This work received the financial support of USDA-ARS CRIS project 6044-42000-011-00D and CRIS project 6044-21000-005-000-D. We thank Dan Todd for making the minicolumn-holding rack. The mention of trade names or commercial products in this article is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the US Department of Agriculture.

1. Preparation of seeds for fungal challenge
<ol>
	<li>Incubate the aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3357 on a slant of Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) in a test tube for 6 days at 30 &#176;C. Harvest&#160;fungal spores from the test tube with 10 mL of water with Tween 20 (100 &#956;L of Tween in 1 L of distilled sterile water), filter through glass wool placed in a funnel and count the spores with a hemocytometer referring to the user manual.</li>
	<li>Dilute the spore suspension with sterile water to 1,000 spores/&#956;L concentration. Confirm the concentration with a hemocytometer. 
	NOTE: Prepare the spore suspension no earlier than 2 h before the challenging experiments.</li>
	<li>Gently crack the peanut pods and remove the hulls. Place the seeds in a sterile beaker so that the volume of seeds does not exceed 1/5 of the beaker volume, add 0.05% hydrogen peroxide solution to approximately 70% of the beaker volume, and allow the seeds to imbibe water for 3 h.</li>
	<li>Decant the hydrogen peroxide solution from the seeds and add approximately 3x the amount of 80% ethanol-water mixture (v/v) to the beaker to cover the seeds. Allow to stand for 1 min and then rinse the seeds 2x with equal volumes of sterile distilled water.</li>
	<li>Add&#160;5-fold volume of 3% hydrogen peroxide to the beaker with the ethanol-sterilized seeds and allow to stand for 5 min, then decant the liquid and rinse the seeds twice with equal volumes of sterile water (Figure 2A).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Preparation of peanut seeds for inoculation, incubation, and extraction of aflatoxin and phytoalexin fractions. (A) Sterilizing imbibed seeds with 3% hydrogen peroxide; (B) removing testa (skin) from seeds; (C) cutting off the embryonic axis part; (D,E) drilling cavity in a half cotyledon with a drill bit; (F) placing drilled parts of seeds on agar; (G) applying fungal spores&#160;into the drilled cavity. (H) Petri dish with seeds after incubation; (I) placing incubated single seeds (photo of control samples) into reinforced bead tubes; (J) adding measured volume of extracting solvent; (K) pulverizing samples in a bead ruptor; (L) centrifugation of pulverized slurry. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="6">
	<li>Place the seeds on a sterile paper towel, remove the seed testa with forceps, and cut about 1/3 of the seed containing the embryonic axis with a scalpel (Figure 2B,C).</li>
	<li>Discard this part of the seed or use it to grow a plant in a test tube with growth medium (Figure 1B,E).</li>
	<li>Split the remaining portion of the seed into two cotyledons, place them in a Petri dish, cover the seed parts with moist sterile filter paper,&#160;replace the lid to avoid dehydration and promptly proceed to the inoculation step.</li>
	<li>Before performing the challenging experiments, prepare a sufficient number of Petri dishes with seed incubation medium by pouring 26 mL of 1.5% sterile agar in water into the 100 x 15 mm dishes and allow them to solidify overnight.&#160;</li>
	<li>In the middle of the outer side of each remaining cotyledon, make a 1.5-2 mm deep cavity by manually drilling the seed with a 1.6-2.34 mm diameter sterile sharp drill bit. It takes ~2-5 s to make a cavity (Figure 2D,E).</li>
	<li>Place 4&#160;to 6&#160;&#34;drilled&#34; pieces of the seeds into a Petri dish with agar and apply 2 &#956;L of the 1,000 spores/&#956;L suspension into the drilled cavity of each half-cotyledon piece with a 10 &#956;L pipetter. Instead of the spore suspension, apply sterile water to the control seeds (Figure 2F,G).</li>
	<li>Cover all Petri dishes with lids and incubate at 30 &#176;C without light for 72 h.</li>
</ol>
2. Sampling and preparation of the incubated seed pieces for aflatoxin and phytoalexin analysis
<ol>
	<li>Collect seed pieces at 72 h by removing them from agar with forceps and placing each of them into labeled 7 mL bead vials with 13 zirconium ceramic beads (12 of 2.8 mm diameter and 1 of 6.5 mm diameter) (Figure 2H,I). 
	NOTE: At this point, if not processed immediately, the vials can be placed into a -80 &#176;C freezer and kept for up to 2 months before further processing .</li>
	<li>Phytoalexins and aflatoxins are determined in the same seed extract. For the extraction, depending on the visual seed size (small, medium, or large), add 2 or 4 mL of precisely measured methanol-water mixture (90:10, v/v) to the bead vials and pulverize at 5.5 m/sec for 45 s. Place the vials with pulverized seeds into a centrifuge and centrifuge at 1,860 &#215; g for 3 min (Figure 2J - L). 
	NOTE: The following important17,22 stilbenoid derivatives are determined (all in trans-configuration): resveratrol, arachidin-1, arachidin-2, arachidin-3, 3&#8242;-isopentadienyl-3,5,4&#8242;-trihydroxystilbene (IPD), and SB-1.</li>
	<li>For aflatoxin analyses, before running the challenging experiments, prepare a sufficient number of cleanup columns as follows. Place a matching polyethylene porous (20 &#956;L) frit into a 1.5 mL polypropylene column with the help of a glass rod cut at a 90o angle. Place 50 mg of the magnesium silica gel (100-200 mesh) into the column with a custom-made scoop and cap the column with an identical frit by pushing it down with a glass rod (Figure 3A - E). 
	NOTE: This amount of magnesium silica gel occupies 75 &#956;L volume, and the height of the adsorbent layer is 3 mm.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Preparation of cleanup columns and filters. (A,B) Placing a porous frit into barrel; (C,D) filling barrel with magnesium silica gel; (E) packing the adsorbent and inserting a top porous frit into barrel. (F) Placing an 11.5 mm dia. glass fiber circle on top of a Pasteur pipette. (G,H) Pushing the center of the circle with a plastic or wooden rod down to the bottom of the Pasteur pipette barrel and firmly compacting the glass fiber. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="4">
	<li>At this point, prepare a matching number of custom-made filters as shown in Figure 3F - H.</li>
	<li>For aflatoxin analyses, precisely measure up to 0.5 mL aliquot of the supernatant (obtained as described in step 2.2), transfer it into the custom-packed minicolumn, and allow the extract to drain by gravity into a 4-mL glass vial. Transfer 1.0 mL of methanol-water (90:10, v/v) mixture to the column to wash out impurities by gravity into the same 4 mL vial (Figure 4A).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4:&#160;Purification of seed extracts and preparation for the UPLC analyses. (A)&#160;Rack with packed columns. (B) Evaporating solvent with N2 gas from six 4-mL vials with purified extract eluted from cleanup columns. (C) Bringing vials and filters to a subzero temperature in foam containers (1 and 2) with ice before and after addition of the injection solvent (MeOH-H2O 9:1, v/v) to the 4-mL vials. (D) Filtering cooled extract from a 4-mL vial into a 400 &#181;L autosampler vial. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="6">
	<li>Discard the combined eluates. Elute the aflatoxin fraction by gravity from the column into a clean 4 mL glass vial with 1.2 mL acetone-acetonitrile-water-88% formic acid (65:31:3.5:0.5, v/v) mixture (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Alternatively, elute aflatoxins from the column with 2.0 mL of acetonitrile-water-88% formic acid (96:3.5:0.5, v/v) mixture, and inject an aliquot of the eluate, up to 2 &#956;L, directly into the ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) system (without evaporation of the solvent with N2). 
	NOTE: In this case, expect up to 10-fold lower quantitation limit for aflatoxins; in the majority of the cases such a drop of sensitivity is acceptable since aflatoxin concentrations in challenged seed are often high.</li>
	<li>Remove the solvent from the vials in a stream of N2 in a heated block at 45 &#176;C. Cap the vial and place it in a container with crushed ice for 30-45 s to minimize evaporation of the solvent that is added in the following step. Place custom-made filters into disposable test tubes and insert the tubes into ice in another container to minimize evaporation of solvent upon filtration (Figure 4B,C).</li>
	<li>After evaporation of the solvent, dissolve the dry residue in precisely measured 0.25-1.0 mL of methanol-water mixture (90:10, v/v) and vortex for 1-2 s. Place vials with purified extracts into the UPLC autosampler and inject 0.1 to 3.0 &#956;L into the UPLC system (Figure 5A,B). 
	NOTE: If the solution after vortexing is suspected to have some suspended particles, filter the solution through the cooled filter (Figure 4D).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: The process and results of UPLC analyses of purified extracts. (A) Placing a rack with purified sample extracts into UPLC autosampler. (B) Performing the instrumental analyses, obtaining data, and interpreting results. (C) UPLC of four major aflatoxins; the major peaks of interest, aflatoxins B1 and B2 represent 0.04 and 0.004 ng, respectively. (D) UPLC of aflatoxins B1 and B2; peak 2 represents aflatoxin B1 at a 2 pg level (with an 8 &#181;L flow cell). (E) UPLC&#160;of purified extract of a seed harvested from a local peanut field with a wild Arachis species. (F) UPLC of the extract of a challenged peanut seed purified with a basic aluminum oxide minicolumn. (G) UPLC of the extract of challenged peanut seed purified with a Florisil column; blue chromatogram presents impurities that are washed from the column with 1 mL of methanol-water (90:10 v/v) mixture; black chromatogram shows peaks of aflatoxins M1 and B1. The level of aflatoxin B1 is 48 ng/g. (H) A&#160;typical chromatogram of peanut stilbenoids from a challenged seed; abbreviation: IPD = 3&#8242;-isopentadienyl-3,5,4&#8242;-trihydroxystilbene. Note: All stilbenoids in seed extracts are in trans-configuration. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>&#160;
<ol start="10">
	<li>For phytoalexin analyses, from each bead vial, transfer 200 &#956;L of supernatant into the above Pasteur pipette filter. Use N2 gas from a compressed nitrogen tank to expedite filtration into a 400 &#956;L UPLC autosampler vial and cap the vial with a matching cap with a PTFE septum (Figure 4D).</li>
</ol>
3. Aflatoxin analyses
<ol>
	<li>For separations of aflatoxins in seed extracts, use a UPLC system equipped with an autosampler, a quaternary pump, a fluorescent detector, a UPLC BEH C18 3.0 mm x 100 mm, 1.7 &#181;m column with a matching precolumn, and a postcolumn photochemical reactor (PHRED) with a standard knitted PTFE coil 0.25 internal diameter cut to 25% of its original length. 
	NOTE: UPLC instrument and associated equipment used by the authors are listed in the Table of Materials.</li>
	<li>Use water (A), methanol (B), and acetonitrile (C) in the following gradient: initial conditions, 62.7% A, 24% B, 13.3% C, changed linearly to 30% A, 45% B, 25% C in 3.75 min, changed to 0% A, 64.4% B, 35.6% C in 3.751 min, held isocratic for 3.249 min, then changed to initial conditions in 0.01 min and held isocratic for 2.499 min before next injection. Set the flow rate to 0.45 mL/min and run time to 9.5 min. Maintain the column at 40 &#176;C in the system column heater. Use 362 nm and 440 nm as the excitation and emission wavelengths, respectively, for aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1 quantification. The structures of major aflatoxins are shown in Figure 6A. 
	NOTE: Under the experimental conditions, only aflatoxins B1 and B2 are expected to be produced by A. flavus NRRL 3357; if an A. parasiticus strain is used for seed challenging, the production of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 is expected.</li>
	<li>Determine concentrations of aflatoxins by reference to peak areas of corresponding authentic standards (calibration curve) as described in the software user manual. 
	NOTE: Since the UPLC procedure exhibits baseline noise at the high sensitivity settings for the fluorescent detector, Detection Limit (LOD) and Quantitation Limit (LOQ) for aflatoxins are evaluated using the widely accepted Signal-to-Noise ratio of 3:1 for LOD and 10:1 for LOQ. In the routine experimental setup for peanut seed analysis, described in sections 2 and 3, the quantitation limits for aflatoxins G1 and B1 are expected to be less or equal to 0.8 and 0.08 ng/g for aflatoxins G2 and B2, respectively.</li>
</ol>
4. Stilbenoid phytoalexin analyses
<ol>
	<li>For separation of stilbenoids, use water (A), methanol (B), and 88% formic acid (C) in the following gradient: initial conditions, 53% A, 42% B, 5% C, changed linearly to 35% A, 60% B, 5% C in 2.0 min, held isocratic for 4 min, changed to 0% A, 95% B, 5% C in 0.5 min, held isocratic for 2.5 min, then changed to initial conditions in 0.1 min and held isocratic for 2.9 min before next injection. Set flow rate to 0.5 mL/min and run time to 12.0 min.</li>
	<li>Determine concentrations of stilbenoids by reference to peak areas of corresponding authentic standards (calibration curve) and/or to published coefficients of molar extinctions as described in the software user manual. The structures of major stilbene-derived phytoalexins are shown in Figure 6B. 
	NOTE: Separation of phytoalexins is achieved using the same system but without a fluorescent detector and a PHRED reactor. Instead, a Diode Array Detector is used for the detection and quantification of peanut stilbenoids. Quantitation Limit (LOQ) for the major stilbenoid phytoalexins does not have a practical meaning as stilbenoid concentrations exceed concentrations of aflatoxins in the same extract by some orders of magnitude; after 3 days of incubation, stilbenoids are reliably quantitated.</li>
</ol>

