Name: training laboratory rabbits to refine routine husbandry procedures
Uploaded: 2024-02-16T13:50:00.000+00:00
Duration: 5 min 21 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Training of Laboratory Animals for Gentle and Stress-Free Handling at JoVE.com

The authors thank the animal caretakers for taking care of the rabbits and their compassionate and dedicated work. Thanks to Kai Diederich for proofreading the manuscript.

Positive Reinforcement-Based Training for Routine Rabbit Husbandry Procedures

The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this publication.

Between 2015 and 2019, more than 49 million animals were used for scientific purposes in the European Union (and Norway); 1,745,037 (3.5 %) of them were rabbits1. Rabbits are mostly used for regulatory research (e.g., quality control, toxicity, and other safety testing, including pharmacology) and routine production of biological substances (e.g., blood-based products)2. Although efforts are made to replace animal experiments with animal-free methods, the use of animals is still necessary for some of these purposes. Whenever an animal experiment cannot be replaced, it is crucial to reduce the number of animals and refine experimental as well as housing and husbandry conditions to minimize suffering. Russel and Burch described this strategy as the 3R principle (replace, reduce, refine) in 19593 and, in 2010, it was implemented into the Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of laboratory animals used for scientific purposes4. The role of refinement sometimes referred to as &#39;Cinderella&#39; of the 3Rs5, has gained growing importance. While replacement and reduction are long-term strategies towards the ultimate goal of the Directive to fully replace animal experiments, refinement enables the immediate improvement of animal welfare5, which in turn has the potential to improve scientific quality6. Essential parts of refinement are animal handling and training, as pointed out in Annex III of the Directive 2010/63/EU. The Directive stipulates that animal facilities should design habituation and training programs for the laboratory animals adapted to species, procedure, and project4. Appendix A of the ETS No. 123 suggests that the laboratory animal personnel spends time &#34;talking to, handling, training and grooming animals&#34;7.
Some handling procedures cause stress, especially for terrestrial prey animals such as rabbits. Examples are being cornered, restrained (i.e., grabbed by a human, held in the arms of a human, or immobilized by a device), and lifted (i.e., picked up from the floor) for a health inspection or experimental procedures8. A survey focusing on pet rabbits revealed that 57-61% of them struggled when being lifted9,10 and some even showed fear related aggression (i.e., biting)11. This emphasizes the need for gentle handling and training techniques. It has already been demonstrated for other small mammals such as mice that gentle handling techniques decreases anxiety12. Moreover, gentle handling in combination with training reduces stress, anxiety, and depression-like behavior in mice13. In rhesus macaques and chimpanzees, physiological measures related to stress were less affected when they were previously trained on a procedure14,15. It may be assumed that if an animal can choose to participate in the training voluntarily, it can actively engage in and control the situation, which improves the animal&#39;s welfare and may also contribute to more robust and reliable scientific data16.
Many animal training procedures are reliant on operant conditioning principles, particularly the use of positive reinforcement and shaping17,18,19. Operant conditioning requires an animal to elicit behaviors that can then be increased or decreased20. There are four common contingencies that are used to describe operant conditioning: positive and negative reinforcement as well as positive and negative punishment21,22. In rabbits, positive punishment is used when a person approaches (undesired stimulus) an animal to move it away from or towards a particular location23. In the context of handling a rabbit on the examination table, an example for negative reinforcement is the removal of pressure (undesired stimulus) on the rabbit&#39;s body when the rabbit keeps still; an example for negative punishment is withdrawing a food reward (desired stimulus) when the rabbit starts struggling. Neither positive/negative punishment nor negative reinforcement are recommended in animal training. Punishment causes negative emotional affects24, such as distress as shown in