The authors would like to thank the Buckwalter lab (especially Dr. Todd Peterson) for providing the mouse model and performing the dMCAO and sham surgeries. Additionally, we would like to thank Thomas Liguori from Invicro for his technical assistance with VivoQuant image analysis software, Dr. Tim Doyle, Dr. Laura Pisani, Dr. Frezghi Habte from the SCi3 small animal imaging facility at Stanford for their advice and assistance in developing this imaging protocol, and the Radiochemistry facility (especially Dr. Jun Park) for their help with the synthesis of [11C]DPA-713.

<ol>
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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+inflammatory+response+in+stroke.">The inflammatory response in stroke.</a> J Neuroimmunol. 184 (1-2), 53-68 (2007).</li><li>Brown, R. C., Papadopoulos, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+the+peripheral-type+benzodiazepine+receptor+in+adrenal+and+brain+steroidogenesis.">Role of the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor in adrenal and brain steroidogenesis.</a> Int Rev Neurobiol. 46, 117-143 (2001).</li><li>Papadopoulos, V., Lecanu, L., Brown, R. C., Han, Z., Yao, Z. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peripheral-type+benzodiazepine+receptor+in+neurosteroid+biosynthesis,+neuropathology+and+neurological+disorders.">Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor in neurosteroid biosynthesis, neuropathology and neurological disorders.</a> Neuroscience. 138 (3), 749-756 (2006).</li><li>Scarf, A. M., Kassiou, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+translocator+protein.">The translocator protein.</a> J Nucl Med. 52 (5), 677-680 (2011).</li><li>Cerami, C., Perani, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+neuroinflammation+in+ischemic+stroke+and+in+the+atherosclerotic+vascular+disease.">Imaging neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke and in the atherosclerotic vascular disease.</a> Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 13 (2), 218-222 (2015).</li><li>Stefaniak, J., O'Brien, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+of+neuroinflammation+in+dementia:+a+review.">Imaging of neuroinflammation in dementia: a review.</a> J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 87 (1), 21-28 (2016).</li><li>Gerhard, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TSPO+imaging+in+parkinsonian+disorders.">TSPO imaging in parkinsonian disorders.</a> Clin Transl Imaging. 4, 183-190 (2016).</li><li>Airas, L., Rissanen, E., Rinne, J. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+neuroinflammation+in+multiple+sclerosis+using+TSPO-PET.">Imaging neuroinflammation in multiple sclerosis using TSPO-PET.</a> Clin Transl Imaging. 3, 461-473 (2015).</li><li>Fan, J., Lindemann, P., Feuilloley, M. G., Papadopoulos, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+functional+evolution+of+the+translocator+protein+(18+kDa).">Structural and functional evolution of the translocator protein (18 kDa).</a> Curr Mol Med. 12 (4), 369-386 (2012).</li><li>James, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+in+vivo+evaluation+of+a+novel+peripheral+benzodiazepine+receptor+PET+radioligand.">Synthesis and in vivo evaluation of a novel peripheral benzodiazepine receptor PET radioligand.</a> Bioorg Med Chem. 13 (22), 6188-6194 (2005).</li><li>Boutin, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=11C-DPA-713:+A+novel+peripheral+benzodiazepine+receptor+PET+ligand+for+in+vivo+imaging+of+neuroinflammation.">11C-DPA-713: A novel peripheral benzodiazepine receptor PET ligand for in vivo imaging of neuroinflammation.</a> J Nucl Med. 48 (4), 573-581 (2007).</li><li>Doyle, K. P., Buckwalter, M. 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L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+analysis+of+neuroinflammation+in+the+late+chronic+phase+after+experimental+stroke.">In vivo analysis of neuroinflammation in the late chronic phase after experimental stroke.</a> Neuroscience. 292, 71-80 (2015).</li><li>Rojas, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+brain+inflammation+with+[(11)C]PK11195+by+PET+and+induction+of+the+peripheral-type+benzodiazepine+receptor+after+transient+focal+ischemia+in+rats.">Imaging brain inflammation with [(11)C]PK11195 by PET and induction of the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor after transient focal ischemia in rats.</a> J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 27 (12), 1975-1986 (2007).</li><li>Glazier, S. S., O'Rourke, D. M., Graham, D. I., Welsh, F. 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The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

