocouple, must be carefully placed on the reactor vessel to not damage the gold bag or the thermocouple.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fill the reactor vessel with a mixture of deionized and tap water (approximately in a 1:1 ratio).</li>
	<li>Seal the reactor.
	<ol>
		<li>Check the collar to ensure that the lower ends of the compression bolts are not sticking out of their threads. Otherwise, the pressure vessel will not be correctly installed.</li>
		<li>Lift the collar and place it around the protruding edges of the reactor headvessel interface. Gently moving the collar on it will result in a proper fit. Close the snap locks holding the collar in place.</li>
		<li>Fasten the compression bolts following a crisscross pattern and increase the torque in moderate steps until the final value recommended by the manufacturer is attained. 
		NOTE: Different highpressure reactor systems may have different torque values.</li>
		<li>Finally, fasten the compression bolts in a clockwise manner.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Install the high-pressure reactor in the rocking device. 
	NOTE: The installation of the high-pressure reactor in the rocking device is described for a custom-made model manufactured at the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources in Hannover, Germany. Therefore, the described installation is a general guideline for devices of comparable design.
	<ol>
		<li>Mount the reactor carefully in the rocking device. 
		NOTE: It is best to hold the highpressure reactor by the gage block assembly parts (e.g., manometer or sampling tube screws) while lowering it into the rocking device.</li>
		<li>Fixate the reactor with two clamps over a pair of long screws.</li>
		<li>Place washers on each screw and tighten the clamps with screw nuts.</li>
		<li>Connect the control units for the thermocouple, the pressure transducer, and the heating element. 
		NOTE: It is important to ensure that all the wires are of sufficient length for the rocking motion and prevent contact to the heated surfaces.</li>
		<li>Slide the heating element over the reactor vessel and tighten its screw lock. 
		NOTE: The water to pressurize the system is taken from a reservoir with a high-pressure pump. It is transferred through stainless steel capillaries into the high-pressure reactor. 
		NOTE: Rocking of the high-pressure reactor guarantees a thorough mixing of the reaction cell contents (i.e., the gas, fluid, and all solid phases in it). A slow rocking speed is important to prevent damage to the gold bag by fast moving solids or by deformation due to gravity effects on the flexible gold at elevated temperatures. The rocking system can rotate by close to 180&#176;.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Starting the experiment
<ol>
	<li>Check if the temperature and pressure limits in the monitoring software are set to the desired values. 
	NOTE: In this experiment they were set to 70 &#176;C and 25 MPa.</li>
	<li>Perform a leak check.
	<ol>
		<li>Connect the pressure pipe, a stainless-steel capillary, to the reactor head.</li>
		<li>Raise the pressure to the target pressure at distinct intervals while continuously checking for leakage.</li>
		<li>Hold the pressure constant until the flow rate of the pump is nearly zero. 
		NOTE: Beware that compressible, dissolved air in water is visible for a long time in subtle flow readings.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Start the heating after a successful leak check.
	<ol>
		<li>Start the logging of the pressurization pumps.</li>
		<li>Adjust the set point for the heating to the desired value and start the heating with the software.</li>
		<li>Regularly check all parameters and the system status.</li>
		<li>Untighten the pressure pipe after reaching the target temperature.</li>
		<li>Start the rocking device.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Sampling the high-pressure reactor in operational mode
<ol>
	<li>To take a sample, attach a 5 mL syringe to the Luer Lock connector of the sampling valve at the top of the highpressure reactor.</li>
	<li>Carefully open the valve and let the fluid sample push into the syringe by the pressure inside the highpressure reactor. Close the valve after the sampled volume reaches 1 mL. Detach the syringe.</li>
	<li>Transfer the samples in the syringe immediately into a 2 mL tube in a fume hood for processing.</li>
</ol>
7 . Analysis of fluid sample