Evaluation of Wild Peanut Species for Resistance to Aflatoxin Accumulation

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AOAC Int. 74 (1), 81-88 (1991).</li><li>Dorner, J. W., Blankenship, P. D., Cole, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Performance+of+two+immunochemical+assays+in+the+analysis+of+peanuts+for+aflatoxin+at+37+field+laboratories.">Performance of two immunochemical assays in the analysis of peanuts for aflatoxin at 37 field laboratories.</a> J. AOAC Int. 76 (3), 637-643 (1993).</li><li>Stroka, J., Anklam, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunoaffinity+column+cleanup+with+liquid+chromatography+using+post-column+bromination+for+determination+of+aflatoxins+in+peanut+butter,+pistachio+paste,+fig+paste,+and+paprika+powder:+collaborative+study.">Immunoaffinity column cleanup with liquid chromatography using post-column bromination for determination of aflatoxins in peanut butter, pistachio paste, fig paste, and paprika powder: collaborative study.</a> J. AOAC Int. 83 (2), 320-340 (2000).</li><li>Pal, A., Acharya, D., Saha, D., Roy, D., Dhar, T. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+sample+cleanup+during+immunoassay:+a+simple+method+for+rapid+detection+of+aflatoxin+B1+in+food+samples.">In situ sample cleanup during immunoassay: a simple method for rapid detection of aflatoxin B1 in food samples.</a> J. Food Prot. 68 (10), 2169-2177 (2005).</li><li>Sobolev, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple,+rapid,+and+inexpensive+cleanup+method+for+quantitation+of+aflatoxins+in+important+agricultural+products+by+HPLC.">Simple, rapid, and inexpensive cleanup method for quantitation of aflatoxins in important agricultural products by HPLC.</a> J. Agric. Food Chem. 55 (6), 2136-2141 (2007).</li><li>Sobolev, V. S., Dorner, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cleanup+procedure+for+determination+of+aflatoxins+in+major+agricultural+commodities+by+liquid+chromatography.">Cleanup procedure for determination of aflatoxins in major agricultural commodities by liquid chromatography.</a> J. AOAC Int. 85 (3), 642-645 (2002).</li><li>Levi, C. P., Borker, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survey+of+green+coffee+for+potential+aflatoxin+contamination.">Survey of green coffee for potential aflatoxin contamination.</a> J. AOAC. 51 (3), 600-602 (1968).</li><li>Levi, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collaborative+study+on+a+method+for+detection+of+aflatoxins+B1+in+green+coffee+beans.">Collaborative study on a method for detection of aflatoxins B1 in green coffee beans.</a> J. AOAC. 52 (6), 1300-1303 (1969).</li><li>Scott, P. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Note+on+analysis+of+aflatoxins+in+green+coffee.">Note on analysis of aflatoxins in green coffee.</a> J. AOAC. 51, 609 (1968).</li><li>Bicking, M. K. L., Kniseley, R. N., Svec, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coupled-column+system+for+quantitating+low+levels+of+aflatoxins.">Coupled-column system for quantitating low levels of aflatoxins.</a> J. AOAC. 66 (4), 905-908 (1983).</li><li>Kamimura, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple,+rapid+cleanup+method+for+analysis+of+aflatoxins+and+comparison+with+various+methods.">Simple, rapid cleanup method for analysis of aflatoxins and comparison with various methods.</a> J. AOAC. 68 (3), 458-461 (1985).</li><li>Hoogenboom, L. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genotoxicity+testing+of+extracts+from+aflatoxin-contaminated+peanut+meal,+following+chemical+decontamination.">Genotoxicity testing of extracts from aflatoxin-contaminated peanut meal, following chemical decontamination.</a> Food Addit. Contam. 18 (4), 329-341 (2001).</li><li>Castro, L., Vargas, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determining+aflatoxins+B1,+B2,+G1+and+G2+in+maize+using+Florisil+clean+up+with+thin+layer+chromatography+and+visual+and+densitometric+Quantitation.">Determining aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in maize using Florisil clean up with thin layer chromatography and visual and densitometric Quantitation.</a> Cienc. Tecnol. Ailment. Campinas. 21, 115-122 (2001).</li><li>Arias, R. S., Dang, P. M., Sobolev, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNAi-mediated+Control+of+Aflatoxins+in+Peanut:+Method+to+Analyze+Mycotoxin+Production+and+Transgene+Expression+in+the+Peanut/Aspergillus+Pathosystem.">RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (106), e53398 (2015).</li><li>Whitaker, T. B., Dorner, J. W., Giesbrecht, F. G., Slate, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variability+among+aflatoxin+test+results+on+runner+peanuts+harvested+from+small+field+plots.">Variability among aflatoxin test results on runner peanuts harvested from small field plots.</a> Peanut Sci. 31 (1), 59-63 (2004).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Based on our previous experience28, we have developed a simple, inexpensive, environment-friendly, chemical procedure suitable for the exploration of wild Arachis germplasm collections to identify species resistant to Aspergillus and to determine and characterize novel sources of genetic resistance to this opportunistic fungus. This method is based on seed extract purification by a solid phase extraction (SPE) technique and aflatoxin quantification by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC) and is characterized by sufficiently high recovery, precision, and accuracy. The proposed &#34;Florisil&#34; method is a modification of the single minicolumn cleanup procedure that is based on the unique property of Florisil (magnesium silica gel) to strongly and selectively retain aflatoxins28. As in the original method, seed samples were extracted with MeOH-H2O mixture but at a different proportion of 90:10 (v/v) compared to the published 80:20 (v/v). This change has increased the flow rate of solvents through the cleanup column up to 2.5x with the same aflatoxin recovery rate. This 90:10 (v/v) methanol-water mixture provided nearly 100% recovery of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 standards added to extracting solvent at spike levels equivalent to 5-50 ng of aflatoxin concentrations in 1 g of a substrate, as well as provided sufficiently high recoveries from the spiked peanut seed samples (Table 1).
It has been shown that aflatoxins can be eluted from the Florisil adsorbent only with large volumes of acetone30, acetone-methanol31,32, and acetone-water mixtures33,34,35,36. In the course of the present research, we discovered that acidified acetonitrile behaves similarly to acetone in its ability to elute aflatoxins from Florisil. To our knowledge, this property of acetonitrile has not been reported in the literature. The discovery of this property allows injecting purified extract directly into the UPLC system omitting the solvent evaporation step, which substantially reduces the preparation time. Even when acetonitrile was mixed with acetone (acetone-acetonitrile-water-88% formic acid (65:31:3.5:0.5, v/v)), it provided smooth, complete, and fast removal of water from the purified eluates substantially reducing solvent evaporation time. The presence of acetonitrile allowed for the use of a single solvent, methanol-water (90:10, v/v) mixture to effectively remove impurities from the Florisil column compared to a published method, where two additional washing solvents, methanol and chloroform-methanol mixture, was required.28
On average, aflatoxin B1 standard recovery was ~98% when using 1.2 mL for the elution of aflatoxins. The amount of 50 mg of Florisil was selected so that 1.2 mL of the elution solvent filled the minicolumn to the top of the barrel and, at the same time, provided satisfactory recovery (Table 1). This approach expedites the cleanup procedure as the column barrel needs to be filled only once. In the early stages of this project, it was not clear whether a commercial Florisil fraction with a relatively large particle size, 100-200 mesh, would be appropriate for a small column holding only a 3 mm layer of the adsorbent. Therefore, we explored different Florisil fractions obtained from a commercial 100-200 mesh product using U.S.A. standard test sieves 120-140, 140-170, 170-200, 200-270, 270-400, and &#62;400 mesh. All these fractions provided reproducible, nearly matching results with satisfactory recovery. Although smaller particle-size fractions demonstrated narrower aflatoxin bands in the column under UV light, those fractions were not superior in any respect to the commercial 100-200 mesh product. In addition, the 100-200 mesh fraction demonstrated the shortest elution times (8-12 min) for the entire procedure.
Gradient UPLC solvent delivery allowed for satisfactory separation of aflatoxins as well as for complete removal of non-polar impurities from the column (Figure&#160;5G). This approach led to flawless column operation and reproducible results of the analyses of hundreds of samples. The identity of aflatoxins eluted from the Florisil column was confirmed as previously described.28 The 3-mm diameter analytical UPLC column used here demonstrated higher selectivity and more reliable separation of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 at higher concentrations compared to the 2.1-mm diameter column of the same chemistry. Moreover, the longevity of the 3 mm column (over 1,200 injections) was substantially higher than that of the 2.1-mm column (up to 800 injections). Even though the 3 mm column required a higher rate of the mobile phase (40% more), this drawback was outperformed by the above advantages of the column.
The Florisil minicolumn was effective for the purification of extracts of peanut seeds heavily contaminated with Aspergillus metabolites (Figure 5G); such seeds also contained high levels of stilbenoid phytoalexins that were produced by seeds in response to the fungal invasion. All those impurities may exceed aflatoxin concentration in the seeds up to 106-fold22, which makes these seeds challenging objects for aflatoxin analyses. Figure 5G shows the lack of interfering peaks in the chromatogram within aflatoxin retention times, which made aflatoxin detection and quantitation uncompromised at all levels tested (Table 1). As seen in Table 1, the accuracy and precision of the method were sufficiently high within the tested range of 1.0-50.0 ng/g, which is also the most critical range for aflatoxin detection. The recoveries at different levels for various wild peanut genotypes were uniform and the standard deviations for five different extractions were essentially low.