The presented protocol describes a method for the quantification of neuroinflammation in dMCAO and sham mice using [11C]DPA-713-PET. TSPO-PET is the most widely investigated imaging biomarker for visualizing and measuring neuroinflammation in vivo to date. TSPO expression is upregulated on glia in the brain during inflammation permitting the non-invasive detection and quantification of neuroinflammation. Moreover, it is a highly translatable technique, making it a valuable tool in both clinical and pre-clinical research. This protocol and representative results highlight the suitability of using [11C]DPA-713 PET to detect and monitor neuroinflammatory alterations in stroke and other neurological disorders in vivo.
In this study, dMCAO surgery was carried out using 3-month-old C57BL/6 female mice. This model was chosen as it gives rise to a highly reproducible infarct restricted to the somatosensory cortex, providing a model of permanent focal ischemia with low variability compared to other models of stroke (e.g., middle cerebral arterial occlusion (MCAO) filament method)14. PET imaging of stroke models has the advantage of containing an internal reference region in the brain for each animal using ROIs within the contralateral hemisphere. Since there will be some inflammation that results from the surgery alone, it is important to include mice that underwent sham surgery in the study design, whereby craniotomy and manipulation of meninges without artery occlusion was performed. Craniotomy alone can result in disruption to the underlying neuronal tissue and introduction of pathogens leading to immune responses independent of stroke20. Some inflammation after sham surgery is therefore expected and should be assessed in parallel to dMCAO to exclude the possibility of signal due to surgery alone. To avoid including inflammation resulting from the surgery without stroke in dMCAO cohort analysis, MR imaging must be conducted to confirm successful stroke surgery and infarct development. MRI also provides a structural reference frame, which is essential to accurately draw the infarct and contralateral ROIs. Additionally, accurate image processing including image registration and ROI definition are necessary to ensure reliable quantification.
Additional limitations must be kept in mind when working with C-11 labeled radiotracers for PET and autoradiography studies. It is imperative to consider the short half-life (20.33 min) of C-11, with its use generally restricted to research institutes with on-site cyclotron access. Appropriate radioactivity transportation route, dose administration, and acquisition time-points must be determined in advance with a pre-prepared detailed plan of the workflow of the experiment so that the team can work quickly and efficiently. The design and set-up of this study has been outlined to accommodate imaging of 4 mice simultaneously to increase the data output obtainable when using a C-11 tracer. If possible, it is advisable to have all mice cannulated and in the middle of their CT scan by the time the C-11 tracer arrives at the imaging facility to ensure minimal radiotracer decay prior to injection. This step-by-step protocol is also best carried out by a team containing at least 3 researchers to allow for quick cannulation, dose measurement, tracer injection, PET scanning and brain sectioning prior to significant radioactive decay. It requires two people to conduct the initiation of the PET scan and injection of all 4 mice simultaneously. The reason for beginning the PET acquisition just prior to injection is to ensure the pharmacokinetics and dynamics of tracer distribution in blood and regions of interest are accurately and completely captured. Many steps may require vigorous training and practice to ensure smooth running of the experiment. In particular, this protocol is dependent on successful tail vein cannulation of C57BL/6 mice, which can be difficult due to dark hair present on their tails, and may become more challenging after stroke has occurred or if imaging the same mice at multiple time-points.
Another consideration for PET imaging includes careful recording of radiotracer dose and residual activity measurements, including the exact time of measurement. This is essential for accurate decay correction of the injected dose at the time of the scan and is used to obtain an accurate measurement of tracer uptake (i.e., % ID/g) for each ROI. It is imperative to know the exact amount of radioactivity that was present in each mouse at the time of scanning to ensure accurate image analysis. Therefore, it is advisable to synchronize the clocks on the scanner computer and dose calibrator to avoid error when using short-lived isotopes such as C-11.
Accurate PET image quantification can also be limited by the accuracy of the scanner and set-up. Hence to ensure accurate quantification of PET/CT images, it is important to carry out quality control checks for both the CT and PET components of the scanner. CT quality control checks include X-ray source conditioning, dark/light, and center off set calibrations. These calibrations measure and correct for system noise and must be performed prior to acquisition as recommended by the scanner manufacturer. Calibrations should also be performed for the PET scanner. This typically involves scanning a &#34;standard/ PET phantom&#34; scan, containing a known concentration of radioactivity. When preparing the standard, it is best to use the same radioisotope used in the study, a comparable dose to that administered to a single mouse in a volume similar to the body of a mouse, and the same acquisition parameters as animal imaging. A 20 mL syringe filled with radiotracer diluted in water is used for the standard in this protocol, with the subsequent PET imaging results used to calculate a correction factor based on the actual dose measured by the calibration detector. The correction ratio can be applied to the imaging data acquired in the experiment to ensure accurate quantification of tracer uptake in regions of interest in PET images. This accounts for the positron range of the radionuclide in addition to considering any background activity present on the day of scanning. As the dose calibrator is an integral part of the generation of this correction factor, it is imperative that this equipment is also calibrated regularly according to the manufacturer guidelines.
When conducting ex vivo autoradiography it is important to pick an optimal time-point for euthanasia after injection, to ensure high signal-to-background in region(s) of interest. Thirty minutes post-injection was chosen for [11C]DPA-713 autoradiography using data acquired during dynamic PET imaging -i.e., the in vivo dynamic TACs as a guide, while also considering the short half-life of C-11 and the time involved to section and expose the brain tissue after extraction. Considering this, [11C]DPA-713 autoradiography must be performed on a separate cohort of mice to allow for injection of a higher [11C]DPA-713 dose and a 30 minute time-point for perfusion and euthanasia under anesthesia. Performing a small in vivo PET pilot study with a 3-4 mice prior to conducting ex vivo autoradiography will be helpful for determining the optimal time point for autoradiography. An additional consideration for ex vivo autoradiography is whether to recover the mice after injection or keep them anesthetized until euthanasia. Keeping them anesthetized mimics the conditions of the scan and ensures the radiotracer distribution or excretion kinetics are not altered by recovery. Furthermore, this prevents additional stress on the mice by avoiding recovery and subsequent induction. Finally, a useful addition to the ex vivo protocol would be to assess the regional damage in the brain slices used for autoradiography via immunohistochemical staining (after radioactive decay) to generate a high-resolution image of infarct location and volume.
As there are limitations with the use of a C-11 based tracer, this protocol can easily be modified for use with a F-18 (half-life of 109.77 min) based TSPO tracer, which may be more applicable to locations without an on-site cyclotron. Additionally, this protocol describes the use of a 4-mouse imaging set-up. Although this high throughput method is optimal when using a C-11 tracer, this protocol may also be modified for those using single mouse imaging beds. Careful planning and consistent training in the techniques outlined in this protocol will lead to the generation of a wealth of data using [11C]DPA-713, which can easily be applied to probe the role of neuroinflammation in disease manifestation and progression in other rodent models of neurological disorders. Moreover, this technique could be used to assess the in vivo response to immunomodulatory therapeutics targeted at microglia/macrophages.

Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death and a major cause of disability in the United States1. Ischemic stroke represents an overwhelming majority of these cases (~87%), occurring when there is localized disruption in blood flow to the brain (e.g., by a blood clot or fatty deposit). Oxygen and nutrient supplies to the affected areas are subsequently reduced and a complex pathologic cascade is initiated resulting in neuronal death within the stroke core (infarct) in addition to the surrounding areas. Neuroinflammation is a crucial component in the pathway leading to this damage, with both resident brain immune cells (microglia) and infiltrating peripheral immune cells (neutrophils, T cells, B cells, and monocytes/macrophages) thought to contribute to this destructive cascade2,3. Activated microglia and macrophages are central to this neuroinflammatory response, with reports of both deleterious and beneficial effects following ischemic stroke2. Thus, it is imperative to assess the in vivo contribution of these cells following stroke.
PET is a powerful 3-dimensional molecular imaging technique that enables visualization of biological processes in vivo through the use of specific molecules labeled with positron (&#946;+) emitting radionuclides such as 11C, 13N, 15O and 18F. This non-invasive method has many advantages over ex vivo methods (e.g., immunohistochemistry) as it permits the acquisition of molecular information in real time, in living intact subjects, and allows for longitudinal investigation. PET imaging of TSPO, a marker of activated microglia and peripheral myeloid-lineage cells, provides a means to quantify and track innate immune cell responses within the body, and can be utilized to assess inflammation after stroke and response to therapeutic interventions. TSPO, formerly known as the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor, is an 18 kDa protein that is believed to play a role in cholesterol transport and the synthesis of neurosteroids4. Moreover, evidence suggests that TSPO is involved in neuroinflammation and neuronal survival5,6, with reports of increased expression in many neurological disorders involving inflammation including stroke7, dementia8, Parkinson&#39;s disease9 and multiple sclerosis10. TSPO is located on outer mitochondrial membranes and is highly expressed in the periphery, particularly in steroid associated tissues (e.g., glands) and with intermediate levels seen in the heart, kidneys, and lungs10.However in the healthy brain, TSPO levels are low and restricted mainly to glia6,11. Upon neuronal injury, such as that observed in stroke, TSPO levels in the central nervous system (CNS) increase significantly. This observed upregulation of TSPO can be exploited to image neuroinflammation in vivo, with expression levels providing an accurate indicator of inflammation severity. Hence, the goal of this method is to accurately quantify thein vivo contribution of neuroinflammation in a mouse model of ischemic stroke using TSPO-PET.
Multiple TSPO tracers have been developed for PET imaging of neuroinflammation. Here, TSPO-PET imaging is described using [11C]DPA-71312, a promising second generation TSPO tracer, which has shown enhanced signal to noise and lower non-specific binding than the more historically used [11C]PK11195 13. As an example, the dMCAO mouse model of stroke was chosen for this method14. This model involves temporal craniotomy and permanent ligation of the distal middle cerebral artery, resulting in focal ischemia of the somatosensory cortex. This is advantageous in pre-clinical stroke research due the high reproducibility of ischemic damage and low mortality rates associated with this model. To date, TSPO-PET imaging studies have yet to be reported in the dMCAO rodent model. However, previous PET imaging studies using the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model, a more severe and variable stroke model, in both mice and rats, have reported TSPO expression to increase from day 3 and peak around day 7 post-stroke15,16,17,18. Hence, we performed PET imaging 6 days post-dMCAO to coincide with elevated TSPO expression. [11C]DPA-713 uptake in the brain was assessed in ipsilateral (infarcted) and contralateral hemispheres. TSPO-PET was combined with structural MRI, allowing for precise delineation of infarct and contralateral regions of interest (ROIs). Here we describe both an atlas-based and an MRI-driven ROI approach to calculate [11C]DPA-713 uptake. Radiotracer uptake in spleen was also assessed to investigate peripheral levels of inflammation between groups. This method has the potential to provide critical insights into the spatiotemporal dynamics and role of specific neuroimmune interactions in stroke and other neurological diseases.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:589px;" width="589">
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		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Inveon PET/CT scanner</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Siemens</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Version 4.2</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">MRI scanner</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Varian</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>7 Telsa</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">ParaVision software</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Bruker</td>
			<td>Version 6.0.1</td>
			<td>MRI operating software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">VivoQuant software</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">InVicro</td>
			<td>Version 2.5</td>
			<td>Image analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Inveon Research Workspace software</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Siemens</td>
			<td>Version 4.2</td>
			<td>Scanner operating software. Includes microQView, the post-processing managing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Dose calibrator</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Capintech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>CRC-15 PET</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Typhoon phosphor imager 9410</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">8149-30-9410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:215px;">Butterfly catheters</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">SAI Infusion Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BFL-24</td>
			<td>27.5 G needle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">1 mL syringes</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Insulin syringes</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">BD</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">329461</td>
			<td>0.5 mL insulin syringes with needle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">20 mL syringe&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BD302831</td>
			<td>BD Syringe Slip Tip Graduated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:215px;">Tissue glue</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Santa Cruz Animal Health</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">sc-361931</td>
			<td>3 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Heat lamp</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Fluker</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">27002</td>
			<td>5.5&#34; reptile heat lamp with clamp and switch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">0.9% sterile saline</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Pfizer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">00409-4888-10</td>
			<td>0.9% sodium chloride for injection, 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Eye lubricant</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Watson Rugby</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PV926977</td>
			<td>Artificial Tears Lubricant Eye Ointment, 1/8 oz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Chux absorbent sheets</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">1420662</td>
			<td>Disposable absorbent padding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:215px;">Iris scissors</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">503708-12</td>
			<td>11.5cm, Straight, 12-pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Surgical tape</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">3M Durapore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1538-0</td>
			<td>1/2&#34;X10 yard roll, silk, hypoallergenic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Mouse PET bed</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">In house</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>4 mouse PET bed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Lighter</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Bic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UDP2WMDC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NDC 11695-6776-2</td>
			<td>Isothesia, inhalation anesthetic, 250 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Oxygen</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Praxiar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UN1072</td>
			<td>Compressed gas</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:215px;">Autoradiography cassette</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">Cole Palmer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EW-21700-34</td>
			<td>Aluminum, 8&#34; x 10&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:215px;">Autoradiography film</td>
			<td style="width:89px;">GE Life Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">28-9564-78</td>
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pet imaging of neuroinflammation using [11c]dpa-713 in a mouse model of ischemic stroke