NOTE: Only the steps for the less common photometric ferrozine assay (i.e., section 7.1) are described here in detail and are mentioned in the video, because the other steps are standard operation procedures in microbiology.
<ol>
	<li>Use a ferrozine assay to photometrically determine the concentration of dissolved ferrous iron (Fe2+(aq)) and total iron (Fetot)15.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a series of ferrous iron standard solutions by dissolving known amounts of FeSO4&#183;7 H2O in water.</li>
		<li>Mix 50 &#181;L of these standard levels with 1 mL of a 1 M ferrozine solution. 
		NOTE: The reaction of ferrozine with the dissolved ferrous iron forms a purple complex. The intensity of the color correlates to the ferrous iron concentration.</li>
		<li>Establish a calibration curve between the ferrous iron concentration and absorbance of the iron-ferrozine complex.</li>
		<li>Calculate the concentration of ferrous iron of a sample from two parallel measurements according to the established standard curve.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze the pH value and the oxidation/reduction potential (ORP) with digital pH/redox meters with semimicro pH electrodes, and a silver chloride electrode, respectively.</li>
	<li>Count planktonic cells directly by using a light microscope with a Thoma chamber.</li>
	<li>Investigate cell morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
	<ol>
		<li>Filter planktonic cells grown under different conditions through a 0.1&#8722;0.2 &#181;m pore size filter.</li>
		<li>Dehydrate samples with acetone and store them overnight at 4 &#176;C in 90% acetone.</li>
		<li>Dry the samples by critical point drying and coat them with graphite or gold.</li>
		<li>Examine specimens with a field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) at 10 kV.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The presented method for high-pressure experiments of microbial reactions within acidic solutions was a powerful tool to simulate deep subsurface geomicrobiological processes in a laboratory environment.
There are numerous manual work steps involved, some of which require special attention. As a general note, no excessive force must be used when assembling the individual parts of the flexible gold-titanium cell and the reactor head (sections 3 and 4). If the manufacturer&#39;s specifications (e.g., for maximum pressure, temperature, torque) are ignored, leakage and/or material failure may result.
Cleaning of the gold and titanium parts (section 2.2) is an indispensable work step, not only for this experiment, but especially for experiments involving (in-)organic reactions. Remnants from previous experiments in the gold cell may cause unwanted reactions and therefore biasing of results. When the assembled gold-titanium cell is installed in the reactor head, it is best to work quickly and precisely, because at this time small amounts of oxygen could enter the gold cell. Closing the sampling valve before leaving the glovebox is a good first measure to minimize the exchange between the ambient atmosphere with the interior of the gold cell.
Once the reactor is placed in the rocking device, it is important to set the rocking motion speed to ~170&#176;/min. If the high-pressure reactor moves too fast, rupture of the gold cell may happen due to gravitational effects or the sharp edges of sediment or rock samples when used.
This method can be used in additional research fields. The flexible gold-titanium reaction cell has the potential to be used for a diverse set of scientific investigations9 studying reactions at elevated pressure and temperature and in highly corrosive fluids or gases.
Microorganisms in the deep subsurface at temperatures above 70 &#176;C in the presence of mineral surfaces may stimulate the production of molecular hydrogen or organic acids like acetate even under elevated pressure16. These products, and other compounds, might induce elevated microbial activity during in situ bioleaching processes, in addition to the sulfur compounds investigated in this study.
Applications include the determination of solubility of gases and ions in aqueous fluids, geochemical reactions at conditions of hydrothermal vent systems17, the quantification of isotope fractionation18, geochemical reactions during CO2 sequestration19, abiotic processes during the formation of oil and gas in source rocks20, and microbial reactions at elevated pressures in the subsurface21 as in the present study.