The method was also tested on peanut, cotton, corn, and rice seeds naturally contaminated from zero to extremely high levels-over 10,000 ng/g of total aflatoxins. Recovery of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 from corn, cottonseed, and rice at the 5 ng/g level varied from 76.1% to 93.7%, 77.1% to 86.6%, and 90.5% to 96.2%, respectively. The highest recovery of aflatoxins from rice was accompanied by the eluent&#39;s &#34;purity&#34;, that is, virtually the lack of any impurities. Further, rice represented the smallest single object tested, on average, 19 mg/seed.
The total preparation time for a single peanut seed (including shelling, weighing, extraction, centrifugation, and purification) using a Florisil column did not exceed 20 min. The cost of the Florisil minicolumn is &#62;10x less than that of commercial cleanup columns. Additional savings derive from using lower volumes of adsorbents, solvents, and nitrogen gas compared to the published procedure28.&#160;The minicolumn does not require pumping or vacuum devices to operate and has an indefinite shelf life.
Exploring plant germplasm for resistance to aflatoxins is exceptionally difficult because mycotoxin accumulation does not follow a normal distribution37,38; a large number of aflatoxin analyses in single seeds is needed to overcome this phenomenon. In addition to aflatoxin content, information on quantitative phytoalexin composition is highly valuable in the light of a large body of information that can be obtained from a single seed (Figure 1A)&#160;and tracked to a specific plant (Figure 1E). The method has been successfully used for screening hundreds of accessions including landraces, advanced breeding lines, and elite peanut varieties. The method is suggested for use in peanut prebreeding and breeding research programs and may help in the characterization of peanut genes for fungal resistance.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is one of the major food crops in the world. It is cultivated in more than 100 countries with total production exceeding 45 million tons1. Agricultural commodities, such as peanut, corn, and cottonseed are often invaded by species of Aspergillus, soil-born fungi that produce aflatoxins2. These commodities are particularly susceptible to preharvest aflatoxin contamination when environmental conditions are characterized by high temperatures and drought. Aflatoxins are among the most potent carcinogens known3. They contaminate a quarter of the agricultural commodities in the world4 making about half of the world&#39;s population chronically exposed to aflatoxins5. Due to their high carcinogenicity and toxicity, aflatoxin presence in food is regulated at the lowest practically acceptable limits in most countries of the world6.
The European Union (EU) has legislated a maximum level of 2 ng/g for aflatoxin B1 and 4 ng/g for total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in products for human consumption7. Such low limits put substantial pressure on agriculture and the food industry that processes commodities contaminated with aflatoxins. Aflatoxin monitoring and reprocessing of contaminated peanuts may be considered a passive and costly strategy to prevent aflatoxins from entering the food chain. That is why all major segments&#160;of the peanut industry experience tremendous profit losses due to the aflatoxin contamination of current peanut cultivars that often demonstrate limited resistance to fungal diseases. A prospective approach to resolve the aflatoxin problem is to obtain fungus-resistant peanut cultivars through gene introgression, that is, the transfer of genetic information from resistant wild peanut species to elite cultivars. In recent years8,9, wild peanut species have received substantial consideration as sources of genetic disease resistance because the narrow genetic base of cultivated peanuts can no longer provide the needed level of resistance traits to the peanut plant10,11. Successful introgression from wild peanut species requires the analyses of thousands of single small and scarce&#160;seeds (Figure 1A) 12.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Single-seed analysis flowchart. (A) Comparative size of different market-type peanut cultivars vs. wild Arachis spp. (1) Virginia; (2) runner; (3) Spanish; (4) wild Arachis spp. (B) Wild Arachis spp. (plate A, seed 4) cut into three sections, (5) half seed with embryonic axis; this portion of the seed is used to grow a plant (E). (C) Parts (6) and (7) are drilled with a drill bit and (D) inoculated with fungal spores. After incubation for 72h at 30 &#176;C, one of the seed parts, (6) or (7) is used for aflatoxin and phytoalexin analyses, and another is used for RNA/transcriptome sequencing. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Peanut resistance to fungal pathogens is strongly associated with phytoalexins13,14,15,16,17. Peanut phytoalexins are represented by antimicrobial stilbenoids that are biosynthesized and accumulated in plant tissues after exposure to exogenous stimuli, particularly, to fungal invasion16,17,18. Rapid accumulation of sufficient concentrations of phytoalexins at the site of fungal invasion is inhibitory to fungal growth and is critical for plant defense19,20,21. Pathogen stops growing when phytoalexins accumulate to inhibitory concentrations16,22. The role of stilbenoids as defensive compounds against aflatoxigenic fungi in peanut was evaluated over 30 years ago in field experiments13. Those experiments clearly supported the hypothesis that peanut stilbenoids are a crucial resistance factor in preharvest aflatoxin contamination. Such evidence is based on the facts that stilbenes are naturally produced in field-damaged peanuts; stilbenes demonstrate appreciable biological activity against aflatoxigenic fungi; and aflatoxin contamination in seeds was detected only when peanuts lost the capacity for phytoalexin synthesis due to drought-induced seed dehydration. Another set of field experiments confirmed the association between phytoalexin production and peanut genotype resistance to agriculturally important peanut diseases17.
A better understanding of the natural phytoalexin-based mechanism of peanut resistance to fungal invasion is a promising strategy for the control of aflatoxin contamination15,17. Therefore, in addition to the aflatoxin analyses, it is important to quantitatively analyze the same seeds for phytoalexins. Although this mechanism for resistance is not fully researched and understood, yet it is crucial for breeding and genetically modifying peanut plants for new fungal-resistant cultivars23. Despite the existence of various analytical procedures for aflatoxin determination in different commodities, there is still a need for simple methods for specific research, particularly when traditional methods do not satisfy analytical and cost-effective requirements. Most modern cleanup methods used by the peanut industry, agriculture, and private laboratories are antibody-based24 and immunoassay25,26,27devices. They are selective and sensitive but substantially more expensive than minicolumns packed with common adsorbents. In addition, none of those methods were designed for the analyses of few-milligram-weight samples. Based on our previous research on the analytical use of magnesium silica gel (Florisil)-packed minicolumns28, we modified this procedure to suit the needs of ongoing and prospective pre-breeding and breeding programs.
The purpose of this work was to develop a non-destructive, medium throughput, environment-friendly method for the quantitative determination of aflatoxins and phytoalexins in single peanut seeds. Such a method has been developed. Its advantages over published methods are higher sensitivity, the ability to analyze aflatoxins and phytoalexins in a single-seed extract, lack of the need to weigh samples, and lower cost thanks to smaller volumes of consumables. The flow chart of the integrated method is shown in Figure 1. The genetic analyses and other steps are mentioned in this text and demonstrated in the figure to show the importance of the suggested method and how it is integrated with the entire procedure.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acetone, Optima</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A929-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acetonitrile, Optima</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A996-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acquity BEH C18 2.1 x 5mm Van-Guard pre-column</td><td>Waters Corporation</td><td>186003975</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acquity BEH C18 3 x 100mm column</td><td>Waters Corporation</td><td>186004661</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acquity BEH C18 2.1 x 100mm column</td><td>Waters Corporation</td><td>186002352</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A9441-1VL</td><td>Dissolve the contents of the commercial vial in 5 mL of methanol to obtain 5 &amp;micro;g/mL for aflatoxins B1 and G1 and 1.5 &amp;micro;g/mL for B2 and G2</td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxin B1 (1mg)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A6636-1MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxin B2 (1mg)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A9887-1MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxin G1 (1mg)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A0138-1MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxin G2 (1mg)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A0263-1MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aflatoxin M1 (10 &amp;micro;g)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>CRM46319</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Agar, Granulated (2kg)</td><td>Becton