All data reported in this manuscript were collected in accordance with protocol approved by the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Animal Care and Use Committee. This project was funded by the Maryland Department of Natural Resources and supported by the USGS Ecosystems Mission Area.&#160; Video production was funded by The Chesapeake Bay Trust and Friends of Patuxent. We would like to thank the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Maryland Environmental Service, and Maryland Department of Transportation Maryland Port Administration for general logistical support and allowing video filming on site. We would like to acknowledge Dr. Bill Bowerman and Dr. Daniel Gruner from the University of Maryland for their input into system design and implementation. We would also like to acknowledge Bill Schultz, Kaitlyn Reintsma and Katie DeVoss for their help in troubleshooting and in field set-up in summer 2017. Finally, we would to thank Michael Glow (internal review) and anonymous reviewers for their input. The use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

<ol>
	<li>Nisbet, I. C. T., Arnold, J. M., Oswald, S. A., Pyle, P., Patten, M. A., Rodewald, P. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Common+Tern+(Sterna+hirundo.).">Common Tern (Sterna hirundo.).</a> The Birds of North America. , (2017).</li><li>Brinker, D. F., Mccann, J. M., Williams, B., Watts, B. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Colonial-nesting+seabirds+in+the+Chesapeake+Bay+region:+where+have+we+been+and+where+are+we+going?.">Colonial-nesting seabirds in the Chesapeake Bay region: where have we been and where are we going?.</a> Waterbirds. 30 (1), 93-104 (2007).</li><li>Maryland Natural Heritage Program. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> List of rare, threatened, and endangered animals of Maryland. , 21401 (2016).</li><li>Palestis, B. G., Hines, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adult+survival+and+breeding+dispersal+of+common+terns+(Sterna+hirundo)+in+a+declining+population.">Adult survival and breeding dispersal of common terns (Sterna hirundo) in a declining population.</a> Waterbirds. 38 (3), 221-228 (2015).</li><li>Buckley, F. G., Buckley, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microenvironmental+determinants+of+survival+in+saltmarsh-nesting+common+terns.">Microenvironmental determinants of survival in saltmarsh-nesting common terns.</a> Colonial Waterbirds. 5, 39 (1982).</li><li>Erwin, R. M., Brinker, D. F., Watts, B. D., Costanzo, G. R., Morton, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Islands+at+bay:+rising+seas,+eroding+islands,+and+waterbird+habitat+loss+in+Chesapeake+Bay+(USA).">Islands at bay: rising seas, eroding islands, and waterbird habitat loss in Chesapeake Bay (USA).</a> Journal of Coastal Conservation. 15 (1), 51-60 (2010).</li><li>Drury, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Population+changes+in+New+England+seabirds+(Continued).">Population changes in New England seabirds (Continued).</a> Bird-Banding. 45 (1), 1 (1974).</li><li>Anderson, J. G., Devlin, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Restoration+of+a+multi-species+seabird+colony.">Restoration of a multi-species seabird colony.</a> Biological Conservation. 90 (3), 175-181 (1999).</li><li>Erwin, R. M., Miller, J., Reese, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poplar+Island+environmental+restoration+project:+challenges+in+waterbird+restoration+on+an+island+in+Chesapeake+Bay.">Poplar Island environmental restoration project: challenges in waterbird restoration on an island in Chesapeake Bay.</a> Ecological Restoration. 25 (4), 256-262 (2007).</li><li>Kress, S. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+status+of+tern+populations+in+northeastern+United+States+and+adjacent+Canada.">The status of tern populations in northeastern United States and adjacent Canada.</a> Colonial Waterbirds. 6, 84-106 (1983).</li><li>Carney, K. M., Sydeman, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+human+disturbance+effects+on+nesting+colonial+waterbirds.">A review of human disturbance effects on nesting colonial waterbirds.</a> Waterbirds. 22 (1), 68-79 (1999).</li><li>Brubeck, M. V., Thompson, B. C., Slack, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+trapping,+banding,+and+patagial+tagging+on+the+parental+behavior+of+least+terns+in+Texas.">The effects of trapping, banding, and patagial tagging on the parental behavior of least terns in Texas.</a> Colonial Waterbirds. 4, 54 (1981).</li><li>Gochfeld, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+behavioral+responses+of+young+common+terns+and+black+skimmers+to+intrusion+and+handling.">Differences in behavioral responses of young common terns and black skimmers to intrusion and handling.</a> Colonial Waterbirds. 4, 47 (1981).</li><li>Nisbet, I. C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavior+of+common+and+roseate+terns+after+trapping.">Behavior of common and roseate terns after trapping.