Name: xylem water distribution in woody plants visualized with a cryo-scanning electron microscope
Uploaded: 2019-06-20T12:30:00.000+00:00
Duration: 10 min 47 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Xylem Water Distribution in Woody Plants Visualized with a Cryo-scanning Electron Microscope at JoVE.com

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (No. 20120009, 20120010, 19780129, 25292110, 23780190, 23248022, 15H02450, 16H04936, 16H04948, 17H03825, 18H02258)

NOTE: A schematic chart of this protocol is shown in Figure 1.
1. Sampling: Tension Relaxation within Water Column of Xylem Conduits
NOTE: The following tension relaxation treatment is recommended before the LN2 application to avoid both freezing and tension&#8211;induced artifacts in the xylem water distribution.
<ol>
	<li>Enclose a branch and leaves for sampling with a black plastic bag to equilibrate the water potential between xylem and leaves more than two hours before sampling.</li>
	<li>Determine the water potential of at least two leaves from the sample using a pressure chamber or a psychrometer. When the water potential is higher than ca. &#8722;0.5 MPa (i.e., no or very-low tension exists), a sample can be harvested after freezing (refer to section 2: Freeze fixation). When the water potential is lower than &#8722;0.5 MPa, a treatment for relaxation is needed as described below.</li>
	<li>Fix a watertight collar around the stem in order to be filled with water. A plastic cup without bottom can serve as a watertight collar.&#160;Care should be taken to tightly seal the spaces between the stem and the collar using a sticky tape for preventing leakage of liquid media which are used subsequently. For harvesting flexible stems such as thin branches or twigs, sink a cutting portion into a water-filled bucket by bending the stem. Cut under the water surface using pruning shears or a saw.&#160;Transfer the sample to another container of water as quickly as possible to minimize exposing the cut end to air.</li>
	<li>Keep the cut end of the sample under water. For broadleaved species, ensure that the length from the spot where a cryo-sample for SEM will be obtained to the cut edge of the harvested stem is longer than the samples&#39; maximum vessel length in order to prevent tension&#8211;induced artifacts within the cryo sample.</li>
	<li>Cover the sample containing leaves with a black plastic bag to reduce transpiration. Keep the cut end of the sample in the water and maintain this condition for approximately 30 min in order to relax the xylem tension. Avoid a longer relaxation time (&#62;1 h) due to possible artificial refilling of cavitated conduits12.</li>
	<li>Measure the water potential again to confirm the relaxation of the xylem tension (nearly 0 MPa). 
	NOTE: Prior to sampling, maximum vessel length of the target species should be researched or determined with similar samples by air injection method. When sampling a large tree, or a large branch, it is difficult to conduct the tension-relaxation procedures described above. Therefore, samples from large trees must be collected during the predawn period when the xylem water potential is higher.</li>
</ol>
2. Freeze Fixation with LN2
<ol>
	<li>Cut and open one side of a watertight collar with scissors or a utility knife. Tightly attach the collar around the stem with an adhesive tape while holding the aperture horizontally.</li>
	<li>Wear insulating gloves/mitten, but make sure to hold the bottle of LN2 safely, and run LN2 into the collar to fill it with LN2. Keep it filled by steadily adding LN2 to completely freeze the water in the xylem. The time required for freezing is dependent on the sample size; 1 min&#160;after the boiling of poured LN2 has stopped&#160;is sufficient for a small twig or a seedling, while more than 20 min is needed for a stem of a larger tree20. Add LN2 continuously during freezing as it evaporates rapidly due to large temperature differences between LN2 and ambient temperatures.</li>
	<li>Detach the collar from the frozen portion of the sample stem in order to remove LN2 after the sufficient freezing time. Make sure to wear insulating gloves to avoid contact with potential LN2 spills caused by detaching the collar.</li>
	<li>Harvest the sample with a fine handsaw immediately.</li>
	<li>Cover the frozen sample with a piece of aluminum foil or put it into a sample tube, on which sample ID numbers are written. Rapidly place the harvested sample into a container filled with LN2 or pack into an insulated box filled with dry ice.</li>
	<li>Store the samples in a deep freezer until observation. The preferred storage temperature is &#8722;80 &#176;C in order to prevent ice sublimation and its recrystallization during storing.</li>
</ol>
3. Specimen Preparation
NOTE: For observation, a sample must be trimmed and its surface for observation must be planed at subzero temperature in order to keep the water distribution in its xylem in situ. A biological microtome with a cryostat system (cryostat) is ideal for trimming and exposing the surface of a specimen in this type of observation by cryo-SEM.
<ol>
	<li>Set the temperature of the specimen chamber of the cryostat to &#8722;30 &#176;C, which is usually cold enough to keep the xylem sap of most plants in a frozen state.</li>
	<li>Trim a sample into a small piece (&#60; ca. 2 cm in height and &#60; ca. 1 cm in width or diameter) that can be adjusted for the specimen holder of a cryo-SEM. Use a sharp knife or a fine-toothed saw for trimming in order to prevent breaking the ice in the specimen. In the case of a larger sample that cannot be cut with a knife, quickly pre-cut with a cooled saw in a freezer box.</li>
	<li>Attach the trimmed piece to a chuck, a holder for a cryostat by mounting onto a tissue freezing embedding medium (e.g., OCT compound) for cryo-sectioning.&#160;Then, attach the chuck to a specimen holder of a microtome of the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Trim the surface by repeatedly shaving with 5&#8211;7 &#181;m sections in thickness. Trimming by cutting away more than 1,000 to 2,000 &#181;m, in total depth from the initial surface at sample collection, is useful for eliminating the damaged portion of the sample caused by pre-cutting with a knife or saw as described in the step 3.2.</li>
	<li>After roughly trimming a surface of the sample, adjust an unused portion of the microtome blade above the specimen&#39;s surface. Do not allow the blade to touch the sample which would exceed the thickness setting.</li>
	<li>Before the first cut by the unused blade portion, slightly widen the distance between the surface of the specimen and the blade.</li>
	<li>Cut the surface of the sample only once or twice. Further, slide the blade again adjusting an unused blade portion on the specimen&#39;s surface.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 3.6 and 3.7 three or four times. This is important in order to obtain a clear surface without &#8220;knife marks&#8221; (Figure 4).</li>
	<li>After the final cut, set the blade&#39;s position far from the sample to prevent dust from sticking onto the sample.</li>
	<li>Detach the chuck from the specimen holder and detach the specimen from the chuck by removing the frozen embedding medium with a sharp knife. Ensure that the specimen is placed in the cryostat chamber to prevent its planed surface from frost dust.</li>
	<li>Attach the specimen to a cryo-SEM specimen holder with a tissue freezing embedding medium in the cryostat chamber.</li>
</ol>
4. Transfer to the Cryo-SEM Specimen Chamber
NOTE: The surface&#8211;prepared specimen must be protected from an increase of temperature or accumulation of frost during the transfer from the cryostat chamber to the observation stage in the cryo-SEM specimen chamber.
<ol>