During the past decade, efforts to minimize the impact of mining on the environment have increased. Open pit mining for the raw material extraction of ores (e.g., copper-rich sulfide ores), impacts the surrounding landscape by the excavation activities and by the large remaining volumes of waste rocks and remains of processed ore after the extraction of precious metals like copper. Extracting copper directly from the ore in the subsurface would significantly reduce these impacts. The technology of in situ biomining is a promising candidate for this process1. This publication describes the use of stimulated microbial activity to extract the precious metals from the ore into an aqueous solution in the subsurface. Thus, a copper-rich solution can be easily pumped back to the surface to further concentrate the metal, for example.
The activity of ore-leaching acidophilic microorganisms has been studied in many laboratories for a diverse array of parameters2,3,4,5,6. However, pressure effects on the microbial activity resulting from the difference between ambient surface lab conditions (near 1 bar) and the subsurface at a depth of 1,000 m with hydrostatic conditions (~100 bar), are not well-documented. Therefore, the effects of pressure on microbial iron reduction have been investigated through different experimental avenues7. Here, the most suitable technique is described in detail.
High-pressure reactors have been used extensively to study reactions at pressures and temperatures occurring in the subsurface of the earth. Such reactors consist of a reactor vessel at the bottom that can contain a fluid sample with a microbial culture. Sitting on top of the reactor vessel, the reactor head offers a diverse array of connections and interfaces for safety measures and monitoring sensors (e.g., temperature or pressure). Most high-pressure reactors are made of stainless steel. This material offers high resilience and good machining properties, but the corrosion resistance of the stainless-steel surface is not adequate for every application. For example, if highly acidic or highly reducing aqueous solutions are investigated, significant reactions of the compounds of interest with the reactor wall may occur. One way to avoid this is to insert a liner into the reactor vessel, for instance a liner made from borosilicate glass7. It is easy to clean and can be sterilized by autoclaving. In addition, it is not attacked by acidic or reducing aqueous solutions. Even though a liner can help to prevent artificial reactions of the solution or microbes in the solution with the stainless-steel reactor wall, several problems remain. For one, if a corrosive gas is formed, such as hydrogen sulfide produced by sulfate-reducing bacteria, this gas might react with the uncovered surface of the reactor head sitting above the liner. Another disadvantage is that it is not possible to withdraw a sample from the reactor while maintaining the pressure.
To overcome these limitations, specialized flexible reaction cells inside the high-pressure reactors have been developed for a variety of applications. A flexible polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) cell8 was designed for solubility studies of salts in highly saline brines. However, the limitation of this system is that some gases can easily permeate the PTFE. In addition, this material still has a relatively low temperature stability. Thus, the system was improved by designing a flexible gold bag with a titanium head9 to be placed inside the stainless-steel high-pressure reactor. The gold surface is corrosion-resistant against acidic or reducing solutions and gases. The titanium surface is also highly inert when passivated thoroughly to form a continuous titanium dioxide layer. During sampling from this reaction cell through a connected titanium sampling tube, the gold bag shrinks in volume. The system&#39;s internal pressure is maintained by pumping the same volume of water, as is withdrawn by sampling, into the stainless-steel high-pressure reactor accommodating the reaction cell. The sample inside the reaction cell is kept in motion by rocking or tilting the high-pressure reactor by more than 90&#176; during the experiment.
The reaction cell consists of the parts depicted in Figure 1: the gold bag, titanium collar, titanium head, stainless steel washer, titanium compression bolt ring, titanium sampling tube with stainless glands and collars for the high-pressure coned and threaded connections on both sides, and the titanium valve. The gold bag is a cylindrical gold (Au 99.99) cell with a wall thickness of 0.2 mm, an outer diameter of 48 mm, and a length of 120 mm.
All titanium parts are custom-made by the workshop from titanium grade 2 rods. The dimensions of the collar, head, washer, and compression bolt ring are visible in Figure 2. The titanium sampling tube is a capillary of titanium with an outer diameter of 6.25 mm and a wall thickness of 1.8 mm, resulting in an inner diameter of 2.65 mm. It is fixed into the titanium head and the titanium valve by high-pressure coned and threaded connections ensuring a seal of titanium-against-titanium surfaces. The high-pressure titanium valve is equipped with a slow opening stem to allow for very controlled opening or sampling even at high pressure. This system was used in numerous studies10,11,12.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>100013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaN2O6</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>31218</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conax compression seal fittings</td>
			<td>Conax Technologies</td>
			<td>PG2-250-B-G</td>
			<td>sealant could be selected according to temperatures in experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper paste</td>
			<td>Caramba</td>
			<td>691301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper paste</td>
			<td>CRC</td>
			<td>41520</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CoSO4x7H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>10026-24-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CrKO8S2x12H2O</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>3535.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CuSO4x5H2O</td>
			<td>Riedel de Haen</td>
			<td>31293</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable cuvettes</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>z330388</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol absolute</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>9065.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FE-SEM</td>
			<td>JEOL</td>
			<td>model no. JSM-6330F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ferrozine</td>
			<td>Aldrich</td>
			<td>180017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fe2(SO4)3x7H2O</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>33316</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FeSO4x7H2O</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>103965</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold cell</td>
			<td>Hereaus GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>manufactured according to dimensions supplied by customer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-pressure reactor</td>
			<td>PARR Instruments</td>
			<td>model no. 4650 Series</td>
			<td>reactors from other vendors could be used, too</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-pressure syringe pump</td>
			<td>Teledyne ISCO</td>
			<td>DM-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>6331.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HNO3</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>7006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H3BO3</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B6768</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>104873</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-(+)-Ascorbic acid/Vitamin C</td>
			<td>Applichem</td>
			<td>A1052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light microscope</td>
			<td>Leica DM3000</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4x7H2O</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>105886</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(NH4)2SO4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A4418</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaMoO4x2H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>331058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaO3Sex5H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>00163</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaO3V</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>590088</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2SO4</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>106649</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2WO4x2H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>72069</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NiSO4x6H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>31483</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Omnifix Luer</td>
			<td>BRAUN</td>
			<td>4616057V</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH meter</td>
			<td>Mettler Toledo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Redox potential meter</td>
			<td>WTW</td>
			<td>ORP portable meter</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Safe-Lock Tubes, 2 mL</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>0030120094</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serum bottle</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>33110-U</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>model no. GENESYS 10S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterican Hypodermic needle</td>
			<td>BRAUN</td>
			<td>4657519</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stoppers</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>27234</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfur powder</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>9304</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thoma Chamber</td>
			<td>Hecht-Assistent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium parts of reaction cell</td>
			<td>Titan-Halbzeug GmbH</td>
			<td>121-238</td>
			<td>manufactured by workshop at BGR according to dimensions supplied from Titanium grade 2 rods from Titan-Halbzeug GmbH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium valve</td>
			<td>Nova Swiss Technologies</td>
			<td>ND-5002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman membrane filters nylon</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>WHA7402004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZnSO4x7H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z4750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using flexible gold-titanium reaction cells to simulate pressure-dependent microbial activity in the context of subsurface biomining