</a> Colonial Waterbirds. 4, 44 (1981).</li><li>Carey, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigator+disturbance+reduces+reproductive+success+in+Short-tailed+Shearwaters+Puffinus+tentuirostris.">Investigator disturbance reduces reproductive success in Short-tailed Shearwaters Puffinus tentuirostris.</a> IBIS. 153 (2), 363-372 (2011).</li><li>Stein, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Absence+from+the+nest+due+to+human+disturbance+induces+higher+nest+predation+risk+than+natural+recesses+in+Common+Eiders+Somateria+mollissima.">Absence from the nest due to human disturbance induces higher nest predation risk than natural recesses in Common Eiders Somateria mollissima.</a> IBIS. 158 (2), 249-260 (2015).</li><li>Safina, C., Burger, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+human+disturbance+on+reproductive+success+in+the+black+skimmer.">Effects of human disturbance on reproductive success in the black skimmer.</a> The Condor. 85 (2), 164-171 (1983).</li><li>Ellenburg, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+the+impact+of+nest+searches+on+breeding+birds-+a+case+study+on+Fiordland+creasted+penguins+(Eudyptes+pachyrhynchus).">Assessing the impact of nest searches on breeding birds- a case study on Fiordland creasted penguins (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus).</a> New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 39 (2), 231-244 (2015).</li><li>Erwin, M. R., Beck, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Restoration+of+waterbird+habitats+in+Chesapeake+Bay:+great+expectations+or+sisyphus+revisited?.">Restoration of waterbird habitats in Chesapeake Bay: great expectations or sisyphus revisited?.</a> Waterbirds. 30 (1), 163-176 (2007).</li><li>Erwin, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Post phase I dike construction faunal component surveys of the Paul S. Sarbanes ecosystem restoration project at Poplar Island: the 2012 assessment of waterbird nesting. , (2012).</li><li>Cox, W. A., Pruett, M. S., Benson, T. J., Chiavacci, S. J., Thompson, F. R., Ribic, C. A., Thompson, F. R., Pietz, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+camera+technology+for+monitoring+nests.">Development of camera technology for monitoring nests.</a> Video surveillance of nesting birds. , 185-198 (2012).</li><li>Mckinnon, L., B&#234;ty, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+camera+monitoring+on+survival+rates+of+High-Arctic+shorebird+nests.">Effect of camera monitoring on survival rates of High-Arctic shorebird nests.</a> Journal of Field Ornithology. 80 (3), 280-288 (2009).</li><li>. LW3211 series specs Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.lorextechnology.com/downloads/wireless-security-cameras/LW3211-Series/LW3211_Series_Spec_R1.pdf">https://www.lorextechnology.com/downloads/wireless-security-cameras/LW3211-Series/LW3211_Series_Spec_R1.pdf</a> (2017)</li><li>Nisbet, I. C. T., Cohen, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Asynchronous+hatching+in+common+and+roseate+terns,+Sterna+Hirundo+and+S.+Dougallii.">Asynchronous hatching in common and roseate terns, Sterna Hirundo and S. Dougallii.</a> IBIS. 117 (3), 374-379 (2008).</li><li>. 720P Wireless digital security camera LW3211 series quick start guide Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.lorextechnology.com/downloads/wireless-security-cameras/LW3211-Series/LW3211_SERIES_QSG_EN_R1.pdf">https://www.lorextechnology.com/downloads/wireless-security-cameras/LW3211-Series/LW3211_SERIES_QSG_EN_R1.pdf</a> (2017)</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Monitoring waterbirds can be disruptive, and investigator disturbance while monitoring waterbirds has been linked to nest abandonment and decreases in reproductive success12,13,14. The protocol presented here offers a minimally invasive monitoring approach that allows researchers to establish and document the nesting behavior of ground-nesting waterbirds through continuous video footage.
Because this approach is minimally invasive, it requires a significant amount of initial labor to ensure the system operates smoothly when no researchers are present. One concern for researchers attempting to utilize this method is the maintenance of power required to charge the car batteries. The system presented here utilizes three solar panels for the DVR system and one solar panel for the camera system; however, maximum power output on solar panels varies based on latitude and time of year due to changes in day length and angle of the sun&#39;s path. We recommend testing all equipment prior to field use and verifying the correct angle for maximum sun exposure based on the location. There are several nonacademic user-friendly online sources to assist in determining optimal angle25,26. This test should occur in an area comparable to the intended site without impacting the target species. If the test run indicates that more power is necessary, the methods can be altered to add an additional solar panel to either the DVR or Camera systems.