	<li>Maintain the cold stage temperature in the cryo-SEM specimen chamber at lower than &#8211;120 &#730;C with LN2 according to the equipment&#39;s user manual.</li>
	<li>Place the specimen holder with the prepared specimen into an insulating container filled with LN2 in the cryostat chamber.</li>
	<li>Hold the specimen holder with a specimen exchanging rod beneath the LN2. Avoid exposing the specimen holder to air whenever possible.</li>
	<li>Rapidly set the specimen holder to the pre-evacuation chamber of the cryo-SEM specimen chamber&#160;as soon as starting evacuation of the pre-evacuation chamber. Then, place the specimen holder on the cold stage after air is fully evacuated. Although a bit of frost accumulation is unavoidable, the &#34;freeze-etching&#34; procedure (step 6) can remove it.</li>
</ol>
5. Setting in SEM
NOTE: Typical setting for the observation is described below. Some modifications are required depending on the vacuum condition or electron beam.
<ol>
	<li>Set the SEM parameters for observation as follows: 
	Acceleration voltage: 3&#8211;5 kV 
	Temperature of the specimen stage: &#60; &#8722;120 &#176;C 
	Detector: Secondary emission</li>
</ol>
6. Freeze-etching
NOTE: Freeze-etching is the procedure for accentuating the edge of the sample&#39;s cell walls by slight ice crystal sublimation. Freeze-etching also involves removing surface frost dusts.
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the acceleration voltage of the electric gun during freeze-etching. It is better to conduct freeze-etching while observing the specimen.</li>
	<li>Raise the temperature of the specimen stage to &#8722;100 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Wait for several minutes until frost dust is removed and the surface level of the ice in xylem cells has decreased slightly by comparison to the cell walls.</li>
	<li>Lower the temperature of the specimen stage to &#8722;120 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: If there is no installed temperature controller for the specimen stage, hold the specimen using the exchange rod and detach it from specimen stage for a few minutes. Observe the specimen several times during this freeze-etching process to verify the specimen&#39;s sublimation status.</li>
</ol>
7. Metal Coating (Optional)
NOTE: Recent improvements to the SEM instrument and image processing can provide high quality images of electric insulating specimens without metal coating. However, non-conductive specimens, such as biological materials, are sometimes subject to charge; higher brightness at specific positions of the specimen due to accumulation of electrons (&#8220;charging&#8221;). Exposing the specimen to electron beams for a longer period of time or for a high magnification, increases the charging effects. Coating the surface of the specimen with electric-conductive metal materials prevents the occurrence of charging. Use the vacuum coating system which is installed within the cryo-SEM unit in order to prevent the temperature of the specimen from increasing during coating.
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that coating material is installed at a designated evaporator head of the coating system.</li>
	<li>Maintain the temperature of the cold stage in the coating system below &#8722;170 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Place the specimen holder on the cold stage of the coating system after sufficient freeze-etching.</li>
	<li>Open a partition between the cold stage and the evaporator head.</li>
	<li>Set the current value and the voltage value of the evaporator head at ca. 30 mA and ca. 5 V, respectively.</li>
	<li>Evaporate coating material for ca. 30 s to coat the surface of the specimen.</li>
	<li>Set both of the current and voltage values of the evaporator head at zero and close the partition.</li>
	<li>Place the specimen holder on the cold stage of the specimen chamber for observation.</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The cryo-SEM observation methods introduced in this paper are practical for clearly visualizing water distribution on a cellular scale. Through this method, exploring the changes in the distribution of water within xylem can potentially help clarify the mechanism of tree species tolerance to abiotic stress (water shortage or freezing) or biotic stress (tree disease).
The most crucial step in this method is preserving the water distribution characteristic of the native water status during sample collection and subsequent sample preparation. Xylem tissue of species with long conduits (especially earlywood vessels of ring-porous trees) can easily lose water during harvesting and freezing. Cochard et al. (2000) have discussed freezing artifacts due to high tension in the water column along xylem conduits38,41. Umebayashi et al. (2016) confirmed the validity of cryo-SEM observations of tension-relaxed samples by comparison to non-destructive MRI observations39. Both observation techniques showed a similar pattern of water distribution. Although we still need to verify the species-specific robustness against air-entry induced by freezing under high hydraulic tension, relaxation procedures should be conducted to provide reliable estimations of water distributions, and in particular for water-stressed plants.
Frost and ice particles are significant obstacles to detailed observation. To prevent frost accumulation, the specimen should not be exposed to the atmosphere until it is attached to the cryo-SEM specimen chamber. Although exposure to the atmosphere cannot be entirely prevented during the transfer of the sample to the specimen chamber, the transfer time should be kept short. The insulating transfer container of the specimen holder should be well dried after removing the specimen holder and LN2&#160;in order to prevent frost and ice originated from dew condensation.
The appropriate length of time for freeze-etching depends on the performance of the instruments used. Important factors in determining this are the vacuum level in the specimen chamber and the stability of the temperature controller of the specimen stage. The extent of sublimation corresponding to the temperature should be primarily assessed before formal use. Excessive freeze-etching will attenuate the presence of water in xylem conduits and make it difficult to be identified, especially in the lumina of narrow cells.
It takes specific steps and efforts to ensure that destructive methods of sampling are free from artifact occurrence during the freezing, harvesting and trimming procedures. Although the significance of the occurrence of artifacts is frequently pointed out, the degree of occurrence of freezing artifacts in xylem conduits has not been sufficiently validated38,39. Further validation by non-destructive methods is desirable for confirming the accuracy of the tension-relaxation procedure and the freeze-fixation. Since synchrotron-based &#181;CT or MRI systems have not been sufficiently prevalent in the study of plant-water relations by comparison to the cryo-SEM system, application of a commercial &#181;CT system can possibly progress the validation of cryo-SEM results42.
Hydraulic tree traits, such as sap flux, hydraulic conductivity of stem segments, percentage loss of conductivity (PLC), or xylem capacitance provide estimates of tree water use and resistance to drought. Comparison of water use among species is needed for predicting tree survival under water stress caused by anthropogenic climate change2. Cryo-SEM observation has many advantages in providing anatomical knowledge for clarifying the cause of changes within hydraulic features. The recent improvements of both destructive and non-destructive methods of plant anatomical and hydraulic studies can together deepen our understanding of the nature of tree water use.