Laboratory studies investigating subsurface microbial processes, such as metal leaching in deep ore deposits (biomining), share common and challenging obstacles, including the special environmental conditions that need to be replicated, e.g., high pressure and in some cases acidic solutions. The former requires an experimental setup suitable for pressurization up to 100 bar, while the latter demands a fluid container with high chemical resistance against corrosion and unwanted chemical reactions with the container wall. To meet these conditions for an application in the field of in situ biomining, a special flexible gold-titanium reaction cell inside a rocking high-pressure reactor was used in this study. The described system allowed simulation of in situ biomining through sulfur-driven microbial iron reduction in an anoxic, pressure-controlled, highly chemically inert experimental environment. The flexible gold-titanium reaction cell can accommodate up to 100 mL of sample solution, which can be sampled at any given time point while the system maintains the desired pressure. Experiments can be performed on timescales ranging from hours to months. Assembling the high-pressure reactor system is fairly time consuming. Nevertheless, when complex and challenging (microbiological) processes occurring in the earth&#39;s deep subsurface in chemically aggressive fluids have to be investigated in the laboratory, the advantages of this system outweigh the disadvantages. The results found that even at high pressure the microbial consortium is active, but at significantly lower metabolic rates.

Results of the high-pressure reactor experiment with the special gold-titanium reaction cell show that the microbial mixed culture of acidophiles oxidized sulfur and reduced ferric iron to ferrous iron (Figure 3).
At both 1 bar or 100 bar pressure conditions, the cultures had a lag phase when grown in the gold-titanium reaction cell. After that period, a rapid increase in the ferrous iron concentration from approximately 9 mM to 31 mM occurred in the culture grown at 1 bar. Over the incubation time of 22 days, ~31 mM and 13 mM of ferrous iron were detected in the assays at 1 bar and 100 bar, respectively. This clearly demonstrates that the microbial cells were active at 100 bar, but their ferric iron-reducing activity was significantly lower at elevated pressure. Abiotic control experiments conducted in Hungate tubes and serum bottles did not show ferric iron reduction at 1 bar and 100 bar.
The scanning electron microscopy images (Figure 4) show rod-shaped cells grown in experiments at low and high pressure. No significant change in the cell morphology was observed at 1 bar versus 100 bar. However, cell growth was obviously inhibited by the elevated pressure, as the cell number was 1.3 x 108 cells/mL at 1 bar in comparison to 4.5 x 107 cells/mL at 100 bar7. These data are comparable with the tests done in Hungate tubes7. Thus, the flexible gold-titanium reaction cell itself had no effect on cell growth and was suitable for microbial growth tests.
The results show that bioleaching microorganisms are active even at a high pressure of 100 bar, which is highly relevant for in situ biomining because such conditions occur in deep ore deposits at a depth below 1,000 m7.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Overview of the reaction cell parts. From bottom to top: the gold bag, titanium collar, titanium head, washer, titanium compression bolt ring, titanium sampling tube with stainless glands and collars for the high-pressure coned and threaded connections on both sides, and the titanium valve with an adapter for connecting a Luer Lock syringe. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Dimensional drawings of the titanium parts machined from rods of titanium grade 2. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Changes of the ferrous iron concentrations in the gold-titanium reaction cell with the ferrous iron-oxidizing culture. Cells were cultivated anaerobically at 30 &#176;C. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Morphology of the ferrous iron-oxidizing culture grown at 1 bar and 100 bar. Cells were cultivated anaerobically at 30 &#176;C. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/60140/60140fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Flexible Gold-Titanium Reaction Cells to Simulate Pressure-Dependent Microbial Activity in the Context of Subsurface Biomining at JoVE.com