During the initial establishment of this protocol, we encountered a number of challenges that required additional consideration and scrutiny. One such challenge was the maintenance of signal strength. The display monitor would consistently read either &#34;out of range&#34; or present data with a lot of noise for a number of cameras, demonstrating either a loss of signal or signal interference. Once we were confident the camera system was within range of the receivers and there were no objects obstructing the sightline, we began troubleshooting for alternative causes of signal interference. The biggest source of signal interference proved to be the placement of the receivers with respect to one another. According to the manufacturer, the receivers must be placed at least 4 in. away from one another to reduce interference27. If this is implemented and signal interference is still occurring, or there are too many objects obstructing the sightline, then receivers can be mounted to tall pipes in an effort to raise them above potential sources of signal obstruction. Alternatively, the wireless cameras could be replaced with wired cameras to ensure a strong connectivity. However, this would require a different cable system.
Additional considerations include weatherproofing all connections, ensuring the stability of the cameras and confirming receivers are properly secured. This system is constructed outside, and sand as well as moisture may enter the connections and cause corrosion. Protecting all connections with waterproof electrical tape will reduce the amount of corrosion and increase the longevity of the system. Along with sand and moisture, wildlife can also impact the system&#39;s longevity. During the establishment of this protocol, great horned owls were seen knocking cameras over multiple times, and COTE were often seen sitting on the colony camera, actions which can lead to data loss and damaged equipment. To reduce wildlife interactions, we recommend verifying the solidity of the camera placement in the ground prior to initializing the experiment. One possible adjustment could be the addition of rebar to the wooden camera stakes. Temperature may also have a significant impact on this system. Extreme temperatures can weaken the duct tape securing the receivers and may cause them to fall to the bottom of the container, resulting in lost footage. As a result, we recommend ensuring a strong receiver placement prior to deployment of the system. If extreme temperatures are common and/or a more secure attachment is needed, alternative attachment methods, such as a bracket system attaching each receiver to the bins, can be used. However, this would require more tools, labor and cost to establish.
This video monitoring protocol is limited in both location and monitoring potential. The staking system described here has been successfully tested on both sandy and semi-rocky terrain; however, it may be hard to set up on certain substrates such as rocky outcrops. This limits the potential use of the system to specific terrain. To bypass this problem, alternative staking methods suitable to the target terrain can be developed for the principal system, giving it a broader location potential. The monitoring potential is also limited by the finite scope of the infrared camera at night. Although this system utilizes a colony camera to see more of the colony than what is visible from the nest level, the infrared light does not fully extend across the colony and it is difficult to distinguish more than shapes outside the light range. As a result, the colony camera is very limited in its ability to provide insight into predation and overall colony patterns at night without the addition of external infrared lighting systems.
While the system described herein is for ground-nesting waterbirds, the principal system can be altered for other species, making it widely applicable to documenting the behavior of many target species. For example, for species that lay one egg, such as the Laysan albatross, researchers would need to install the system at nests at the time of nest construction to ensure the system is established prior to regular nest attendance. It is also critical to assess the target species tolerance towards the camera equipment before setting up the system, as this could limit effectiveness. This method enables researchers to collect data remotely with minimal disturbance and will allow researchers to continue documenting common tern nesting patterns and to expand remote monitoring efforts to many other species. It is our hope that this development can be utilized among the research and management communities to not only improve data collection, but also to reduce the impacts monitoring efforts have on the species we aim to protect.

Common terns (Sterna hirundo, hereafter COTE), a waterbird species with a widespread breeding distribution, have become a flagship example of the need for conservation and monitoring programs1. Once harvested to near extirpation for the millinery trade, federal legislation in the 1900s enabled populations to rebound. However, declining population trends in the Chesapeake Bay have prompted increased concern over COTE, in addition to many other waterbirds2. COTE are currently listed as a Maryland state endangered species due to reductions in both breeding numbers and active breeding colonies3. Stressors including flooding and washouts of breeding sites4,5,6, anthropogenic disturbance, competition/predation with gulls7,8, and predation by great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)9,10, are believed to have contributed to current population declines; however, the relative contributions of individual stressors are not known. Understanding stressors associated with different stages of the breeding cycle, such as incubation, post-hatch, and fledging success are important but can be intensive and include frequent surveys that require entry into the nesting colony11. Such monitoring techniques can be disruptive to tern populations, and in some cases may result in nest abandonment and/or reductions in reproductive success12,13,14.
While the impact of researchers on common terns is well documented, intensive monitoring can impact a number of additional ground-nesting colonial species, such as short tailed shearwaters (Puffinus tenuirostris)15, common eiders (Somateria mollissima)16, black skimmers (Rynchops niger)17, and Fiordland crested penguins (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus)18. For instance, a study on short tailed shearwaters found that monitoring intensity had an inverse relationship on hatching success, and can exacerbate population declines. These examples illustrate the increasing need to reduce disturbance while maintaining comprehensive monitoring programs. With the video system outlined in this paper, we aimed to obtain information on nest attentiveness and observation of predators in a manner that would reduce the physical presence of humans within the colony.