Neuroinflammation is central to the pathological cascade following ischemic stroke. Non-invasive molecular imaging methods have the potential to provide critical insights into the temporal dynamics and role of certain neuroimmune interactions in stroke. Specifically, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO), a marker of activated microglia and peripheral myeloid-lineage cells, provides a means to detect and track neuroinflammation in vivo. Here, we present a method to accurately quantify neuroinflammation using [11C]N,N-Diethyl-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5,7-dimethylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl]acetamide ([11C]DPA-713), a promising second generation TSPO-PET radiotracer, in distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO) compared to sham-operated mice. MRI was performed 2 days post-dMCAO surgery to confirm stroke and define the infarct location and volume. PET/Computed Tomography (CT) imaging was carried out 6 days post-dMCAO to capture the peak increase in TSPO levels following stroke. Quantitation of PET images was conducted to assess the uptake of [11C]DPA-713 in the brain and spleen of dMCAO and sham mice to assess central and peripheral levels of inflammation. In vivo [11C]DPA-713 brain uptake was confirmed using ex vivo autoradiography.

Mice underwent MRI to verify successful stroke, and [11C]DPA-713 PET was carried out by scanning 4 mice simultaneously. PET, CT, and MR images were co-registered prior to manually drawing brain ROIs and performing the semi-automated split brain atlas analysis, to investigate tracer uptake in ipsilateral and contralateral regions (Figure 2).
PET/CT images and time activity curves (TACs-radiotracer activity as a function of time) display increased [11C]DPA-713 uptake in the ipsilateral versus contralateral hemispheres (Figure 3A). Quantification of dynamic PET brain images, using summed data from 50-60 min, revealed a significant increase in tracer uptake (% ID/g) in the ipsilateral (infarcted) compared to the contralateral hemisphere in dMCAO, but not in sham mice using the manually drawn ROI approach (Figure 3B). Increased uptake was also observed in the ipsilateral hemisphere between dMCAO and sham mice. No significant differences between ipsilateral and contralateral hemispheres were observed using the atlas approach, likely due to the atlas ROIs being larger than the size of the infarct (usually restricted to the somatosensory cortex), therefore diluting the signal. However, overall increased uptake in dMCAO compared to sham was observed for all ROIs, which aligns with previous reports using MCAO model mice, demonstrating increased TSPO expression in regions outside of the infarct19. Ipsilateral/contralateral ratios were increased in the dMCAO versus sham mice using both approaches; however, this difference was only significant in the cortex using the brain atlas approach due to larger variance in the ROI approach. This may be overcome by increasing the number of mice in each group. Quantification of [11C]DPA-713 uptake in spleen showed no significant differences between groups (Figure 4).
Brain dMCAO mouse PET imaging results were confirmed by ex vivo high resolution digital autoradiography (Figure 5). Increased [11C]DPA-713 uptake was observed in infarcted tissue with negligible signal in surrounding healthy brain tissue. Quantitation of these images revealed ipsilateral to contralateral ratios ranging from 1.4 to 2.09 in dMCAO mice.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: PET Scanner and Workspace Set-up. All workspaces were covered in protective absorbent padding to create a sterile environment. (A) After calibrations, a 3D-printed mouse bed, equipped for imaging 4 mice simultaneously was secured in the scanner and nose cones for all 4 mice attached to the anesthesia. (B) Necessary equipment for PET imaging were prepared in advance, including saline-filled 27.5 G catheters, eye lubricant, ethanol swabs, heat lamps, surgical tape, tissue glue, 0.5 mL dose syringes, scissors and a lighter. (C) For radiotracer injection, place saline-flush syringes and scissors at the back of the scanner. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Ipsilateral/Contralateral ROI and Right/Left-Split Hemisphere Brain Atlas PET Image Analysis Process. Image analysis software was used to determine the tracer uptake in ipsilateral and contralateral regions of interest (ROIs) using manually drawn ROIs and a semi-automated 3D split-brain atlas approach. Automatic 3D PET/CT registration was carried out followed by manual registration of the brain MRI within the corresponding mouse skull defined in the CT image. The 3D ROI tool was used to manually draw ipsilateral (red) and contralateral (green) ROIs using the infarct on the MRI as a reference. For the split-brain approach, the 3D left/right-split mouse brain atlas was loaded and fitted within the skull as defined by the CT image. Brain ROIs used for quantification in this 3D mouse brain atlas included Left Cortex (Dark Grey), Left Hippocampus (Cornflower Blue), Left Striatum (Deep Pink), Right Cortex (Tomato red), Right Hippocampus (Green), and Right Striatium (Cyan). The uptake of [11C]DPA-713 in each region was obtained in nCi/cc and was subsequently converted to %ID/g by normalizing to the decay-corrected dose at time of scanning for each mouse. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative In Vivo [11C]DPA-713 Brain Uptake in DMCAO and Sham Mice. (A) Dynamic PET/CT images and TACs demonstrate increased [11C]DPA-713 uptake in the ipsilateral cortex of mice that underwent DMCAO (n = 3) and a slight increase for sham (n = 3) operated mice, with DMCAO mice demonstrating significantly greater contrast in percentage injected dose between the infarct and contralateral side of the brain (%ID/g). (B) PET quantification (50-60 min summed) revealed significantly increased uptake in the ipsilateral ROI using the ROI approach and in the cortex (Ctx) using the split-brain atlas approach. No significant differences were found in the hippocampus (HC) or striatum (Str). Increased ipsilateral to contralateral ratios were seen using both analysis approaches but was only statistically significant in the Ctx using the brain atlas approach. * (p &#60;0.05), *** (p &#60;0.001) <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig4v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Representative In Vivo [11C]DPA-713 Spleen Uptake in dMCAO and Sham Mice. (A) [11C]DPA-713 dynamic PET/CT images showing spleen ROIs in dMCAO (n = 3) and sham (n = 3) mice. (B) Quantitative results demonstrate no significant results in spleen uptake between dMCAO and sham mice. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig4v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig5v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Representative Autoradiography Results. Digital autoradiography images demonstrate increased [11C]DPA-713 uptake in the ipsilateral compared to contralateral hemisphere. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57243/57243fig5v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation Using [11C]DPA-713 in a Mouse Model of Ischemic Stroke at JoVE.com

PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation Using [11C]DPA-713 in a Mouse Model of Ischemic Stroke

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) provides a non-invasive means to visualize the dynamic role of neuroinflammation in the development and progression of brain diseases. This protocol describes TSPO-PET and ex vivo autoradiography to detect neuroinflammation in a mouse model of ischemic stroke.

PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation Using [11C]DPA-713 in a Mouse Model of Ischemic Stroke

Neuroinflammation is central to the pathological cascade following ischemic stroke. Non-invasive molecular imaging methods have the potential to provide ...

pet-imaging-neuroinflammation-using-11cdpa-713-mouse-model-ischemic

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

12.5K Views.  Stanford University. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) provides a non-invasive means to visualize the dynamic role of neuroinflammation in the development and progression of brain diseases. This protocol describes TSPO-PET and ex vivo autoradiography to detect neuroinflammation in a mouse model of ischemic stroke.

Video: PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation Using [11C]DPA-713 in a Mouse Model of Ischemic Stroke

Intraluminal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion (MCAO) Model for Ischemic Stroke with Laser Doppler Flowmetry Guidance in Mice

Stroke is the third leading cause of death and the leading cause of disability in the world, with an estimated cost of near $70 billion 
in the United States in 20091,2. The intraluminal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was developed by Koizumi4 in 1986 to simulate this 
impactful human pathology in the rat. A modification of the MCAO method was later presented by Longa3. Both techniques have been widely used to identify 
molecular mechanisms of brain injury resulting from ischemic stroke and potential therapeutic modalities5. This relatively noninvasive method in rats has been 
extended to use in mice to take advantage of transgenic and knockout strains6,7. To model focal cerebral ischemia, an intraluminal suture is advanced via 
the internal carotid artery to occlude the base of the MCA. Retracting the suture after a specified period of time mimics spontaneous reperfusion, but the 
suture can also be permanently retained. This video will be demonstrating the two major approaches for performing intraluminal MCAO procedure in mice in a 
stepwise fashion, as well as providing insights for potential drawbacks and pitfalls. The ischemic brain tissue will subsequently be stained by 
2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) to evaluate the extent of cerebral infarction8.