Using Flexible Gold-Titanium Reaction Cells to Simulate Pressure-Dependent Microbial Activity in the Context of Subsurface Biomining

This protocol describes microbial experiments under elevated pressures to study in situ biomining processes. The experimental approach employs a rocking high-pressure reactor equipped with a gold-titanium reaction cell containing a microbial culture in an acidic, iron-rich medium.

Laboratory studies investigating subsurface microbial processes, such as metal leaching in deep ore deposits (biomining), share common and challenging ...

using-flexible-gold-titanium-reaction-cells-to-simulate-pressure

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

6.5K Views.  Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources. This protocol describes microbial experiments under elevated pressures to study in situ biomining processes. The experimental approach employs a rocking high-pressure reactor equipped with a gold-titanium reaction cell containing a microbial culture in an acidic, iron-rich medium.

Video: Using Flexible Gold-Titanium Reaction Cells to Simulate Pressure-Dependent Microbial Activity in the Context of Subsurface Biomining

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen 1-7. The performance of SOFCs and the rates of many chemical and energy transformation processes in energy storage and conversion devices in general are limited primarily by charge and mass transfer along electrode surfaces and across interfaces. Unfortunately, the mechanistic understanding of these processes is still lacking, due largely to the difficulty of characterizing these processes under in situ conditions. This knowledge gap is a chief obstacle to SOFC commercialization. The development of tools for probing and mapping surface chemistries relevant to electrode reactions is vital to unraveling the mechanisms of surface processes and to achieving rational design of new electrode materials for more efficient energy storage and conversion2. Among the relatively few in situ surface analysis methods, Raman spectroscopy can be performed even with high temperatures and harsh atmospheres, making it ideal for characterizing chemical processes relevant to SOFC anode performance and degradation8-12. It can also be used alongside electrochemical measurements, potentially allowing direct correlation of electrochemistry to surface chemistry in an operating cell. Proper in situ Raman mapping measurements would be useful for pin-pointing important anode reaction mechanisms because of its sensitivity to the relevant species, including anode performance degradation through carbon deposition8, 10, 13, 14 ("coking") and sulfur poisoning11, 15 and the manner in which surface modifications stave off this degradation16. The current work demonstrates significant progress towards this capability. In addition, the family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques provides a special approach to interrogate the electrode surface with nanoscale resolution. Besides the surface topography that is routinely collected by AFM and STM, other properties such as local electronic states, ion diffusion coefficient and surface potential can also be investigated17-22. In this work, electrochemical measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and SPM were used in conjunction with a novel test electrode platform that consists of a Ni mesh electrode embedded in an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte. Cell performance testing and impedance spectroscopy under fuel containing H2S was characterized, and Raman mapping was used to further elucidate the nature of sulfur poisoning. In situ Raman monitoring was used to investigate coking behavior. Finally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) were used to further visualize carbon deposition on the nanoscale. From this research, we desire to produce a more complete picture of the SOFC anode.