Availability of water resources (i.e., precipitation, soil water content) strictly determines the mortality and geographic distribution of plant species, since they need to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the leaves for photosynthetic production. Plants must maintain their water transport system under fluctuating water supplies. In particular, woody plants generate high tensions in their conduits along the transpiration streams as, in some cases, they need to hold their crown more than ~100 m above ground. To maintain water columns under such high negative pressure, xylem conduits consist of a continuum of tubular cells with rigid and hydrophobic-lignified cell walls1. The vulnerability to xylem dysfunction of xylem conduits in each species is a good determinant of the species survival under fluctuating water supply2. In addition, studying the water status of xylem conduits is important for the evaluation of the health condition of individual trees subjected to abiotic or biotic stresses. Measuring sap flow or water potential can provide estimates of a woody plant&#39;s water status due to the integrated hydraulic function of xylem conduits. Furthermore, visualizing the distribution of water in xylem cells can clarify the condition of individual components of the xylem hydraulic system.
Several techniques for visualizing the water status of xylem conduits exist3. The classical and useful methods for observing water pathways in woody tissue involve staining the water column by immersing the ends of cut branches into a dye or by injecting a dye into standing tree stems4. Soft X-ray photography also allows the visualization of water distribution of sliced wood disks due to the differential X-ray absorption intensity of the moisture in xylem5,6. These methods, however, only provide tracks of water movement or demonstrate macroscopic distributions of water. Recently, non-destructive observation techniques, such as micro focus X-ray computed tomography (&#181;CT)7,8,9,10and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)11,12, have been significantly improved to allow observation of water in xylem conduits within intact saplings. These non-destructive methods have great advantages in that we can observe the xylem&#39;s water status without artificial cutting effects, and we can track water flow dynamics by sequential imaging or introducing a contrast agent10. However, we need to use a customized MRI for plant imaging or a specialized facility for synchrotron-based &#181;CT in order to obtain the images which can identify cellular level water content. In addition, although the synchrotron-based &#181;CT system enabled to obtain fine images with high spatial resolution, which is comparable to light microscopy7,8,9, living cells can be injured by the radiation of high energy X-ray13,14. Employing a scanning electron microscope in which cryo-units are installed (cryo-SEM) is a very useful method for precisely locating the water in xylem at a cellular level, although this requires destructively harvesting the sample for observation. To fix the water in xylem conduits, a portion of the stems (i.e., twigs, branches or stems) are frozen in situ by liquid nitrogen (LN2). Observations of the surface of trimmed, frozen specimens by cryo-SEM provide highly-magnified images of the xylem structure from which we can identify the water in xylem conduits as ice. A significant limitation of this method is that sequential observation of water movability within the same sample is impossible. However, the application of &#181;CT or MRI for sequential observation of trees that live in a field is extremely challenging because these instruments are not portable. In contrast, cryo-SEM has a potential for using this technique on big trees in field experiments to clearly visualize water contents at not only the cellular level but also at a finer structure level, e.g., water in intervascular pits15, water in intercellular spaces16, or bubbles in water column17.
Many studies observing xylem water by cryo-SEM have been reported 5,12,18,19,20,21,23. Utsumi et al. (1996) initially established the protocol for observation of xylem in situ&#160;by freeze-fixation of a living trunk via filling LN2&#160;into a container set onto the stem21. The temperature of the sample was maintained below -20 &#176;C during sample collection and during cryo-SEM preparation in order to avoid melting the ice within xylem conduits. This method has been used to observe the water in xylem in order to clarify water distribution under changing water regime11,12,24,25,26,27,28, the seasonal variation of water distribution21,29,30, the effect of freeze-thaw cycles17,31,32, the distribution of water in wet wood5, changes in the water distribution during the transition from sapwood to heartwood20, seasonal time course of cambial activity and differentiation of vessels33, and cavitation induced by certain biotic stresses23,34. Hydraulic conductivity and conduits vulnerability to cavitation have also been verified using cryo-SEM35,36. Cryo-SEM equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX or EDS) has been used to study element distribution over the surface of a specimen containing water37.
Freeze-fixation of a living trunk which contains conduits under high hydraulic tension sometimes causes artificial cavitations which are observed by cryo-SEM as fractured ice crystals in the lumen of conduits38,39. In particular, broadleaved species with longer and wider conduits are vulnerable to tension-induced artifacts, such as cavitation caused by sample cutting, even if conducted under water3,40. Cavitation artifacts become conspicuous after sampling of a transpiring tree (i.e., sampling during the day time) or under severe drought conditions and they can mislead to an overestimation of cavitation occurrence3,38,39. Therefore, the tension working in the conduits has to be released in order to avoid the artifactual cavitation3,12,39.
The freeze-fracture technique using a knife installed in a specimen chamber is often employed to expose specimen surface for cryo-SEM observation. However, freeze-fractured planes of woody plant tissues, especially transverse sections of secondary xylem, are too rough to clearly observe the anatomical features and water in the tissue6. The application of a cryostat for trimming a specimen allows rapid and high-quality preparation of sample surfaces20,23. The overall goal of this method is providing evidence with electron microscopy resolution of the water distribution in various kinds of xylem cells in situ without the occurrence of sampling artifacts. We introduce our updated procedure, which has been steadily improved since we first adopted it, regarding the sampling, trimming and cleaning the specimen surface for obtaining high-quality electron micrographs of cryo-fixed samples of xylem.