dogs25. Instead, positive reinforcement should be the method of choice when training animals25,26. Positive reinforcement training (PRT) means that a desirable stimulus (e.g., a food reward) is provided after the animal showed a desired behavior, which increases the likelihood that the animal will display the desired behavior again in the future27. PRT often involves the application of a conditioned reinforcer. A conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer) usually is a neutral stimulus such as a sound, which the animal learns to associate with an unconditioned reinforcer (primary reinforcer, e.g., food reward)28. After the animal displays the desired behavior, the conditioned reinforcer is immediately presented, followed by the presentation of the food reward26. A well-known example of PRT is clicker training, where a clicker is used for producing a click as a secondary reinforcer26.
The training should follow predictable patterns, which is achieved by designing a training protocol. The training protocol describes how a goal behavior can be reached step by step (i.e., behavioral shaping) while each step is defined by objective criteria and should be easily accomplished26. If the training follows a particular protocol, it is possible that the laboratory animal staff alternates with training the animals. Important to note is that the personnel needs to know the principles of learning and training techniques in order to correctly apply them26. Animal training often incorporates behavioral shaping. Behavioral shaping by hand was deliberately used for the first time by Skinner and colleagues in the early 1940s29. In contrast, in previous work, Skinner rather focused on &#34;making small changes in the physical environment in order to implement a program of successive approximation&#34;29. In an article published in Scientific American, he explained that reinforcing a behavior increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated which &#34;makes it possible to shape an animal&#39;s behavior almost as a sculptor shapes a lump of clay&#34;30. Since then, shaping has experienced growing importance for captive animals29,30,31,32. For reproducing and improving shaping protocols, it is crucial to assess the protocols in a systematic and objective manner33,34,35,36.
A recently published systematic review and meta-analysis by Pfaller-Sadovsky et al. found that conditioned reinforcement was most frequently studied in horses and dogs, though cats, cattle, fish, goats, and non-human primates were also investigated37. In laboratory animal science, PRT is widely used for non-human primates38,39,40 and dogs41,42. In addition, pigs43, goats44, and even small mammals, such as mice13 and rats45,46,47, were successfully trained using a clicker in the laboratory setting. To the authors&#39; knowledge, the introduction of PRT for laboratory rabbits has only been rarely reported yet48; existing peer-reviewed literature published several decades ago is outdated and does not meet the criteria of modern ethical research. Although few non-peer-reviewed pieces of information suggest that rabbits can be successfully trained using PRT49, there seems to be a lack of knowledge on suitable training protocols for rabbits that are housed in laboratory animal facilities. The underlying reasons may be varying. For instance, training techniques used may not be described in detail in research articles or data are generated for regulatory research and therefore not being published. Moreover, rabbits may not be the main focus of refinement research since other species such as mice and rats are more frequently used in research. Since rabbits can mask stress and discomfort extremely well, their negative emotional state when being handled may often remain unrecognized. The size of a rabbit allows humans to restrain these animals for procedures while other species such as non-human primates may not be held with the hands for similar interventions without being seriously injured50. However, these facts should not prevent the development or sharing of PRT protocols for laboratory rabbits.
Regarding the potential benefits of PRT, first attempts were made to fill the knowledge gap on suitable training protocols for laboratory rabbits. To facilitate routine procedures such as handling, health inspections, and weighing, training protocols were developed and their feasibility for female New Zealand White rabbits was evaluated. Comparisons were carried out to assess whether the alternative handling technique described in the training protocols was less aversive than the conventional handling technique and whether the training protocols can serve as refinement measures. Figure 1 demonstrates the time schedule of the present study.