Dickinson</td><td>BD214510</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alumina oxide basic (60-325 mesh)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A941-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Basal medium</td><td>Murashige and Skoog</td><td>M5519</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bead Ruptor 24&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Omni International</td><td>19-042E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Beaker (1000mL)</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>10001L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Beaker (250mL)</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>1000250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Beaker (400mL)</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>1000400</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Beaker (600mL)</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>1000600</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blade, scalpel</td><td>Feather</td><td>#10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Centrifuge (LSE Compact)</td><td>Corning</td><td>Model: 6755</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Centrifuge, micro</td><td>Corning</td><td>Model: 6770</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ceramic beads (2.8 mm)</td><td>Omni International</td><td>19-646</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ceramic beads (6.5 mm)</td><td>Omni International</td><td>19-682</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chromeleon 7 series Software</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Drill bit</td><td>Kyocera</td><td>07896</td><td>1.6 mm</td></tr><tr><td>Drill bit</td><td>Kyocera</td><td>07357</td><td>2.0 mm</td></tr><tr><td>Drill bit</td><td>Kyocera</td><td>07985</td><td>2.34 mm</td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol (200 proof)</td><td>Decon Labs</td><td>2805M</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Evaporator, nitrogen</td><td>organimation</td><td>11106</td><td>6-position</td></tr><tr><td>Excel, Microsoft</td><td>Microsoft</td><td>Office 365</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Filter paper (#4)</td><td>Cytiva Whatman</td><td>1004-090</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Filter paper cutter, stainless steel (ID 11.5mm)</td><td>Unknown</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Filter paper, glass fibre</td><td>Cytiva Whatman</td><td>934-AH</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flask (2800mL)</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>44202XL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Florisil (100-200 mesh)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>F101-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Forceps</td><td>Integra Lifescience (Miltex)</td><td>PM-0300</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Formic acid (88%, ACS)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A118P-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Freezer (-80&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>TSX70086D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Funnel (15 x 80mm)</td><td>DWK Life Sciences (Kimax)</td><td>2902060</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gelzan (medium)</td><td>Caisson Labs&amp;nbsp;</td><td>G024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass rod (custom)</td><td>Custom made</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass wool</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>3950</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Handle, scalpel&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Feather</td><td>#7</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hemocytometer</td><td>Hausser Scientific</td><td>3100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen peroxide</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>H325-4</td><td>30%, Certified ACS</td></tr><tr><td>Ice bucket, round with lid</td><td>Corning</td><td>432122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Incubator</td><td>Percival</td><td>136VL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Kimtech SCIENCE Brand Kimwipes</td><td>Kimtech</td><td>34120</td><td>8.2&quot; x 4.39&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>Kimtech SCIENCE Brand Kimwipes</td><td>Kimtech</td><td>34256</td><td>16.4&quot; x 14.43&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>Lab coat</td><td>Cenmed</td><td>B113660SBXL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methanol, Optima</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A454-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mini column rack (custom)</td><td>Custom made</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mixer, touch (maxi mix II)</td><td>Thermolyne</td><td>37600 (model 231)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nitrile gloves&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Microflex</td><td>XC310M</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nitrogen gas, compressed (ultra high purity)</td><td>Jones Welding</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paper towel</td><td>Georgia-Pacific</td><td>20023 (D400)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pH meter</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Accumet)</td><td>13-636-AB15</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pH/ATC electrode</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Accumet)</td><td>13-620-111</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PhCR Photochemical Reactor</td><td>Waters (Vicam)</td><td>600001222</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipette, pasteur</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>13-678-20D</td><td>9&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>Pipettor (1 mL) (Reference 2)</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>4924000088</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipettor (10 &amp;mu;L) (Reference)</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>022470051D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipette tips: 10 &amp;mu;L, 200 &amp;mu;L, 1 mL</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>F144054M</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipettor (200 &amp;micro;L)(Ergofit)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-146-679</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plates, petri (100x15mm)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>FB0875713</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potato Dextrose Agar (500g)</td><td>Becton Dickinson&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>BD213400</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reinforced bead tube (2 mL)</td><td>Omni International</td><td>19-660</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reinforced bead tube (7 mL)</td><td>Omni International</td><td>19-651</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Repipettor, Dispensette III (10mL)</td><td>Brandtech</td><td>4701141</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Resveratrol</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>R5010-100MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scoop (custom)</td><td>Custom made</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>screwcap jar (250 mL)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>1395250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silica gel, spherical (200-400 mesh)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Supelco</td><td>97727-U</td><td>100 g</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Hydroxide</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S318-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SPE extract clean 1.5-mL polypropylene column&amp;nbsp;</td><td>American Chromotography Supplies</td><td>SP-5122382</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SPE extract clean PP frits (for 1.5 mL minicolumn)</td><td>American Chromotography Supplies</td><td>SP-3119414</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spectrophotometer, UV-visible</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>14-385-351 (Genesys 50)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Test tube</td><td>Corning (Pyrex)</td><td>982516X</td><td>16x125mm</td></tr><tr><td>Test tube (Disposable)(16x125mm)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>14-961-31</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Test tube (Disposable)(150x250mm)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>14-961-34</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thermo Vanquish DAD detector (UPLC)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>VF-D11-A-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thermo Vanquish Fluourescense detector (UPLC)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>VF-D51-A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thermo Vanquish quaternary pump F (UPLC)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>VF-P20-A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thermo Vanquish Split Sampler FT (UPLC)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>VF-A10-A-02</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tween 20 (polysorbate 20) (enzyme grade)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP337-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vial caps (4mL)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>C4015-75A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vial caps (autosampler)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>C4010-60A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vials &amp;amp; caps (16 mL)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>B7800-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vials, glass (4mL)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>C4015-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vials, polypropylene (autosampler) (400mL)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>C4010-11</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Water, Optima&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>W6-4</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