<table><tbody><tr><td>coating material</td><td>JOEL Ltd., Japan</td><td>Gold wire, 0.50 &amp;times; 1000 mm, 99.99 %, Parts No. 125000499&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cryo scanning electron microscope</td><td>JOEL Ltd., Japan</td><td>JSM-6510 installed with MP-Z09085T / MP-51020ALS</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cryostat</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>CryoStar NX70</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>microtome blade</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>HP35 ULTRA Disposable Microtome Blades, 3153735</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tissue freezing embedding medium</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>Shandon Cryomatrix embedding resin, 6769006</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

xylem water distribution in woody plants visualized with a cryo-scanning electron microscope

A scanning electron microscope installed cryo-unit (cryo-SEM) allows specimen observation at subzero temperatures and has been used for exploring water distribution in plant tissues in combination with freeze fixation techniques using liquid nitrogen (LN2). For woody species, however, preparations for observing the xylem transverse-cut surface involve some difficulties due to the orientation of wood fibers. Additionally, higher tension in the water column in xylem conduits can occasionally cause artifactual changes in water distribution, especially during sample fixation and collection. In this study, we demonstrate an efficient procedure to observe the water distribution within the xylem of woody plants in situ&#160;by using a cryostat and cryo-SEM. At first, during sample collection, measuring the xylem water potential should determine whether high tension is present in the xylem conduits. When the xylem water potential is low (&#60; ca. &#8722;0.5 MPa), a tension relaxation procedure is needed to facilitate better preservation of the water status in xylem conduits during sample freeze fixation. Next, a watertight collar is attached around the tree stem and filled with LN2&#160;for freeze fixation of the water status of xylem. After harvesting, care should be taken to ensure that the sample is preserved frozen while completing the procedures of sample preparation for observation. A cryostat is employed to clearly expose the xylem transverse-cut surface. In cryo-SEM observations, time adjustment for freeze-etching is required to remove frost dust and accentuate the edge of the cell walls on the viewing surface. Our results demonstrate the applicability of cryo-SEM techniques for the observation of water distribution within xylem at cellular and subcellular levels. The combination of cryo-SEM with non-destructive in situ observation techniques will profoundly improve the exploration of woody plant water flow dynamics.