We present a unique platform for characterizing electrode surfaces in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that allows simultaneous performance of multiple characterization techniques (e.g. in situ Raman spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy alongside electrochemical measurements). Complementary information from these analyses may help to advance toward a more profound understanding of electrode reaction and degradation mechanisms, providing insights into rational design of better materials for SOFCs.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Quantification of Hydrogen Concentrations in Surface and Interface Layers and Bulk Materials through Depth Profiling with Nuclear Reaction Analysis

Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) via the resonant 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C reaction is a highly effective method of depth profiling that quantitatively and non-destructively reveals the hydrogen density distribution at surfaces, at interfaces, and in the volume of solid materials with high depth resolution. The technique applies a 15N ion beam of 6.385 MeV provided by an electrostatic accelerator and specifically detects the 1H isotope in depths up to about 2 &#956;m from the target surface. Surface H coverages are measured with a sensitivity in the order of ~1013 cm-2 (~1% of a typical atomic monolayer density) and H volume concentrations with a detection limit of ~1018 cm-3 (~100 at. ppm). The near-surface depth resolution is 2-5 nm for surface-normal 15N ion incidence onto the target and can be enhanced to values below 1 nm for very flat targets by adopting a surface-grazing incidence geometry. The method is versatile and readily applied to any high vacuum compatible homogeneous material with a smooth surface (no pores). Electrically conductive targets usually tolerate the ion beam irradiation with negligible degradation. Hydrogen quantitation and correct depth analysis require knowledge of the elementary composition (besides hydrogen) and mass density of the target material. Especially in combination with ultra-high vacuum methods for in-situ target preparation and characterization, 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C NRA is ideally suited for hydrogen analysis at atomically controlled surfaces and nanostructured interfaces. We exemplarily demonstrate here the application of 15N NRA at the MALT Tandem accelerator facility of the University of Tokyo to (1) quantitatively measure the surface coverage and the bulk concentration of hydrogen in the near-surface region of a H2 exposed Pd(110) single crystal, and (2) to determine the depth location and layer density of hydrogen near the interfaces of thin SiO2 films on Si(100).

We illustrate the application of 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C resonant nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) to quantitatively evaluate the density of hydrogen atoms on the surface, in the volume, and at an interfacial layer of solid materials. The near-surface hydrogen depth profiling of a Pd(110) single crystal and of SiO2/Si(100) stacks is described.

Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) via the resonant 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C reaction is a highly effective method of depth profiling that quantitatively and ...

Dynamic Pore-scale Reservoir-condition Imaging of Reaction in Carbonates Using Synchrotron Fast Tomography

Underground storage permanence is a major concern for carbon capture and storage. Pumping CO2 into carbonate reservoirs has the potential to dissolve geologic seals and allow CO2 to escape. However, the dissolution processes at reservoir conditions are poorly understood. Thus, time-resolved experiments are needed to observe and predict the nature and rate of dissolution at the pore scale. Synchrotron fast tomography is a method of taking high-resolution time-resolved images of complex pore structures much more quickly than traditional &#181;-CT. The Diamond Lightsource Pink Beam was used to dynamically image dissolution of limestone in the presence of CO2-saturated brine at reservoir conditions. 100 scans were taken at a 6.1 &#181;m resolution over a period of 2 hours. The images were segmented and the porosity and permeability were measured using image analysis and network extraction. Porosity increased uniformly along the length of the sample; however, the rate of increase of both porosity and permeability slowed at later times.

Synchrotron fast tomography was used to dynamically image dissolution of limestone in the presence of CO2-saturated brine at reservoir conditions. 100 scans were taken at a 6.1 &#181;m resolution over a period of 2 h.

Underground storage permanence is a major concern for carbon capture and storage. Pumping CO2 into carbonate reservoirs has the potential to dissolve ...

In Vitro Culture of Epicardial Cells From Mouse Embryonic Heart

During embryogenesis, the epicardial contribution to coronary vasculature development has been very well established. Cells derived from the epicardium differentiate into smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts and endothelial cells that contribute to the formation of coronary vessels. Here we have established an in vitro culture method for embryonic epicardial cells. Using genetic labelling, we have demonstrated that the majority of the migrating cells in our explant culture are of epicardial origin. Epicardial explant cells also retain the expression of epicardial markers (Wt1 and Tbx18). Furthermore, we provide evidence that epicardial explant cells undergo epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), migrate and differentiate into smooth muscle cells after Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-&#946;1) treatment in a manner indistinguishable from that of epicardial cells in vivo. In conclusion, we provide a novel method for the culture of embryonic epicardial cells, which will help to explore the role of specific genes in epicardial cell biology.