Intraluminal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion MCAO Model for Ischemic Stroke with Laser Doppler Flowmetry Guidance in Mice

The intraluminal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model is the most frequent used model among experimental ischemic stroke models. Here we will demonstrate the entire model in detail with the guide of Laser Doppler flowmetry, and its representative results.

Stroke is the third leading cause of death and the leading cause of disability in the world, with an estimated cost of near $70 billion 
in the United ...

Multi-photon Imaging of Tumor Cell Invasion in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient management strategies. Orthotopic mouse models of oral cancer have been developed to facilitate the study of factors that impact invasion and serve as model system for evaluating anti-tumor therapeutics. In these systems, visualization of disseminated tumor cells within oral cavity tissues has typically been conducted by either conventional histology or with in vivo bioluminescent methods. A primary drawback of these techniques is the inherent inability to accurately visualize and quantify early tumor cell invasion arising from the primary site in three dimensions. Here we describe a protocol that combines an established model for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (SCOT) with two-photon imaging to allow multi-vectorial visualization of lingual tumor spread. The OSC-19 head and neck tumor cell line was stably engineered to express the F-actin binding peptide LifeAct fused to the mCherry fluorescent protein (LifeAct-mCherry). Fox1nu/nu mice injected with these cells reliably form tumors that allow the tongue to be visualized by ex-vivo application of two-photon microscopy. This technique allows for the orthotopic visualization of the tumor mass and locally invading cells in excised tongues without disruption of the regional tumor microenvironment. In addition, this system allows for the quantification of tumor cell invasion by calculating distances that invaded cells move from the primary tumor site. Overall this procedure provides an enhanced model system for analyzing factors that contribute to SCOT invasion and therapeutic treatments tailored to prevent local invasion and distant metastatic spread. This method also has the potential to be ultimately combined with other imaging modalities in an in vivo setting.

A comprehensive overview of the techniques involved in generating a mouse model of oral cancer and quantitative monitoring of tumor invasion within the tongue through multi-photon microscopy of labeled cells is presented. This system can serve as a useful platform for the molecular assessment and drug efficacy of anti-invasive compounds.

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient ...

Endothelin-1 Induced Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Model for Ischemic Stroke with Laser Doppler Flowmetry Guidance in Rat

Stroke is the number one cause of disability and third leading cause of death in the world, costing an estimated $70 billion in the United States in 20091, 2. Several models of cerebral ischemia have been developed to mimic the human condition of stroke. It has been suggested that up to 80% of all strokes result from ischemic damage in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) area3. In the early 1990s, endothelin-1 (ET-1) 4 was used to induce ischemia by applying it directly adjacent to the surface of the MCA after craniotomy. Later, this model was modified 5 by using a stereotaxic injection of ET-1 adjacent to the MCA to produce focal cerebral ischemia. The main advantages of this model include the ability to perform the procedure quickly, the ability to control artery constriction by altering the dose of ET-1 delivered, no need to manipulate the extracranial vessels supplying blood to the brain as well as gradual reperfusion rates that more closely mimics the reperfusion in humans5-7. On the other hand, the ET-1 model has disadvantages that include the need for a craniotomy, as well as higher variability in stroke volume8. This variability can be reduced with the use of laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) to verify cerebral ischemia during ET-1 infusion. Factors that affect stroke variability include precision of infusion and the batch of the ET-1 used6. Another important consideration is that although reperfusion is a common occurrence in human stroke, the duration of occlusion for ET-1 induced MCAO may not closely mimic that of human stroke where many patients have partial reperfusion over a period of hours to days following occlusion9, 10. This protocol will describe in detail the ET-1 induced MCAO model for ischemic stroke in rats. It will also draw attention to special considerations and potential drawbacks throughout the procedure.

Several animal models of cerebral ischemia have been developed to simulate the human condition of stroke. This protocol describes the endothelin-1 (ET-1) induced middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model for ischemic stroke in rats. In addition, important considerations, advantages, and shortcomings of this model are discussed.

Stroke is the number one cause of disability and third leading cause of death in the world, costing an estimated $70 billion in the United States in ...

MRI and PET in Mouse Models of Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial infarction is one of the leading causes of death in the Western world. The similarity of the mouse heart to the human heart has made it an ideal model for testing novel therapeutic strategies.
In vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) gives excellent views of the heart noninvasively with clear anatomical detail, which can be used for accurate functional assessment. Contrast agents can provide basic measures of tissue viability but these are nonspecific. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a complementary technique that is highly specific for molecular imaging, but lacks the anatomical detail of MRI. Used together, these techniques offer a sensitive, specific and quantitative tool for the assessment of the heart in disease and recovery following treatment.
In this paper we explain how these methods are carried out in mouse models of acute myocardial infarction. The procedures described here were designed for the assessment of putative protective drug treatments. We used MRI to measure systolic function and infarct size with late gadolinium enhancement, and PET with fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to assess metabolic function in the infarcted region. The paper focuses on practical aspects such as slice planning, accurate gating, drug delivery, segmentation of images, and multimodal coregistration. The methods presented here achieve good repeatability and accuracy maintaining a high throughput.