non-destructive spe-uplc-based quantification of aflatoxins and stilbenoid phytoalexins in single peanut (arachis spp.) seeds

Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic secondary metabolites of some fungal species, particularly Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins often contaminate economically important agricultural commodities, including peanuts, posing a high risk to human and animal health. Due to the narrow genetic base, peanut cultivars demonstrate limited resistance to fungal pathogens. Therefore, numerous wild peanut species with tolerance to Aspergillus have received substantial consideration by scientists as sources of disease resistance.
Exploring plant germplasm for resistance to aflatoxins is difficult since aflatoxin accumulation does not follow a normal distribution, which dictates the need for the analyses of thousands of single peanut seeds. Sufficiently hydrated peanut (Arachis spp.) seeds, when infected by Aspergillus species, are capable of producing biologically active stilbenes&#160;(stilbenoids) that are considered defensive phytoalexins. Peanut stilbenes inhibit fungal development and aflatoxin production. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze the same seeds for peanut stilbenoids to explain the nature of seed resistance/susceptibility to the Aspergillus invasion. None of the published methods offer single-seed analyses for aflatoxins and/or stilbene phytoalexins.
We attempted to fulfill the demand for such a method that is environment-friendly, uses inexpensive consumables, and is sensitive and selective. In addition, the method is non-destructive since it uses only half of the seed and leaves the other half containing the embryonic axis intact. Such a technique allows germination and growth of the peanut plant to full maturity from the same seed used for the aflatoxin and stilbenoid analysis. The integrated part of this method, the manual challenging of the seeds with Aspergillus, is a limiting step that requires more time and labor compared to other steps in the method. The method has been used for the exploration of wild Arachis germplasm to identify species resistant to Aspergillus and to determine and characterize novel sources of genetic resistance to this fungal pathogen.