In Vitro Culture of Epicardial Cells From Mouse Embryonic Heart

The epicardium is an essential source of multipotent cardiovascular progenitor cells and paracrine factors that are required for cardiovascular development and regeneration. We describe here a method to culture mouse embryonic epicardial cells.

During embryogenesis, the epicardial contribution to coronary vasculature development has been very well established. Cells derived from the epicardium ...

Adsorption Device Based on a Langatate Crystal Microbalance for High Temperature High Pressure Gas Adsorption in Zeolite H-ZSM-5

We present a high-temperature and high-pressure gas adsorption measurement device based on a high-frequency oscillating microbalance (5 MHz langatate crystal microbalance, LCM) and its use for gas adsorption measurements in zeolite H-ZSM-5. Prior to the adsorption measurements, zeolite H-ZSM-5 crystals were synthesized on the gold electrode in the center of the LCM, without covering the connection points of the gold electrodes to the oscillator, by the steam-assisted crystallization (SAC) method, so that the zeolite crystals remain attached to the oscillating microbalance while keeping good electroconductivity of the LCM during the adsorption measurements. Compared to a conventional quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) which is limited to temperatures below 80 &#176;C, the LCM can realize the adsorption measurements in principle at temperatures as high as 200-300 &#176;C (i.e., at or close to the reaction temperature of the target application of one-stage DME synthesis from the synthesis gas), owing to the absence of crystalline-phase transitions up to its melting point (1,470 &#176;C). The system was applied to investigate the adsorption of CO2, H2O, methanol and dimethyl ether (DME), each in the gas phase, on zeolite H-ZSM-5 in the temperature and pressure range of 50-150 &#176;C and 0-18 bar, respectively. The results showed that the adsorption isotherms of these gases in H-ZSM-5 can be well fitted by Langmuir-type adsorption isotherms. Furthermore, the determined adsorption parameters, i.e., adsorption capacities, adsorption enthalpies, and adsorption entropies, compare well to literature data. In this work, the results for CO2 are shown as an example.

A protocol for high-temperature and high-pressure gas adsorption measurements on zeolite H-ZSM-5 using an adsorption measurement device based on a langatate crystal microbalance is presented. Prior to the adsorption measurements, the synthesis of zeolite H-ZSM-5 on the langatate crystal microbalance sensor by the steam-assisted crystallization (SAC) method is demonstrated.

We present a high-temperature and high-pressure gas adsorption measurement device based on a high-frequency oscillating microbalance (5 MHz langatate ...

Effect of Bending on the Electrical Characteristics of Flexible Organic Single Crystal-based Field-effect Transistors

The charge transport in an organic semiconductor depends highly on the molecular packing in the crystal, which influences the electronic coupling immensely. However, in soft electronics, in which organic semiconductors play a critical role, the devices will be bent or folded repeatedly. The effect of bending on the crystal packing and thus the charge transport is crucial to the performance of the device. In this manuscript, we describe the protocol to bend a single crystal of 5,7,12,16-tetrachloro-6,13-diazapentacene (TCDAP) in the field-effect transistor configuration and to obtain reproducible I-V characteristics upon bending the crystal. The results show that bending a field-effect transistor prepared on a flexible substrate results in nearly reversible yet opposite trends in charge mobility, depending on the bending direction. The mobility increases when the device is bent toward the top gate/dielectric layer (upward, compressive state) and decreases when bent toward the crystal/substrate side (downward, tensile state). The effect of bending curvature was also observed, with greater mobility change resulting from higher bending curvature. It is suggested that the intermolecular &#960;-&#960; distance changes upon bending, thereby influencing the electronic coupling and the subsequent carrier transport ability.

This manuscript describes the bending process of an organic single crystal-based field-effect transistor to maintain a functioning device for electronic property measurement. The results suggest that bending causes changes in the molecular spacing in the crystal and thus in the charge hopping rate, which is important in flexible electronics.