We describe how to perform MRI and PET imaging of the mouse heart. The protocol is tailored to assess treatment efficacy in models of myocardial infarction and heart failure.

Myocardial infarction is one of the leading causes of death in the Western world. The similarity of the mouse heart to the human heart has made it an ...

A Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

In this video publication a standardized mouse model of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is presented. Bleeding is induced by endovascular Circle of Willis perforation (CWp) and proven by intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring. Thereby a homogenous blood distribution in subarachnoid spaces surrounding the arterial circulation and cerebellar fissures is achieved. Animal physiology is maintained by intubation, mechanical ventilation, and continuous on-line monitoring of various physiological and cardiovascular parameters: body temperature, systemic blood pressure, heart rate, and hemoglobin saturation. Thereby the cerebral perfusion pressure can be tightly monitored resulting in a less variable volume of extravasated blood. This allows a better standardization of endovascular filament perforation in mice and makes the whole model highly reproducible. Thus it is readily available for pharmacological and pathophysiological studies in wild type and genetically altered mice.

A standardized mouse model of subarachnoid hemorrhage by intraluminal Circle of Willis perforation is described. Vessel perforation and subarachnoid bleeding are monitored by intracranial pressure monitoring. In addition various vital parameters are recorded and controlled to maintain physiologic conditions.

In this video publication a standardized mouse model of subarachnoid  hemorrhage (SAH) is presented. Bleeding is induced by endovascular Circle of  Willis ...

Excitotoxic Stimulation of Brain Microslices as an In vitro Model of Stroke

Examining molecular mechanisms involved in neuropathological conditions, such as ischemic stroke, can be difficult when using whole animal systems. As such, primary or &#39;neuronal-like&#39; cell culture systems are commonly utilized. While&#160;these systems are relatively easy to work with, and are useful model systems in which various functional outcomes (such as cell death) can be readily quantified, the examined outcomes and pathways in cultured immature neurons (such as excitotoxicity-mediated cell death pathways) are not necessarily the same as those observed in mature brain, or in intact tissue. Therefore, there is the need to develop models in which cellular mechanisms in mature neural tissue can be examined. We have developed an in vitro technique that can be used to investigate a variety of molecular pathways in intact nervous tissue. The technique described herein utilizes rat cortical tissue, but this technique can be adapted to use tissue from a variety of species (such as mouse, rabbit, guinea pig, and chicken) or brain regions (for example, hippocampus, striatum, etc.). Additionally, a variety of stimulations/treatments can be used (for example, excitotoxic, administration of inhibitors, etc.). In conclusion, the brain slice model described herein can be used to examine a variety of molecular mechanisms involved in excitotoxicity-mediated brain injury.

Excitotoxic Stimulation of Brain Microslices as an In vitro Model of Stroke

We have developed a brain slice model which can be used to examine molecular mechanisms involved in excitotoxicity-mediated brain injury.&#160;This technique generates viable mature brain tissue and reduces animal numbers required for experimentation, whilst keeping the neuronal circuitry, cellular interactions, and postsynaptic compartments partly intact.

Examining molecular mechanisms involved in neuropathological conditions, such as ischemic stroke, can be difficult when using whole animal systems. As ...

Embolic Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion (MCAO) for Ischemic Stroke with Homologous Blood Clots in Rats

Clinically, thrombolytic therapy with use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) remains the most effective treatment for acute ischemic stroke. However, the use of tPA is limited by its narrow therapeutic window and by increased risk of hemorrhagic transformation. There is an urgent need to develop suitable stroke models to study new thrombolytic agents and strategies for treatment of ischemic stroke. At present, two major types of ischemic stroke models have been developed in rats and mice: intraluminal suture MCAO and embolic MCAO. Although MCAO models via the intraluminal suture technique have been widely used in mechanism-driven stroke research, these suture models do not mimic the clinical situation and are not suitable for thrombolytic studies. Among these models, the embolic MCAO model closely mimics human ischemic stroke and is suitable for preclinical investigation of thrombolytic therapy. This embolic model was first developed in rats by Overgaard et al.1 in 1992 and further characterized by Zhang et al. in 19972. Although embolic MCAO has gained increasing attention, there are technical problems faced by many laboratories. To meet increasing needs for thrombolytic research, we present a highly reproducible model of embolic MCAO in the rat, which can develop a predictable infarct volume within the MCA territory. In brief, a modified PE-50 tube is gently advanced from the external carotid artery (ECA) into the lumen of the internal carotid artery (ICA) until the tip of the catheter reaches the origin of the MCA. Through the catheter, a single homologous blood clot is placed at the origin of the MCA. To identify the success of MCA occlusion, regional cerebral blood flow was monitored, neurological deficits and infarct volumes were measured. The techniques presented in this paper should help investigators to overcome technical problems for establishing this model for stroke research.