Representative images of transverse-cut surfaces of coniferous and broadleaved tree xylem, observed by cryo-SEM, are shown in Figure 2. At low magnification, the black area in the images indicates the cavities from which water entirely or partly disappears, and the gray area indicates xylem cell walls, cytoplasm, and water (Figure 2A). At high magnification, it is apparent that the water is not entirely lost from the lumina of three tracheids, indicating the occurrence of macro bubbles in the xylem sap in situ (Figure 2B). With respect to broadleaved species, cavitation occurrence is easily detected within vessels, while water existence is hard to distinguish within fibers, especially at low magnification (Figure 2C). Cytoplasm in parenchyma cells&#160;can be distinguished from water within trahceids or vessels through ice plain textures (e.g., Figure 2B).
The effect of temperature on the freeze-etching process is shown in Figure 3. Frost dust is gradually removed and intertracheary pit membranes become clearer through the progression of sublimation with increasing temperature. Remaining large frost dust particles can be eliminated by further freeze-etching but this can be problematic as it unnecessarily decreases the surface-level of ice in xylem conduits.
The high quality of observation is largely achieved through accurate specimen preparation; especially important is smoothing the surface with a sharp blade of the microtome. Insufficient smoothing by a used-blade can sometimes cause rough surface (called &#34;knife marks&#34;, Figure 4) or numerous occurrences of dust from the cuts. After carefully planning the specimen&#39;s surface, the quick transfer of the specimen to the specimen chamber is also crucial for eliminating contaminations caused by frost formation.
Sample freezing without the relaxation of negative water column pressure will cause artifactual induction of cavitation in xylem conduits (Figure 5). Clustered ice crystals were observed in vessels of specimens from which the sample was not relaxed (arrowheads in Figure 5A), contrastingly, no clustered ice crystals were observed in relaxed sample specimens with a similar water potential (Figure 5B). This tends to be more significant in xylem of broadleaved trees rather than in coniferous trees (unpublished data).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: A schematic chart of this protocol. The flow of procedures from sampling to SEM observation described in this paper is shown. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig2v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Example cryo-SEM micrographs of the transverse-cut surfaces of angiosperm and gymnosperm tree species. Gray and black areas in xylem cells correspond to the water and cavities in the water column of xylem cells, respectively. Since samples were freeze-fixed with liquid nitrogen prior to sample collection, the images by cryo-SEM show the plant&#39;s water status and native embolism at the moment of sampling. (A) and (B): two-year-old twig of an adult tree of Cryptomeria japonica (coniferous wood). The diameter of the twig was 3 mm, and water potential was &#8722;0.39 MPa at predawn harvesting. (C): two-year-old shoot of Carpinus tschonoskii (diffuse-porous wood) seedling (1.4 m in height and 1.1 cm in basal diameter). The seedling was sampled after tension-relaxation procedure following prolonged limitation of irrigation for four days. The water potential was &#8722;1.78 MPa after a prolonged drought and was &#8722;0.15 MPa after the tension-relaxation procedure. Tr: tracheid, R: ray parenchyma, V: vessel, F: fiber, AP: axial parenchyma. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig2v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Defrost and etching procedure progress by raising the temperature of the cold specimen stage. Transverse-cut surface of xylem of a Cryptomeria japonica twig (coniferous wood). The decreasing temperatures of the specimen stage are (A) &#8722;113.0 &#176;C, (B) &#8722;105.3 &#176;C, (C) &#8722;101.9 &#176;C and (D) &#8722;99.7 &#176;C. Each image was obtained approximately 5 min after the temperature of the cold specimen stage was set at the respective temperature value. Ice sublimation progresses if the temperature of the stage is maintained above approximately &#8722;120 &#176;C (for our equipment). Tr: tracheid, B: bordered pit pair, Pm: pit membrane. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Knife mark example. Transverse-cut surface of xylem of a Cryptomeria japonica twig (coniferous wood) showing so-called knife marks. Arrowheads and dashed lines represent typical knife marks. Clearing the surface of a specimen by a cryostat should be completed by an unused portion of the knife blade. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Example of the effect of relaxation of the water column tension in conduits. Transverse-cut surface of stem of a Carpinus tschonoskii seedling (diffuse-porous wood) observed&#160;by cryo-SEM. The water potential during the daytime was similar in both seedlings. The stem of the transpiring seedling was frozen intact (A), while the stem of another seedling was frozen after relaxation of the existing hydraulic tension (B). The water potential of (B) at harvesting was &#8722;0.5 MPa after the tension-relaxation procedure. Arrowheads in panel (A) are freezing artifacts of ice crystals within vessels. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/59154/59154fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Xylem Water Distribution in Woody Plants Visualized with a Cryo-scanning Electron Microscope at JoVE.com

Xylem Water Distribution in Woody Plants Visualized with a Cryo-scanning Electron Microscope

Observing the water distribution within the xylem provides significant information regarding water flow dynamics in woody plants. In this study, we demonstrate the practical approach to observe xylem water distribution in situ&#160;by using a cryostat and cryo-SEM, which eliminates artifactual changes in the water status during sample preparation.

A scanning electron microscope installed cryo-unit (cryo-SEM) allows specimen observation at subzero temperatures and has been used for exploring water ...

xylem-water-distribution-woody-plants-visualized-with-cryo-scanning

Nanyang Technological University

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8.6K Views.  Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute (FFPRI). Het algemene doel van dit protocol is ons te voorzien van elektromicroscopie resolutie van de waterverdeling in verschillende soorten xylem cellen in situ. Deze methode is gebruikt om het water in xylem te observeren om de waterverdeling en de veranderende waterregimes, de seizoensgebonden variatie van de waterverdeling, het effect van vries-/dooicycli, de verdeling van water in nat hout en cavitatie veroorzaakt door bepaalde biotische spanningen te verduidelijken. Freeze-fixatie van een leve...

Video: Xylem Water Distribution in Woody Plants Visualized with a Cryo-scanning Electron Microscope

A Technical Perspective in Modern Tree-ring Research - How to Overcome Dendroecological and Wood Anatomical Challenges

Dendroecological research uses information stored in tree rings to understand how single trees and even entire forest ecosystems responded to environmental changes and to finally reconstruct such changes. This is done by analyzing growth variations back in time and correlating various plant-specific parameters to (for example) temperature records. Integrating wood anatomical parameters in these analyses would strengthen reconstructions, even down to intra-annual resolution. We therefore present a protocol on how to sample, prepare, and analyze wooden specimen for common macroscopic analyses, but also for subsequent microscopic analyses. Furthermore we introduce a potential solution for analyzing digital images generated from common small and large specimens to support time-series analyses. The protocol presents the basic steps as they currently can be used. Beyond this, there is an ongoing need for the improvement of existing techniques, and development of new techniques, to record and quantify past and ongoing environmental processes. Traditional wood anatomical research needs to be expanded to include ecological information to this field of research. This would support dendro-scientists who intend to analyze new parameters and develop new methodologies to understand the short and long term effects of specific environmental factors on the anatomy of woody plants.