Animal maintenance
Thirteen female New Zealand White rabbits were obtained from commercial sources (arrival at animal facility at the age of approximately seven weeks of age). The animals were free of all viral, bacterial, and parasitic pathogens listed in the FELASA recommendations51. Protective clothing and equipment (gloves, masks, hair nets) were worn when conducting the steps of the present protocol. A group of six and a group of seven animals were housed together in a floor pen of 2.8 m &#215; 2.8 m (floor housing), respectively. The floor was covered with fine and flaky wooden bedding material (autoclaved). Moreover, nesting material and paper wool were scattered on top of the bedding. Three plastic houses with two openings each (37 cm &#215; 60 cm; height 30 cm) and a plastic tunnel (length: 58 cm; diameter: 16 cm) served as shelters. Additionally, enrichment items such as wooden gnawing blocks, hay and willow balls, and snack balls filled with food pellets, that fall out when moving the ball, were provided. The rabbits had free access to tap water, pelleted food, and autoclaved hay as well as straw. Further information on food and enrichment items are listed in the Table of Materials. The animal room was cleaned on Thursdays.
The rabbits were maintained under standard conditions (room temperature and relative humidity given as mean &#177; standard deviation: 20.3 &#177; 0.4 &#176;C and 50 &#177; 5 %) on a light:dark cycle of 12:12 h (artificial light with additional daylight incidence). A radio was turned on 30 min before the beginning of the light phase for approximately 8 h to habituate the rabbits to ambient noises.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Bed-r&amp;rsquo;Nest</td><td>The Andersons, Inc., Maumee, USA</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Finger Clicker</td><td>ASCO</td><td></td><td>https://ascoshop.de/products/fingerclicker</td></tr><tr><td>G*Power</td><td></td><td>version 3.1.9.7</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heu-Proppen</td><td>Ssniff Spezialdi&amp;auml;ten GmbH, Soest, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>IBM Corp. Released 2020. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows,&amp;nbsp; Armonk, NY: IBM Corp</td><td>IBM Corp</td><td>Version 27.0.</td><td>in the manuscript referred to as &quot;software for advanced statistical analysis&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>Kaninchen Haltung + 25 mg/kg Salinomycin-Natrium-Sondermischung</td><td>Ssniff Spezialdi&amp;auml;ten GmbH, Soest, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Lignocel block</td><td>Lignocel J. Rettenmaier &amp;amp;S&amp;ouml;hne GmbH + Co KG, Rosenberg, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Lillebro gesch&amp;auml;lte Sonnenblumenkerne&amp;rdquo;, Martina GmbH, M&amp;uuml;nchen, Germany) and Rainbow Foraging Bits (Bio-Serv, Flemington, USA)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Martina GmbH, M&amp;uuml;nchen, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Microsoft Excel for Microsoft 365 MSO</td><td>Microsoft Corporation</td><td>Version 2305</td><td>in the manuscript referred to as &quot;spread sheet&quot;</td></tr><tr><td>New Zealand White rabbits&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Charles River Laboratories France</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plattformwaage DE 35K5DL</td><td>KERN &amp;amp; SOHN GmbH, Balingen-Frommern, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Premium scientific bedding (fine &amp;amp; flake)</td><td>SAFE, Augy, France</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Rainbow Foraging Bits</td><td>Bio-Serv, Flemington, USA</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Snackball f&amp;uuml;r Kaninchen &amp;ndash; 7 cm</td><td>TRIXIE Heimtierbedarf GmbH &amp;amp; Co. KG, Tarp, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Target stick with integrated clicker</td><td>TRIXIE Heimtierbedarf GmbH &amp;amp; Co. KG, Tarp, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Trixi Transportbox Capri Open Top</td><td>TRIXIE Heimtierbedarf GmbH &amp;amp; Co. KG, Tarp, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Weiden-Heuball</td><td>JR FARM GmbH, Holzheim-Pessenburgheim, Germany</td><td></td><td>The successful implementation of the protocol does not depend on this particular product. You could use comparable products by other companies.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