The developed method for aflatoxin quantitation in seeds is the core of the entire procedure of evaluation of wild peanut species for resistance to aflatoxin accumulation. Custom-packed minicolumns and filters provide substantial savings and simplify the overall procedure due to the lack of large volumes of solvents, costly and unnecessary 0.22 or 0.45 &#181;m commercial filters, and pumping devices. The method for aflatoxin analyses provides high recoveries, accuracy, and precision within the tested range of 1.0-50.0 ng/g of aflatoxins from ground seeds as seen in Table 1. Highly contaminated samples were diluted to the linear tested value. Figure 5C shows a baseline separation of four major aflatoxins, B1, B2, G1, and G2 within 5 min elution time, which is acceptable since the fungal challenging of peanut seeds is the limiting stage of the procedure and not UPLC analyses.
The proposed method is sufficiently sensitive with a quantitation limit of 2 pg for aflatoxin B1 (Figure 5D). The high purity of the extracts allows for unambiguous quantification of aflatoxins as seen from an UPLC (Figure 5E) of purified extract of seeds harvested from a field with a wild Arachis species. An earlier published minicolumn method29 is not capable of achieving satisfactory purity for fungus-challenged peanut seeds (Figure 5F) compared to the proposed method (Figure 5G). From Figure 5F it is obvious that aflatoxins B2, G1, and G2 cannot be reliably detected and quantitated due to the presence of high concentrations of interfering impurities, many of which, eluted after aflatoxins, are stilbenoid phytoalexins and fungal metabolites. In contrast, Figure 5G demonstrates the high efficiency of the magnesium silica gel column in removing impurities from the aflatoxin fraction. Blue chromatogram presents interfering impurities that are washed from the column with 1 mL of methanol-water (90:10) mixture; black chromatogram shows unobscured peaks of aflatoxins M1 and B1. This chromatogram represents the extract of a challenged wild species seed. The level of aflatoxin B1 is 48 ng/g.
Quantitation of peanut phytoalexins is a valuable addition to the analyses of aflatoxins in the same seed, which may be a natural seed from a field or a fungus-challenged seed. Figure 5H shows a typical chromatogram of peanut defensive stilbenoids from a challenged seed. Separation of the compounds is achieved using the same analytical column that is used for aflatoxin analyses. The column and chosen chromatographic conditions provide satisfactory separation of the peaks allowing for reliable quantitation of the stilbenoids. Evaluation of the aflatoxin-phytoalexin relationship in challenged seeds is outside the scope of this presentation and the method is suggested here as a potential research tool, which has been used at the authors&#39; laboratory for several years and has proved to be useful.

<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6:&#160;Structures of major aflatoxins and stilbene-derived peanut phytoalexins. (A) Structures of major aflatoxins: 1, B1; 2, B2; 3, G1; 4, G2.&#160;(B) Structures of major stilbene-derived peanut phytoalexins: 6, resveratrol; 7, arachidin-1; 8, arachidin-2; 9, arachidin-3; 10, IPD (3&#8242;-isopentadienyl-3,5,4&#8242;-trihydroxystilbene); 11, SB-1. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/66574/66574fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Spike levela 
			(ng/g)</td>
			<td colspan="4">A&#64258;atoxins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B1</td>
			<td>B2</td>
			<td>G1</td>
			<td>G2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50</td>
			<td>85.87 (0.97)</td>
			<td>82.33 (0.67)</td>
			<td>86.63 (2.89)</td>
			<td>84.01 (0.86)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5</td>
			<td>91.43 (2.76)</td>
			<td>87.32 (0.47)</td>
			<td>88.08 (2.08)</td>
			<td>87.73 (0.77)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>81.21 (3.16)</td>
			<td>85.33 (1.98)</td>
			<td>81.76 (4.66)</td>
			<td>88.46 (3.24)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Recovery of aflatoxins from peanut seeds using the Florisil column and 1.2 mL of the aflatoxin fraction elution mixture. [mean (SD), %; n = 5]. Aflatoxin-free ground samples (50 g) of Georgia 06G peanut cultivar were evenly spiked with the help of a micro syringe with aflatoxin stock solution at 50, 5, or 1 ng/g level, and left at room temperature for 16 h. a Spike levels are given for aflatoxins B1 and G1; for aflatoxins B2 and G2 the multiplication factor of 0.33 should be used.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Quantification of Aflatoxins and Phytoalexins in Peanut Seeds to Identify Genetic Resistance Against Aspergillus  at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Quantification of Aflatoxins and Phytoalexins in Peanut Seeds to Identify Genetic Resistance Against Aspergillus

We demonstrate a medium-throughput method for quantification of aflatoxins and stilbenoid phytoalexins in single peanut seeds using ultra performance liquid chromatography. This method was specifically developed for the analyses of wild Arachis species challenged by the aflatoxigenic Aspergillus species.

Non-destructive SPE-UPLC-based Quantification of Aflatoxins and Stilbenoid Phytoalexins in Single Peanut (Arachis spp.) Seeds

Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic secondary metabolites of some fungal species, particularly Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins often contaminate ...

non-destructive-spe-uplc-based-quantification-aflatoxins-stilbenoid

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

1.0K Views.  U.S. Department of Agriculture. De reikwijdte van het onderzoek was het ontwikkelen van een methode voor het kwantificeren van aflatoxinen en defensieve fytoalexinen in duizenden pindazaden voor de exploratie van wilde Arachis-kiemplasma, het identificeren van soorten die resistent zijn tegen aspergillus en het bepalen en karakteriseren van nieuwe bronnen van genetische resistentie tegen deze schimmelpathogeen . Onze onderzoeksgroep heeft ontdekt dat de meest veelbelovende benadering om pindakiemplasma te identificeren dat ...

Video: Auteur in de schijnwerpers: kwantificering van aflatoxinen en fytoalexinen in pindazaden om genetische resistentie tegen aspergillus  te identificeren

An Efficient Method for the Isolation of Highly Purified RNA from Seeds for Use in Quantitative Transcriptome Analysis

Plant seeds accumulate large amounts of storage reserves comprising biodegradable organic matter. Humans rely on seed storage reserves for food and as industrial materials. Gene expression profiles are powerful tools for investigating metabolic regulation in plant cells. Therefore, detailed, accurate gene expression profiles during seed development are required for crop breeding. Acquiring highly purified RNA is essential for producing these profiles. Efficient methods are needed to isolate highly purified RNA from seeds. Here, we describe a method for isolating RNA from seeds containing large amounts of oils, proteins, and polyphenols, which have inhibitory effects on high-purity RNA isolation. Our method enables highly purified RNA to be obtained from seeds without the use of phenol, chloroform, or additional processes for RNA purification. This method is applicable to Arabidopsis, rapeseed, and soybean seeds. Our method will be useful for monitoring the expression patterns of low level transcripts in developing and mature seeds.

We have succeeded in establishing a method for RNA isolation from plant seeds containing large amounts of oils, proteins, and polyphenols, which have inhibitory effects on high-purity RNA isolation. Our method is suitable for monitoring the expression of genes with low level transcripts in seeds.

Plant seeds accumulate large amounts of storage reserves comprising biodegradable organic matter. Humans rely on seed storage reserves for food and as ...

RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that 25% of the food crops in the world are contaminated with aflatoxins. That represents 100 million tons of food being destroyed or diverted to non-human consumption each year. Aflatoxins are powerful carcinogens normally accumulated by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in cereals, nuts, root crops and other agricultural products. Silencing of five aflatoxin-synthesis genes by RNA interference (RNAi) in peanut plants was used to control aflatoxin accumulation following inoculation with A. flavus. Previously, no method existed to analyze the effectiveness of RNAi in individual peanut transgenic events, as these usually produce few seeds, and traditional methods of large field experiments under aflatoxin-conducive conditions were not an option. In the field, the probability of finding naturally contaminated seeds is often 1/100 to 1/1,000. In addition, aflatoxin contamination is not uniformly distributed. Our method uses few seeds per transgenic event, with small pieces processed for real-time PCR (RT-PCR) or small RNA sequencing, and for analysis of aflatoxin accumulation by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). RNAi-expressing peanut lines 288-72 and 288-74, showed up to 100% reduction (p&#8804;0.01) in aflatoxin B1 and B2 compared to the control that accumulated up to 14,000 ng.g-1 of aflatoxin B1 when inoculated with aflatoxigenic A. flavus. As reference, the maximum total of aflatoxins allowable for human consumption in the United States is 20 ng.g-1. This protocol describes the application of RNAi-mediated control of aflatoxins in transgenic peanut seeds and methods for its evaluation. We believe that its application in breeding of peanut and other crops will bring rapid advancement in this important area of science, medicine and human nutrition, and will significantly contribute to the international effort to control aflatoxins, and potentially other mycotoxins in major food crops.

RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem

We demonstrate a method for the analysis of aflatoxins and transgene expression in peanut seeds that contain RNA-interference signals for silencing aflatoxin-synthesis genes in the fungus Aspergillus flavus. RNAi-mediated control of mycotoxins in plants has not been reported previously.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that 25% of the food crops in the world are contaminated with aflatoxins. That ...

Environment

LERLIC-MS/MS for In-depth Characterization and Quantification of Glutamine and Asparagine Deamidation in Shotgun Proteomics

Characterization of protein deamidation is imperative to decipher the role(s) and potentialities of this protein posttranslational modification (PTM) in human pathology and other biochemical contexts. In order to perform characterization of protein deamidation, we have recently developed a novel long-length electrostatic repulsion-hydrophilic interaction chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LERLIC-MS/MS) method which can separate the glutamine (Gln) and asparagine (Asn) isoform products of deamidation from model compounds to highly complex biological samples. LERLIC-MS/MS is, therefore, the first shotgun proteomics strategy for the separation and quantification of Gln deamidation isoforms. We also demonstrate, as a novelty, that the sample processing protocol outlined here stabilizes the succinimide intermediate allowing its characterization by LERLIC-MS/MS. Application of LERLIC-MS/MS as shown in this video article can help to elucidate the currently unknown molecular arrays of protein deamidation. Additionally, LERLIC-MS/MS provides further understanding of the enzymatic reactions that encompass deamidation in distinct biological backgrounds.

Here we present a step-by-step protocol of the long-length electrostatic repulsion-hydrophilic interaction chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LERLIC-MS/MS) method. This is a novel methodology that enables for the first time quantification and characterization of the glutamine and asparagine deamidation isoforms by shotgun proteomics.

Characterization of protein deamidation is imperative to decipher the role(s) and potentialities of this protein posttranslational modification (PTM) in ...

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. The relative levels of different tRNAs, and the ratio of aminoacylated tRNA to total tRNA, known as the charging level, are important factors in determining the accuracy and speed of translation. Therefore, the abundance and charging levels of tRNAs are important variables to measure when studying protein synthesis, for example under various stress conditions. Here, we describe a method for harvesting tRNA and directly measuring both the relative abundance and the absolute charging level of specific tRNA species in Escherichia coli. The tRNA is harvested in such a way that the labile bond between the tRNA and its amino acid is preserved. The RNA is then subjected to gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, which results in separation of the charged and uncharged tRNAs. The levels of specific tRNAs in different samples can be compared due to the addition of spike-in cells for normalization. Prior to RNA purification, we add 5% of E. coli cells that overproduce the rare tRNAselC to each sample. The amount of the tRNA species of interest in a sample is then normalized to the amount of tRNAselC in the same sample. Addition of spike-in cells prior to RNA purification has the advantage over addition of purified spike-in RNAs that it also accounts for any differences in cell lysis efficiency between samples.

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method for directly measuring transfer RNA charging levels from purified Escherichia coli RNA as well as a way to compare relative levels of transfer RNA, or any other short RNA, across different samples based on the addition of spike-in cells expressing a reference gene.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. ...

Quantification of Fungal Colonization, Sporogenesis, and Production of Mycotoxins Using Kernel Bioassays

The rotting of grains by seed-infecting fungi poses one of the greatest economic challenges to cereal production worldwide, not to mention serious risks to human and animal health. Among cereal production, maize is arguably the most affected crop, due to pathogen-induced losses in grain integrity and mycotoxin seed contamination. The two most prevalent and problematic mycotoxins for maize growers and food and feed processors are aflatoxin and fumonisin, produced by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides, respectively.
Recent studies in molecular plant-pathogen interactions have demonstrated promise in understanding specific mechanisms associated with plant responses to fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination1,2,3,4,5,6. Because many labs are using kernel assays to study plant-pathogen interactions, there is a need for a standardized method for quantifying different biological parameters, so results from different laboratories can be cross-interpreted. For a robust and reproducible means for quantitative analyses on seeds, we have developed in-lab kernel assays and subsequent methods to quantify fungal growth, biomass, and mycotoxin contamination. Four sterilized maize kernels are inoculated in glass vials with a fungal suspension (106) and incubated for a predetermined period. Sample vials are then selected for enumeration of conidia by hemocytometer, ergosterol-based biomass analysis by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), aflatoxin quantification using an AflaTest fluorometer method, and fumonisin quantification by HPLC.

The devastation of cereal crops by seed-infecting fungi has prompted numerous research efforts to better understand plant-pathogen interactions. To study seed-fungal interactions in a laboratory setting, we developed a robust method for the quantification of fungal reproduction, biomass, and mycotoxin contamination using kernel bioassays.

The rotting of grains by seed-infecting fungi poses one of the greatest economic challenges to cereal production worldwide, not to mention serious risks ...

Immunology and Infection

Proofreading and DNA Repair Assay Using Single Nucleotide Extension and MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry Analysis

The maintenance of the genome and its faithful replication is paramount for conserving genetic information. To assess high fidelity replication, we have developed a simple non-labeled and non-radio-isotopic method using a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization with time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) analysis for a proofreading study. Here, a DNA polymerase [e.g., the Klenow fragment (KF) of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I (pol I) in this study] in the presence of all four dideoxyribonucleotide triphosphates is used to process a mismatched primer-template duplex. The mismatched primer is then proofread/extended and subjected to MALDI-TOF MS. The products are distinguished by the mass change of the primer down to single nucleotide variations. Importantly, a proofreading can also be determined for internal single mismatches, albeit at different efficiencies. Mismatches located at 2-4-nucleotides (nt) from the 3' end were efficiently proofread by pol I, and a mismatch at 5 nt from the primer terminus showed only a partial correction. No proofreading occurred for internal mismatches located at 6 - 9 nt from the primer 3' end. This method can also be applied to DNA repair assays (e.g., assessing a base-lesion repair of substrates for the endo V repair pathway). Primers containing 3' penultimate deoxyinosine (dI) lesions could be corrected by pol I. Indeed, penultimate T-I, G-I, and A-I substrates had their last 2 dI-containing nucleotides excised by pol I before adding a correct ddN 5'-monophosphate (ddNMP) while penultimate C-I mismatches were tolerated by pol I, allowing the primer to be extended without repair, demonstrating the sensitivity and resolution of the MS assay to measure DNA repair.

A non-labeled, non-radio-isotopic method for DNA polymerase proofreading and a DNA repair assay was developed by using high-resolution MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and a single nucleotide extension strategy. The assay proved to be very specific, simple, rapid, and easy to perform for proofreading and repair patches shorter than 9-nucleotides.

The maintenance of the genome and its faithful replication is paramount for conserving genetic information. To assess high fidelity replication, we have ...