Here we present a protocol outlining how to sample wooden specimens for the overall assessment of their growth structures. Macro- and microscopic preparation and visualization techniques necessary to generate well-replicated and highly resolved wood anatomical and dendroecological dataset, are described are described.

Dendroecological research uses information stored in tree rings to understand how single trees and even entire forest ecosystems responded to ...

The Calibration and Use of Capacitance Sensors to Monitor Stem Water Content in Trees

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus area. Biomass capacitance plays an integral role in the avoidance of hydraulic impairment to transpiration. However, high temporal resolution measurements of dynamic changes in the hydraulic capacitance of large trees are rare. Here, we present procedures for the calibration and use of capacitance sensors, typically used to monitor soil water content, to measure the volumetric water content in trees in the field. Frequency domain reflectometry-style observations are sensitive to the density of the media being studied. Therefore, it is necessary to perform species-specific calibrations to convert from the sensor-reported values of dielectric permittivity to volumetric water content. Calibration is performed on a harvested branch or stem cut into segments that are dried or re-hydrated to produce a full range of water contents used to generate a best-fit regression with sensor observations. Sensors are inserted into calibration segments or installed in trees after pre-drilling holes to a tolerance fit using a fabricated template to ensure proper drill alignment. Special care is taken to ensure that sensor tines make good contact with the surrounding media, while allowing them to be inserted without excessive force. Volumetric water content dynamics observed via the presented methodology align with sap flow measurements recorded using thermal dissipation techniques and environmental forcing data. Biomass water content data can be used to observe the onset of water stress, drought response and recovery, and has the potential to be applied to the calibration and evaluation of new plant-level hydrodynamics models, as well as to the partitioning of remotely sensed moisture products into above- and belowground components.

The hydraulic capacitance of biomass is a key component of the vegetation water budget, which serves as a buffer against short and long-term drought stresses. Here, we present a protocol for the calibration and use of soil moisture capacitance sensors to monitor water content in the stems of large trees.

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus ...

Leveraging Micro-CT Scanning to Analyze Parasitic Plant-Host Interactions

Micro-CT scanning has become an established tool in investigating plant structure and function. Its non-destructive nature, combined with the possibility of three-dimensional visualization and virtual sectioning, has allowed novel and increasingly detailed analysis of complex plant organs. Interactions among plants, including between parasitic plants and their hosts, can also be explored. However, sample preparation before scanning becomes crucial due to the interaction between these plants, which often differ in tissue organization and composition. Furthermore, the broad diversity of parasitic flowering plants, ranging from highly reduced vegetative bodies to trees, herbs, and shrubs, must be considered during the sampling, treatment, and preparation of parasite-host material. Here two different approaches are described for introducing contrast solutions into the parasite and/or host plants, focusing on analyzing the haustorium. This organ promotes connection and communication between the two plants. Following a simple approach, details of haustorium tissue organization can be explored three-dimensionally, as shown here for&#160;euphytoid, vine, and mistletoe parasitic species. Selecting specific contrasting agents and application approaches also allow detailed observation of endoparasite spread within the host body and detection of direct vessel-to-vessel connection between parasite and host, as shown here for an obligate root parasite. Thus, the protocol discussed here can be applied to the broad diversity of parasitic flowering plants to advance the understanding of their development, structure, and functioning.

Micro-CT is a non-destructive tool that can analyze plant structures in three dimensions. The present protocol describes the sample preparation to leverage micro-CT to analyze parasitic plant structure and function. Different species are used to highlight the advantages of this method when coupled with specific preparations.

Micro-CT scanning has become an established tool in investigating plant structure and function. Its non-destructive nature, combined with the possibility ...

High-Throughput Tree Ring Analysis and Density Estimation

Tree Core Analysis with X-ray Computed Tomography

An X-ray computed tomography (CT) toolchain is presented to obtain tree-ring width (TRW), maximum latewood density (MXD), other density parameters, and quantitative wood anatomy (QWA) data without the need for labor-intensive surface treatment or any physical sample preparation. The focus here is on increment cores and scanning procedures at resolutions ranging from 60 &#181;m down to 4 &#181;m. Three scales are defined at which wood should be looked at: (i) inter-ring scale, (ii) ring scale, i.e., tree-ring analysis and densitometry scale, as well as (iii) anatomical scale, the latter approaching the conventional thin-section quality. Custom-designed sample holders for each of these scales enable high-throughput scanning of multiple increment cores. A series of software routines were specifically developed to efficiently treat three-dimensional X-ray CT images of the tree cores for TRW and densitometry. This work briefly explains the basic principles of CT, which are needed for a proper understanding of the protocol. The protocol is presented for some known species that are commonly used in dendrochronology. The combination of rough density estimates, TRW and MXD data, as well as quantitative anatomy data, allows us to broaden and deepen current analyses for climate reconstructions or tree response, as well as further develop the field of dendroecology/climatology and archeology.