training laboratory rabbits to refine routine husbandry procedures

Non-aversive handling and training techniques for laboratory animals are required to facilitate experimental and routine husbandry procedures, improving both animal welfare and scientific quality. Clicker training was utilized to develop training protocols for rabbits to refine stressful routine husbandry procedures usually associated with lifting (i.e., being picked up from the floor)/restraining (i.e., being held in the arms of a human) them. Thirteen female New Zealand White rabbits were trained over three weeks. All rabbits learned the predefined goal behaviors: they followed the target stick, jumped onto the weighing scale, entered a transport box, and reared while placing their front paws onto the trainer&#39;s hand. In addition, ten animals jumped from the floor onto the sitting trainer&#39;s lap and allowed the trainer to lift their paws off the surface while sitting on the trainer&#39;s lap. For some individuals, the protocols had to be adapted by additional interim steps. At the end of the training, the rabbits reliably showed the expected goal behaviors, even after short and long training breaks. With few exceptions, a familiar person other than the trainer could elicit the goal behaviors from the rabbits (generalization), though further sessions were required for generalization. In the voluntary approach test, the rabbits preferred interacting with the trainer in the 1st trial but spent as much time with an unfamiliar person as with the trainer in the 2nd trial. The behavioral observations suggested that picking the rabbits up with the transport box, as described in the protocol, instead of restraining them with the scruff of their neck and lifting them on the arm, was less aversive. All in all, the training protocols were feasible and can serve as a refinement strategy in laboratory animal facilities. In the interest of animal welfare, the training protocols should be applied wherever possible.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Training of Laboratory Animals for Gentle and Stress-Free Handling at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Training of Laboratory Animals for Gentle and Stress-Free Handling

Training protocols involving positive reinforcement for routine husbandry procedures in rabbits were developed and proved to be successful, as the rabbits reliably showed the trained behaviors at the weekly general examination. Picking the rabbits up with the transport box was less aversive than the conventional handling technique.

Training Laboratory Rabbits to Refine Routine Husbandry Procedures

Non-aversive handling and training techniques for laboratory animals are required to facilitate experimental and routine husbandry procedures, improving ...

training-laboratory-rabbits-to-refine-routine-husbandry-procedures

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

2.3K Views.  German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment. We willen het dierenwelzijn verbeteren zolang er dierproeven worden uitgevoerd. Het is onze morele verantwoordelijkheid en plicht om ervoor te zorgen dat de proefdieren zo min mogelijk lijden. Dit omvat ook het verzorgen en behandelen van de dieren op de zachtst mogelijke manier.Bijvoorbeeld door gebruik te maken van positieve bekrachtigingstraining. Ons onderzoek suggereert dat zachte hanteringstechnieken en positieve bekrachtigingstraining stress bij proefdieren verminderen. Onderzoe...

Video: Auteur in de schijnwerpers: training van proefdieren voor een zachte en stressvrije omgang

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a parasympathetically-induced bradycardia and a sympathetically-induced alteration of vascular resistance that maintains blood flow to the heart, brain and exercising muscles. While many of the metabolic and cardiorespiratory aspects of the diving response have been studied in marine animals, investigations of the central integrative aspects of this brainstem reflex have been relatively lacking. Because the physiology and neuroanatomy of the rat are well characterized, the rat can be used to help ascertain the central pathways of the mammalian diving response. Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to swim and voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Considerations regarding tank design and procedure room requirements are also given. The behavioral training is conducted in such a way as to reduce the stressfulness that could otherwise be associated with forced underwater submergence, thus minimizing activation of central stress pathways. The training procedures are not technically difficult, but they can be time-consuming. Since behavioral training of animals can only provide a model to be used with other experimental techniques, examples of how voluntarily diving rats have been used in conjunction with other physiological and neuroanatomical research techniques, and how the basic training procedures may need to be modified to accommodate these techniques, are also provided. These experiments show that voluntarily diving rats exhibit the same cardiorespiratory changes typically seen in other diving animals. The ease with which rats can be trained to voluntarily dive underwater, and the already available data from rats collected in other neurophysiological studies, makes voluntarily diving rats a good behavioral model to be used in studies investigating the central aspects of the mammalian diving response.

Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Because the brains of rats have been very well characterized, voluntarily diving rats may help elucidate the central pathways of the mammalian diving response.

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a ...