Quantification of Hypopigmentation Activity In Vitro

This study presents laboratory methods for the quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro. Melanin, the major pigment in melanocytes, is synthesized in response to multiple cellular and environmental factors. Melanin protects skin cells from ultraviolet damage, but also has biophysical and biochemical functions. Excessive production or accumulation of melanin in melanocytes can cause dermatological problems, such as freckles, dark spots, melasma, and moles. Therefore, the control of melanogenesis with hypopigmentation agents is important in individuals with clinical or cosmetic needs. Melanin is primarily synthesized in the melanosomes of melanocytes in a complex biochemical process called melanogenesis, which is influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors, such as hormones, inflammation, age, and ultraviolet light exposure. We describe three methods to determine the hypopigmentation activity of chemicals or natural substances in melanocytes: measurement of the 1) cellular tyrosinase activity and 2) melanin content, and 3) staining and quantifying cellular melanin with image analysis.
In melanogenesis, tyrosinase catalyzes the rate-limiting step that converts L-tyrosine into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) and then into dopaquinone. Therefore, the inhibition of tyrosinase is a primary hypopigmentation mechanism. In cultured melanocytes, tyrosinase activity can be quantified by adding L-DOPA as a substrate and measuring dopaquinone production by spectrophotometry. Melanogenesis can also be measured by quantifying the melanin content. The melanin-containing cellular fraction is extracted with NaOH and melanin is quantified spectrophotometrically. Finally, the melanin content can be quantified by image analysis following Fontana-Masson staining of melanin. Although the results of these in vitro assays may not always be reproduced in human skin, these methods are widely used in melanogenesis research, especially as the initial step to identify potential hypopigmentation activity. These methods can also be used to assess melanocyte activity, growth, and differentiation. Consistent results with the three different methods ensure the validity of the effects.

We describe three experimental methods for evaluating the hypopigmentation activity of chemicals in vitro: quantification of 1) cellular tyrosinase activity and 2) melanin content, and 3) measurement of melanin by cellular melanin staining and image analysis.

This study presents laboratory methods for the quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro. Melanin, the major pigment in melanocytes, is ...

Inhibition of Aspergillus flavus Growth and Aflatoxin Production in Transgenic Maize Expressing the &#945;-amylase Inhibitor from Lablab purpureus L.

Aflatoxin contamination in food and feed crops is a major challenge worldwide. Aflatoxins, produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) are potent carcinogens that substantially reduce crop value in maize and other oil rich crops like peanut besides posing serious threat to human and animal health. Different approaches, including traditional breeding, transgenic expression of resistance associated proteins, and RNA interference (RNAi)-based host-induced gene silencing of critical A. flavus gene targets, are being evaluated to increase aflatoxin resistance in susceptible crops. Past studies have shown an important role of &#945;-amylase in A. flavus pathogenesis and aflatoxin production, suggesting this gene/enzyme is a potential target to reduce both A. flavus growth and aflatoxin production. In this regard, the current study was undertaken to evaluate heterologous expression (under control of the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter) of a Lablab purpureus L. &#945;-amylase inhibitor-like protein (AILP) in maize against A. flavus. AILP is a 36-kDa protein, which is a competitive inhibitor of A. flavus &#945;-amylase enzyme and belongs to the lectin&#8211;arcelin&#8211;&#945;-amylase inhibitor protein family in common bean. In vitro studies prior to the current work had demonstrated the role of AILP in inhibition of A. flavus &#945;-amylase activity and fungal growth. Fungal growth and aflatoxin production in mature kernels were monitored in real time using a GFP-expressing A. flavus strain. This kernel screening assay (KSA) is very simple to set up and provides reliable and reproducible data on infection and the extent of spread that could be quantified for evaluation of germplasm and transgenic lines. The fluorescence from the GFP strain is closely correlated to fungal growth and, by extension, it is well-correlated to aflatoxin values.&#160; The goal of the current work was to implement this previous knowledge in a commercially important crop like maize to increase aflatoxin resistance. Our results show a 35%&#8211;72% reduction in A. flavus growth in AILP-expressing transgenic maize kernels which, in turn, translated into a 62%&#8211;88% reduction in aflatoxin levels.

Inhibition of Aspergillus flavus Growth and Aflatoxin Production in Transgenic Maize Expressing the &#945;-amylase Inhibitor from Lablab purpureus L.

Here we present a protocol to analyze Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin production in maize kernels expressing an antifungal protein.&#160; Using a GFP-expressing A. flavus strain we monitored the infection and spread of the fungus in mature kernels in real time. The assay is rapid, reliable, and reproducible.

Aflatoxin contamination in food and feed crops is a major challenge worldwide. Aflatoxins, produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) are ...

Proteome-wide Quantification of Labeling Homogeneity at the Single Molecule Level

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye and are spotted by a photodetector following their separation. Single molecule fluorescence imaging can provide ultrasensitive protein detection with its ability for visualizing individual fluorescent molecules. However, the application of this powerful imaging method to electrophoresis assays is hampered by the lack of ways to characterize the homogeneity of fluorescent labeling of each protein species across the proteome. Here, we developed a method to evaluate the labeling homogeneity across the proteome based on a single molecule fluorescence imaging assay. In our measurement using a HeLa cell sample, the proportion of proteins labeled with at least one dye, which we termed &#8216;labeling occupancy&#8217; (LO), was determined to range from 50% to 90%, supporting the high potential of the application of single molecule imaging to sensitive and precise proteome analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to assess the labeling homogeneity for each protein species in a complex protein sample at the single molecule level.

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a ...

Analyzing Pesticides in Avocado Using the QuEChERS Method and CG-MS/MS

Determination of 45 Pesticides in Avocado Varieties by the QuEChERS Method and Gas Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Gas chromatography (GC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) stands as a preeminent analytical instrument extensively employed for the surveillance of pesticide residues in food. Nevertheless, these methods are vulnerable to matrix effects (MEs), which can potentially affect accurate quantification depending on the specific combination of analyte and matrix. Among the various strategies to mitigate MEs, matrix-matched calibration represents the prevailing approach in pesticide residue applications due to its cost-effectiveness and straightforward implementation. In this study, a total of 45 representative pesticides were analyzed in three different varieties of avocado (i.e., Criollo, Hass, and Lorena) using the Quick-Easy-Cheap-Effective-Rugged-Safe (QuEChERS) method with ammonium formate and GC-MS/MS. 
For this purpose, 5 g of the avocado sample was extracted with 10 mL of acetonitrile, and then 2.5 g of ammonium formate was added to induce phase separation. Subsequently, the supernatant underwent a cleanup process via dispersive solid-phase extraction employing 150 mg of anhydrous MgSO4, 50 mg of primary-secondary amine, 50 mg of octadecylsilane, 10 mg of graphitized carbon black, and 60 mg of a zirconium oxide-based sorbent (Z-Sep+). The GC-MS/MS analysis was successfully performed in less than 25 min. Rigorous validation experiments were carried out to assess the performance of the method. The examination of a matrix-matched calibration curve for each variety of avocado revealed that the ME remained relatively consistent and less than 20% (considered as a soft ME) for most pesticide/variety combinations. Furthermore, the method&#180;s limits of quantification were lower than 5 &#181;g/kg for all three varieties. Finally, the recovery values for most pesticides fell within the acceptable range of 70-120%, with relative standard deviation values below 20%.

Avocado Sample Preparation Using the QuEChERS Method with Ammonium Formate for Pesticide Analysis

The present protocol describes the analysis of multiclass pesticide residues in avocado varieties using the Quick-Easy-Cheap-Effective-Rugged-Safe (QuEChERS) method with ammonium formate, followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Non-destructive SPE-UPLC-based Quantification of Aflatoxins and Stilbenoid Phytoalexins in Single Peanut (Arachis spp.) Seeds

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