Author Spotlight: Advancements in X-ray CT Tool Chain for Tree Core Analysis

Here we show how to process tree cores with an X-ray computed tomography toolchain. Except for chemical extraction for some purposes, no further physical lab treatment is needed. The toolchain can be used for biomass estimations, for obtaining MXD/tree-ring width data as well as for obtaining quantitative wood anatomy data.

An X-ray computed tomography (CT) toolchain is presented to obtain tree-ring width (TRW), maximum latewood density (MXD), other density parameters, and ...

Label-free in situ Imaging of Lignification in Plant Cell Walls

Meeting growing energy demands safely and efficiently is a pressing global challenge. Therefore, research into biofuels production that seeks to find cost-effective and sustainable solutions has become a topical and critical task. Lignocellulosic biomass is poised to become the primary source of biomass for the conversion to liquid biofuels1-6. However, the recalcitrance of these plant cell wall materials to cost-effective and efficient degradation presents a major impediment for their use in the production of biofuels and chemicals4. In particular, lignin, a complex and irregular poly-phenylpropanoid heteropolymer, becomes problematic to the postharvest deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass. For example in biomass conversion for biofuels, it inhibits saccharification in processes aimed at producing simple sugars for fermentation7. The effective use of plant biomass for industrial purposes is in fact largely dependent on the extent to which the plant cell wall is lignified. The removal of lignin is a costly and limiting factor8 and lignin has therefore become a key plant breeding and genetic engineering target in order to improve cell wall conversion.
Analytical tools that permit the accurate rapid characterization of lignification of plant cell walls become increasingly important for evaluating a large number of breeding populations. Extractive procedures for the isolation of native components such as lignin are inevitably destructive, bringing about significant chemical and structural modifications9-11. Analytical chemical in situ methods are thus invaluable tools for the compositional and structural characterization of lignocellulosic materials. Raman microscopy is a technique that relies on inelastic or Raman scattering of monochromatic light, like that from a laser, where the shift in energy of the laser photons is related to molecular vibrations and presents an intrinsic label-free molecular "fingerprint" of the sample. Raman microscopy can afford non-destructive and comparatively inexpensive measurements with minimal sample preparation, giving insights into chemical composition and molecular structure in a close to native state. Chemical imaging by confocal Raman microscopy has been previously used for the visualization of the spatial distribution of cellulose and lignin in wood cell walls12-14. Based on these earlier results, we have recently adopted this method to compare lignification in wild type and lignin-deficient transgenic Populus trichocarpa (black cottonwood) stem wood15. Analyzing the lignin Raman bands16,17 in the spectral region between 1,600 and 1,700 cm-1, lignin signal intensity and localization were mapped in situ. Our approach visualized differences in lignin content, localization, and chemical composition. Most recently, we demonstrated Raman imaging of cell wall polymers in Arabidopsis thaliana with lateral resolution that is sub-&mu;m18. Here, this method is presented affording visualization of lignin in plant cell walls and comparison of lignification in different tissues, samples or species without staining or labeling of the tissues.

Label-free in situ Imaging of Lignification in Plant Cell Walls

A method based on confocal Raman microscopy is presented that affords label-free visualization of lignin in plant cell walls and comparison of lignification in different tissues, samples or species.

Meeting growing energy demands safely and efficiently is a pressing global challenge. Therefore, research into biofuels production that seeks to find ...

Biology

Using High Resolution Computed Tomography to Visualize the Three Dimensional Structure and Function of Plant Vasculature

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique with sub-micron resolution capability that is now being used to evaluate the structure and function of plant xylem network in three dimensions (3D) (e.g. Brodersen et al. 2010; 2011; 2012a,b). HRCT imaging is based on the same principles as medical CT systems, but a high intensity synchrotron x-ray source results in higher spatial resolution and decreased image acquisition time. Here, we demonstrate in detail how synchrotron-based HRCT (performed at the Advanced Light Source-LBNL Berkeley, CA, USA) in combination with Avizo software (VSG Inc., Burlington, MA, USA) is being used to explore plant xylem in excised tissue and living plants. This new imaging tool allows users to move beyond traditional static, 2D light or electron micrographs and study samples using virtual serial sections in any plane. An infinite number of slices in any orientation can be made on the same sample, a feature that is physically impossible using traditional microscopy methods.
Results demonstrate that HRCT can be applied to both herbaceous and woody plant species, and a range of plant organs (i.e. leaves, petioles, stems, trunks, roots). Figures presented here help demonstrate both a range of representative plant vascular anatomy and the type of detail extracted from HRCT datasets, including scans for coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), walnut (Juglans spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), and maple (Acer spp.) tree saplings to sunflowers (Helianthus annuus), grapevines (Vitis spp.), and ferns (Pteridium aquilinum and Woodwardia fimbriata). Excised and dried samples from woody species are easiest to scan and typically yield the best images. However, recent improvements (i.e. more rapid scans and sample stabilization) have made it possible to use this visualization technique on green tissues (e.g. petioles) and in living plants. On occasion some shrinkage of hydrated green plant tissues will cause images to blur and methods to avoid these issues are described. These recent advances with HRCT provide promising new insights into plant vascular function.

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique that can be used to study the structure and function of plant vasculature in 3D. We demonstrate how HRCT facilitates exploration of xylem networks across a wide range of plant tissues and species.

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique with sub-micron resolution capability that is now being ...