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these processes is the ability to adjust behavior in response to changes in one&#8217;s environment (i.e., behavioral flexibility). These processes are essential to normal human behavior, and may be disrupted in diverse neuropsychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, alcoholism, depression, stroke, and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Understanding of the neurobiology of executive functions has been greatly advanced by the availability of animal tasks for assessing discrete components of behavioral flexibility, particularly strategy shifting and reversal learning. While several types of tasks have been developed, most are non-automated, labor intensive, and allow testing of only one animal at a time. The recent development of automated, operant-based tasks for assessing behavioral flexibility streamlines testing, standardizes stimulus presentation and data recording, and dramatically improves throughput. Here, we describe automated strategy shifting and reversal tasks, using operant chambers controlled by custom written software programs. Using these tasks, we have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex governs strategy shifting but not reversal learning in the rat, similar to the dissociation observed in humans. Moreover, animals with a neonatal hippocampal lesion, a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia, are selectively impaired on the strategy shifting task but not the reversal task. The strategy shifting task also allows the identification of separate types of performance errors, each of which is attributable to distinct neural substrates. The availability of these automated tasks, and the evidence supporting the dissociable contributions of separate prefrontal areas, makes them particularly well-suited assays for the investigation of basic neurobiological processes as well as drug discovery and screening in disease models.

The ability to assess executive functions such as behavioral flexibility in rats is useful for investigating the neurobiology of cognition in both intact animals and disease models. Here we describe automated tasks for assessing strategy shifting and reversal learning, which are particularly sensitive to disruptions in prefrontal cortical networks.

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these ...

Combined Shuttle-Box Training with Electrophysiological Cortex Recording and Stimulation as a Tool to Study Perception and Learning

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the necessary equipment is now available by several commercial companies. This protocol provides a detailed description of a two-way shuttle-box avoidance learning paradigm in rodents (here Mongolian gerbils; Meriones unguiculatus) in combination with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical electrophysiological in vivo recordings. The detailed protocol is applicable to study multiple aspects of learning behavior and perception in different rodent species.
Site-specific ICMS of auditory cortical circuits as conditioned stimuli here is used as a tool to test the perceptual relevance of specific afferent, efferent and intracortical connections. Distinct activation patterns can be evoked by using different stimulation electrode arrays for local, layer-dependent ICMS or distant ICMS sites. Utilizing behavioral signal detection analysis it can be determined which stimulation strategy is most effective for eliciting a behaviorally detectable and salient signal. Further, parallel multichannel-recordings using different electrode designs (surface electrodes, depth electrodes, etc.) allow for investigating neuronal observables over the time course of such learning processes. It will be discussed how changes of the behavioral design can increase the cognitive complexity (e.g. detection, discrimination, reversal learning).

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is well-established in behavioral neuroscience. This protocol describes how shuttle-box learning in rodents can be combined with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical in vivo recordings as a tool to study multiple aspects of learning and perception.

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the ...

A Method for Evaluating the Reinforcing Properties of Ethanol in Rats without Water Deprivation, Saccharin Fading or Extended Access Training

Operant oral self-administration methods are commonly used to study the reinforcing properties of ethanol in animals. However, the standard methods require saccharin/sucrose fading, water deprivation and/or extended training to initiate operant responding in rats. This paper describes a novel and efficient method to quickly initiate operant responding for ethanol that is convenient for experimenters and does not require water deprivation or saccharin/sucrose fading, thus eliminating the potential confound of using sweeteners in ethanol operant self-administration studies. With this method, Wistar rats typically acquire and maintain self-administration of a 20% ethanol solution in less than two weeks of training. Furthermore, blood ethanol concentrations and rewards are positively correlated for a 30 min self-administration session. Moreover, naltrexone, an FDA-approved medication for alcohol dependence that has been shown to suppress ethanol self-administration in rodents, dose-dependently decreases alcohol intake and motivation to consume alcohol for rats self-administering 20% ethanol, thus validating the use of this new method to study the reinforcing properties of alcohol in rats.

This protocol describes a novel and efficient method to quickly initiate operant responding for ethanol in rats that, contrary to standard methods, does not require water deprivation or saccharin/sucrose fading to initiate responding.

Operant oral self-administration methods are commonly used to study the reinforcing properties of ethanol in animals. However, the standard methods ...