Embolic Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion MCAO for Ischemic Stroke with Homologous Blood Clots in Rats

In this paper, we demonstrate a standard method for producing an embolic middle cerebral artery occlusion with homologous blood clots (fibrin-rich) in adult rat. This model closely mimics human ischemic stroke and is suitable for preclinical study of thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke.

Clinically, thrombolytic therapy with use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) remains the most effective treatment for acute ischemic ...

A Piglet Model of Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy

Birth asphyxia, which causes hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), accounts for 0.66 million deaths worldwide each year, about a quarter of the world&#8217;s 2.9 million neonatal deaths. Animal models of HIE have contributed to the understanding of the pathophysiology in HIE, and have highlighted the dynamic process that occur in brain injury due to perinatal asphyxia. Thus, animal studies have suggested a time-window for post-insult treatment strategies. Hypothermia has been tested as a treatment for HIE in pdiglet models and subsequently proven effective in clinical trials. Variations of the model have been applied in the study of adjunctive neuroprotective methods and piglet studies of xenon and melatonin have led to clinical phase I and II trials1,2. The piglet HIE model is further used for neonatal resuscitation- and hemodynamic studies as well as in investigations of cerebral hypoxia on a cellular level. However, it is a technically challenging model and variations in the protocol may result in either too mild or too severe brain injury. In this article, we demonstrate the technical procedures necessary for establishing a stable piglet model of neonatal HIE. First, the newborn piglet (&#60; 24 hr old, median weight 1500 g) is anesthetized, intubated, and monitored in a setup comparable to that found in a neonatal intensive care unit. Global hypoxia-ischemia is induced by lowering the inspiratory oxygen fraction to achieve global hypoxia, ischemia through hypotension and a flat trace amplitude integrated EEG (aEEG) indicative of cerebral hypoxia. Survival is promoted by adjusting oxygenation according to the aEEG response and blood pressure. Brain injury is quantified by histopathology and magnetic resonance imaging after 72 hr.

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy following perinatal asphyxia can be studied using animal models. We demonstrate the procedures necessary for establishing a piglet model of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.

Birth asphyxia, which causes hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), accounts for 0.66 million deaths worldwide each year, about a quarter of the ...

Simultaneous PET/MRI Imaging During Mouse Cerebral Hypoxia-ischemia

Dynamic changes in tissue water diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after hypoxia in cerebral hypoxia-ischemia reflecting a bioenergetics disturbance in affected cells. Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) identifies regions that are damaged, potentially irreversibly, by hypoxia-ischemia. Alterations in glucose utilization in the affected tissue may be detectable by positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of 2-deoxy-2-(18F)fluoro-&#7429;-glucose ([18F]FDG) uptake. Due to the rapid and variable nature of injury in this animal model, acquisition of both modes of data must be performed simultaneously in order to meaningfully correlate PET and MRI data. In addition, inter-animal variability in the hypoxic-ischemic injury due to vascular differences limits the ability to analyze multi-modal data and observe changes to a group-wise approach if data is not acquired simultaneously in individual subjects. The method presented here allows one to acquire both diffusion-weighted MRI and [18F]FDG uptake data in the same animal before, during, and after the hypoxic challenge in order to interrogate immediate physiological changes.

The method presented here uses simultaneous positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. In the cerebral hypoxia-ischemia model, dynamic changes in diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after injury. The evolving and irreproducible damage in this model necessitates simultaneous acquisition if meaningful multi-modal imaging data are to be acquired.

Dynamic changes in tissue water diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after hypoxia in cerebral hypoxia-ischemia reflecting a bioenergetics ...

Rose Bengal Photothrombosis by Confocal Optical Imaging In Vivo: A Model of Single Vessel Stroke

In vivo imaging techniques have increased in utilization due to recent advances in imaging dyes and optical technologies, allowing for the ability to image cellular events in an intact animal. Additionally, the ability to induce physiological disease states such as stroke in vivo increases its utility. The technique described herein allows for physiological assessment of cellular responses within the CNS following a stroke and can be adapted for other pathological conditions being studied. The technique presented uses laser excitation of the photosensitive dye Rose Bengal in vivo to induce a focal ischemic event in a single blood vessel. 
The video protocol demonstrates the preparation of a thin-skulled cranial window over the somatosensory cortex in a mouse for the induction of a Rose Bengal photothrombotic event keeping injury to the underlying dura matter and brain at a minimum. Surgical preparation is initially performed under a dissecting microscope with a custom-made surgical/imaging platform, which is then transferred to a confocal microscope equipped with an inverted objective adaptor. Representative images acquired utilizing this protocol are presented as well as time-lapse sequences of stroke induction. This technique is powerful in that the same area can be imaged repeatedly on subsequent days facilitating longitudinal in vivo studies of pathological processes following stroke.

Rose Bengal Photothrombosis by Confocal Optical Imaging In Vivo:  A Model of Single Vessel Stroke

Here, we describe a semi-invasive optical microscopy approach for the induction of a Rose Bengal photothrombotic clot in the somatosensory cortex of a mouse in vivo. The technical aspects of the imaging procedure are described from induction of a photothrombotic event to application and data collection.

In vivo imaging techniques have increased in utilization due to recent advances in imaging dyes and optical technologies, allowing for the ability to ...