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively in the study of secondary cell wall formation. Secondary cell wall deposition occurs after the primary cell wall is laid down, a process carried out exclusively by specialized cells such as those forming vessel and fiber tissues. Most secondary cell walls are composed of cellulose (40&#8211;50%), hemicellulose (25&#8211;30%), and lignin (20&#8211;30%). Several mutations affecting secondary cell wall biosynthesis have been isolated, and the corresponding mutants may or may not exhibit obvious biochemical composition changes or visual phenotypes since these mutations could be masked by compensatory responses. Staining procedures have historically been used to show differences on a cellular basis. These methods are exclusively visual means of analysis; nevertheless their role in rapid and critical analysis is of great importance. Congo red and calcofluor white are stains used to detect polysaccharides, whereas M&#228;ule and phloroglucinol are commonly used to determine differences in lignin, and toluidine blue O is used to differentially stain polysaccharides and lignin. The seemingly simple techniques of sectioning, staining, and imaging can be a challenge for beginners. Starting with sample preparation using the A. thaliana model, this study details the protocols of a variety of staining methodologies that can be easily implemented for observation of cell and tissue organization in secondary cell walls of plants.

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Plant cell wall composition varies between tissue types and can include lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Various staining techniques have been developed to visualize differences at the cell-type level. This paper is a compilation of commonly used cell wall staining techniques.

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively ...

Studying the Supramolecular Organization of Photosynthetic Membranes within Freeze-fractured Leaf Tissues by Cryo-scanning Electron Microscopy

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of freeze-fractured samples allows investigation of biological structures at near native conditions. Here, we describe a technique for studying the supramolecular organization of photosynthetic (thylakoid) membranes within leaf samples. This is achieved by high-pressure freezing of leaf tissues, freeze-fracturing, double-layer coating and finally cryo-SEM imaging. Use of the double-layer coating method allows acquiring high magnification (&#62;100,000X) images with minimal beam damage to the frozen-hydrated samples as well as minimal charging effects. Using the described procedures we investigated the alterations in supramolecular distribution of photosystem and light-harvesting antenna protein complexes that take place during dehydration of the resurrection plant Craterostigma pumilum, in situ.

Here we describe a procedure for studying freeze-fractured plant tissues. High-pressure frozen leaf samples are freeze-fractured and double-layer coated, yielding well preserved frozen-hydrated samples that are imaged using the cryo-scanning electron microscope at high magnifications with minimal beam damage.

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of freeze-fractured samples allows investigation of biological structures at near native conditions. Here, we ...

Micron-scale Phenotyping Techniques of Maize Vascular Bundles Based on X-ray Microcomputed Tomography

It is necessary to accurately quantify the anatomical structures of maize materials based on high-throughput image analysis techniques. Here, we provide a 'sample preparation protocol' for maize materials (i.e., stem, leaf, and root) suitable for ordinary microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) scanning. Based on high-resolution CT images of maize stem, leaf, and root, we describe two protocols for the phenotypic analysis of vascular bundles: (1) based on the CT image of maize stem and leaf, we developed a specific image analysis pipeline to automatically extract 31 and 33 phenotypic traits of vascular bundles; (2) based on the CT image series of maize root, we set up an image processing scheme for the three-dimensional (3-D) segmentation of metaxylem vessels, and extracted two-dimensional (2-D) and 3-D phenotypic traits, such as volume, surface area of metaxylem vessels, etc. Compared with traditional manual measurement of vascular bundles of maize materials, the proposed protocols significantly improve the efficiency and accuracy of micron-scale phenotypic quantification.

We provide a novel method to improve the X-ray absorption contrast of maize tissue suitable for ordinary microcomputed tomography scanning. Based on CT images, we introduce a set of image-processing workflows for different maize materials to effectively extract microscopic phenotypes of vascular bundles of maize.

It is necessary to accurately quantify the anatomical structures of maize materials based on high-throughput image analysis techniques. Here, we provide a ...

A 3D Cartographic Description of the Cell by Cryo Soft X-ray Tomography

Imaging techniques are fundamental in order to understand cell organization and machinery in biological research and the related fields. Among these techniques, cryo soft X-ray tomography (SXT) allows imaging whole cryo-preserved cells in the water window X-ray energy range (284-543 eV), in which carbon structures have intrinsically higher absorption than water, allowing the 3D reconstruction of the linear absorption coefficient of the material contained in each voxel. Quantitative structural information at the level of whole cells up to 10 &#181;m thick is then achievable this way, with high throughput and spatial resolution down to 25-30 nm half-pitch. Cryo-SXT has proven itself relevant to current biomedical research, providing 3D information on cellular infection processes (virus, bacteria, or parasites), morphological changes due to diseases (such as recessive genetic diseases) and helping us understand drug action at the cellular level, or locating specific structures in the 3D cellular environment. In addition, by taking advantage of the tunable wavelength at synchrotron facilities, spectro-microscopy or its 3D counterpart, spectro-tomography, can also be used to image and quantify specific elements in the cell, such as calcium in biomineralization processes. Cryo-SXT provides complementary information to other biological imaging techniques such as electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence or visible light fluorescence, and is generally used as a partner method for 2D or 3D correlative imaging at cryogenic conditions in order to link function, location, and morphology.

Here, a protocol describing the sample preparation and data collection steps required in cryo soft X-ray tomography (SXT) to image the ultrastructure of whole cryo-preserved cells at a resolution of 25 nm half pitch, is presented.

Imaging techniques are fundamental in order to understand cell organization and machinery in biological research and the related fields. Among these ...

Xylem Water Distribution in Woody Plants Visualized with a Cryo-scanning Electron Microscope

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