Pavlovian Conditioned Approach Training in Rats

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the attribution of incentive salience, or the transformation of neutral stimuli into attractive, &#34;wanted&#39; stimuli capable of motivating behavior. Pavlovian conditioned approach (PCA) develops after the response-independent presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS; e.g., a lever) that predicts the delivery of an unconditioned stimulus (US; e.g., a food pellet) and can be used to measure incentive salience. During training, three patterns of conditioned responses (CRs) can develop: sign-tracking behavior (CS-directed CR), goal-tracking behavior (US-directed CR), and an intermediate response (both CRs). Sign-trackers attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and are more vulnerable to cue-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking as well as other addiction-related behaviors, making PCA a potentially valuable procedure for studying addiction vulnerability. Here, we describe materials and methods used to elicit PCA behavior from rats as well as analyze and interpret PCA behavior in individual experiments.

Here, we present a protocol to elicit Pavlovian conditioned approach behavior in rats. This procedure can be used to measure individual differences in the tendency to approach and attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and investigate addiction vulnerability.

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the ...

Introducing Clicker Training as a Cognitive Enrichment for Laboratory Mice

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous research determined a profound impact of gentle handling protocols on the well-being of laboratory mice. By introducing clicker training to the keeping of mice, not only do we promote the amicable treatment of mice, but we also enable them to experience cognitive enrichment. Clicker training is a form of positive reinforcement training using a conditioned secondary reinforcer, the "click" sound of a clicker, which serves as a time bridge between the strengthened behavior and an upcoming reward. The effective implementation of the clicker training protocol with a cohort of 12 BALB/c inbred mice of each sex proved to be uncomplicated. The mice learned rather quickly when challenged with tasks of the clicker training protocol, and almost all trained mice overcame the challenges they were given (100% of female mice and 83% of male mice). This study has identified that clicker training for mice strongly correlates with reduced fear in the mice during human-mice interactions, as shown by reduced anxiety-related behaviors (e.g., defecation, vocalization, and urination) and fewer depression-like behaviors (e.g., floating). By developing a reliable protocol that can be easily integrated into the daily routine of the keeping of laboratory mice, the lifetime experience of welfare in the mice can be improved substantially.

The development of new refinement strategies for laboratory mice is a challenging task that contributes towards fulfilling the 3R principle. This protocol introduces clicker training as a cognitive enrichment program for laboratory mice.

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous ...

Systematic Assessment of Well-Being in Mice for Procedures Using General Anesthesia

In keeping with the 3R Principle (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) developed by Russel and Burch, scientific research should use alternatives to animal experimentation whenever possible. When there is no alternative to animal experimentation, the total number of laboratory animals used should be the minimum needed to obtain valuable data. Moreover, appropriate refinement measures should be applied to minimize pain, suffering, and distress accompanying the experimental procedure. The categories used to classify the degree of pain, suffering, and distress are non-recovery, mild, moderate, or severe (EU Directive 2010/63). To determine which categories apply in individual cases, it is crucial to use scientifically sound tools.
The well-being-assessment protocol presented here is designed for procedures during which general anesthesia is used. The protocol focuses on home cage activity, the Mouse Grimace Scale, and luxury behaviors such as burrowing and nest building behavior as indicators of well-being. It also uses the free exploratory paradigm for trait anxiety-related behavior. Fecal corticosterone metabolites as indicators of acute stress are measured over the 24-h post-anesthetic period.
The protocol provides scientifically solid information on the well-being of mice following general anesthesia. Due to its simplicity, the protocol can easily be adapted and integrated in a planned study. Although it does not provide a scale to classify distress in categories according to the EU Directive 2010/63, it can help researchers estimate the degree of severity of a procedure using scientifically sound data. It provides a way to improve the assessment of well-being in a scientific, animal-centered manner.

We developed a protocol to assess well-being in mice during procedures using general anesthesia. A series of behavioral parameters indicating levels of well-being as well as glucocorticoid metabolites were analyzed. The protocol can serve as a general aid to estimate the degree of severity in a scientific, animal-centered manner.