The charge transport in an organic semiconductor depends highly on the molecular packing in the crystal, which influences the electronic coupling ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Visually Based Characterization of the Incipient Particle Motion in Regular Substrates: From Laminar to Turbulent Conditions

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to turbulent flow conditions are presented. For that purpose, the incipient motion of a single bead is studied on regular substrates that consist of a monolayer of fixed spheres of uniform size that are regularly arranged in triangular and quadratic symmetries. The threshold is characterized by the critical Shields number. The criterion for the onset of motion is defined as the displacement from the original equilibrium position to the neighboring one. The displacement and the mode of motion are identified with an imaging system. The laminar flow is induced using a rotational rheometer with a parallel disk configuration. The shear Reynolds number remains below 1. The turbulent flow is induced in a low-speed wind tunnel with open jet test section. The air velocity is regulated with a frequency converter on the blower fan. The velocity profile is measured with a hot wire probe connected to a hot film anemometer. The shear Reynolds number ranges between 40 and 150. The logarithmic velocity law and the modified wall law presented by Rotta are used to infer the shear velocity from the experimental data. The latter is of special interest when the mobile bead is partially exposed to the turbulent flow in the so-called hydraulically transitional flow regime. The shear stress is estimated at onset of motion. Some illustrative results showing the strong impact of the angle of repose, and the exposure of the bead to shear flow are represented in both regimes.

Two different methods for characterizing the incipient particle motion of a single bead as a function of the sediment bed geometry from laminar to turbulent flow are presented.

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to ...

Fabrication of Flexible Image Sensor Based on Lateral NIPIN Phototransistors

Flexible photodetectors have been intensely studied for the use of curved image sensors, which are a crucial component in bio-inspired imaging systems, but several challenging points remain, such as a low absorption efficiency due to a thin active layer and low flexibility. We present an advanced method to fabricate a flexible phototransistor array with an improved electrical performance. The outstanding electrical performance is driven by a low dark current owing to deep impurity doping. Stretchable and flexible metal interconnectors simultaneously offer electrical and mechanical stabilities in a highly deformed state. The protocol explicitly describes the fabrication process of the phototransistor using a thin silicon membrane. By measuring I-V characteristics of the completed device in deformed states, we demonstrate that this approach improves the mechanical and electrical stabilities of the phototransistor array. We expect that this approach to a flexible phototransistor can be widely used for the applications of not only next-generation imaging systems/optoelectronics but also wearable devices such as tactile/pressure/temperature sensors and health monitors.

We present a detailed method to fabricate a deformable lateral NIPIN phototransistor array for curved image sensors. The phototransistor array with an open mesh form, which is composed of thin silicon islands and stretchable metal interconnectors, provides flexibility and stretchability. The parameter analyzer characterizes the electrical property of the fabricated phototransistor.

Flexible photodetectors have been intensely studied for the use of curved image sensors, which are a crucial component in bio-inspired imaging systems, ...

Pore-scale Imaging and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rock Wettability at Subsurface Conditions Using X-ray Microtomography

In situ wettability measurements in hydrocarbon reservoir rocks have only been possible recently. The purpose of this work is to present a protocol to characterize the complex wetting conditions of hydrocarbon reservoir rock using pore-scale three-dimensional X-ray imaging at subsurface conditions. In this work, heterogeneous carbonate reservoir rocks, extracted from a very large producing oil field, have been used to demonstrate the protocol. The rocks are saturated with brine and oil and aged over three weeks at subsurface conditions to replicate the wettability conditions that typically exist in hydrocarbon reservoirs (known as mixed-wettability). After the brine injection, high-resolution three-dimensional images (2 &#181;m/voxel) are acquired and then processed and segmented. To calculate the distribution of the contact angle, which defines the wettability, the following steps are performed. First, fluid-fluid and fluid-rock surfaces are meshed. The surfaces are smoothed to remove voxel artefacts, and in situ contact angles are measured at the three-phase contact line throughout the whole image. The main advantage of this method is its ability to characterize in situ wettability accounting for pore-scale rock properties, such as rock surface roughness, rock chemical composition, and pore size. The in situ wettability is determined rapidly at hundreds of thousands of points. 
The method is limited by the segmentation accuracy and X-ray image resolution. This protocol could be used to characterize the wettability of other complex rocks saturated with different fluids and at different conditions for a variety of applications. For example, it could help in determining the optimal wettability that could yield an extra oil recovery (i.e., designing brine salinity accordingly to obtain higher oil recovery) and to find the most efficient wetting conditions to trap more CO2 in subsurface formations.

This protocol is presented to characterize the complex wetting conditions of an opaque porous medium (hydrocarbon reservoir rock) using three-dimensional images obtained by X-ray microtomography at subsurface conditions.

In situ wettability measurements in hydrocarbon reservoir rocks have only been possible recently. The purpose of this work is to present a protocol to ...