In keeping with the 3R Principle (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) developed by Russel and Burch, scientific research should use alternatives to animal ...

Methods of Pairing and Pair Maintenance of New Zealand White Rabbits (Oryctolagus Cuniculus) Via Behavioral Ethogram, Monitoring, and Interventions

New Zealand White (NZW) laboratory rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), as well as their ancestors the European Rabbit, are a social species that exhibit numerous benefits to being housed accordingly. Although these rabbits are innately gregarious, certain behaviors can still arise when kept in captivity, which if left unchecked, can confound research results or lead to wounding, which in extreme cases can be severe. To prevent these issues, there must be a well-structured plan for the monitoring and maintenance of paired laboratory rabbits. The purpose of this protocol is to present effective procedures for establishing newly paired NZW rabbits as well as methods for successful maintenance. Multiple methods have been tested for the creation of newly paired female rabbits from the vendor, but the most efficacious technique emphasizes capitalizing on the stress bonding from transport, urine marking, pairing in a neutral cage with no forced sharing of resources and a system of monitoring and intervention. To determine the best method of housing paired rabbits in a standard caging environment, data were collected to generate a behavioral ethogram. Behaviors were then quantified as positive, neutral or negative and were tracked across the lifespan of the pair to determine which behaviors indicated pair success or failure. With the newfound knowledge of socially housed laboratory NZW rabbit behavior, enrichment intervention was applied to alleviate aggression and prevent wounding, thus resulting in a higher percentage of successful pairs. Through several years of trialing different pairing methods, the development of the ethogram and the resulting enrichment interventions, understanding of the highly complex social constructs that dominate pair housed rabbit behavior has dramatically increased and allowed for the provision of more species-specific care and increased standards of welfare.

Methods of Pairing and Pair Maintenance of New Zealand White Rabbits Oryctolagus Cuniculus Via Behavioral Ethogram, Monitoring, and Interventions

Though European rabbits are a social species, socially housing them can be challenging. Therefore, there must be a thorough understanding of behaviors and social structures of pair-housed laboratory rabbits. Here we present a protocol to identify pairing methods, species-typical hierarchy establishment behaviors and behaviors that warrant appropriate intervention.

New Zealand White (NZW) laboratory rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), as well as their ancestors the European Rabbit, are a social species that exhibit ...

Using Clicker Training and Social Observation to Teach Rats to Voluntarily Change Cages

Cage cleaning is a routinely performed husbandry procedure and is known to induce stress in laboratory rats. As stress can have a negative impact on well-being and can affect the comparability and reproducibility of research results, the amount of stress experienced by laboratory animals should be minimized and avoided when possible. Further, the direct contact between the rat and animal caretaker during the cage change bears hygiene risks and therefore possibly negatively impacts the well-being of the rats and the quality of the research. 
Our protocol aims to improve the routinely performed cage changing procedure. For this reason, we present a feasible protocol that enables rats to learn via clicker training and observation to voluntarily change to a clean cage. This training helps to reduce stress caused by the physical disturbance and handling associated with the cage changes and concurrently enables a reduction in direct contact between animal and animal caretaker after the training phase is completed.
The implementation of clicker training to rats is fast and easy. Rats are generally interested in the training and efficiently learn the desired behavior, which entails changing cages through a pipe. Even without training, the rats learn to perform the desired behavior by observation, as 80% of the observational learning group successfully changed cages when tested. The training further helps to establish a relationship of trust between trainer and animal. As hygiene and well-being are both very important in animal experiments, this protocol might also help to improve high-quality research.

This protocol introduces a method of cage change for rats via clicker training. Rats learn the desired behavior not only by direct training but also by observational learning. The implementation of this fast and easy protocol might help to improve well-being and hygiene in rodent facilities.

Cage cleaning is a routinely performed husbandry procedure and is known to induce stress in laboratory rats. As stress can have a negative impact on ...

Training Laboratory Rabbits to Refine Routine Husbandry Procedures

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