Our study was located at the Paul S. Sarbanes Ecosystem Restoration Project at Poplar Island (38&#176;46&#8242;01&#8243;N, 76&#176;22&#8242;54&#8243;W, hereafter Poplar Island), one of the few known nesting sites for COTE in Maryland. Ongoing monitoring programs on Poplar Island have identified consistent nesting by COTE, albeit with variable levels of success depending on presence of avian or mammalian predators19,20. Due to these factors, Poplar Island was identified as an ideal location to conduct this study.
While the ability to monitor waterbird populations with video technology has clear benefits to the species under observation21,22, a number of technical considerations must be taken into account when implementing such an approach. For instance, video resolution must be sufficient to identify items of interest to the researcher, such as food items, nest markings, or colored leg bands for individual identification. Additionally, the physical components must be durable enough to withstand both weather events and wildlife interactions. Wireless security cameras were chosen due to their high definition picture quality, color display with wireless and infrared capabilities, outdoor durability, and overall cost effectiveness23.
The objective of this study was to design a video monitoring system that would allow for the remote observation of a ground-nesting colonial species while causing minimal disturbance to those individuals and the colony. This paper outlines the specific video system used to collect data.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Morningstar SS-20L-12V (2)</td><td>Morningstar Corporation</td><td>3680192</td><td>Charge controller</td></tr><tr><td>Renogy 100 W 12V Panel (4)</td><td>Renogy</td><td>RNG-100D</td><td>Solar panel</td></tr><tr><td>LOREX LW3211 (6)</td><td>Lorex</td><td>LW3211-2PK</td><td>Wireless camera with receivers</td></tr><tr><td>Sawhorse (4)</td><td>HDX</td><td>SH106</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LOREX DV7082</td><td>Lorex</td><td>DV7082W</td><td>8ch 1080p HD DVR; Comes with computer mouse</td></tr><tr><td>12V dry cell Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) car batteries (6)</td><td>Optima</td><td>DS46B24R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TCT LCD color monitor</td><td>Kuman</td><td>X0013XAI51</td><td>Mini display monitor</td></tr><tr><td>22 in. display monitor</td><td>Dell</td><td>S2218H</td><td>For office</td></tr><tr><td>18 gallon plastic bin (2)</td><td>Sterilite</td><td>1446</td><td>Plastic container</td></tr><tr><td>Black copper insulated 10 AWG wire</td><td>Southwire</td><td>22973257</td><td>Black electrical wire</td></tr><tr><td>Red copper insulated 10 AWG wire</td><td>Southwire</td><td>37113803</td><td>Red electrical wire</td></tr><tr><td>3/8 in. ring terminals</td><td>Autocraft</td><td>85417</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5/16 in. ring terminals</td><td>AutoCraft</td><td>85445</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Winged wire connectors (red)</td><td>Commercial Electric</td><td>775304</td><td>Connector is large enough to accommodate 3 10AWG wires inside</td></tr><tr><td>12V male DC adapter (2)</td><td>Avue</td><td>162537</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Male DC 2.1 x 5.5 mm power plugs for CCTV (4)</td><td>WinBook</td><td>231001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Four port DC power splitters, 1 female to 4</td><td>ClearView</td><td>PWRSPIDER4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1.5 ft. wooden board (5)</td><td>Home Depot</td><td>461443</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5 ft. wooden board</td><td>Vigoro</td><td>RC 85N</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1/4 in. x 2 in. eye bolt (8)</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>816721</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5/16 in. hex nuts (16)</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>804886</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5/16 in. washers (16)</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>807220</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SAE size 6 stainless steel clamps (8)</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>670655E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>60ft. BNC extension cables (6)</td><td>WinBook</td><td>432377</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 ft. x 4 ft. wooden plywood</td><td>Home Depot</td><td>1502104</td><td>Cut to 1 ft. x 2 ft.</td></tr><tr><td>5 ft. metal rebar (8)</td><td>Weyerhaeuser</td><td>35616</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bungee cord (2)</td><td>HDX</td><td>56128</td><td>For securing lid</td></tr><tr><td>15 ft. x 3/4 in. sticky back tape</td><td>Velcro</td><td>239540</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Duct tape</td><td>Duck</td><td>392875</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Permanent Marker</td><td>Sharpie</td><td>35010</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1/4 in. x 400 ft. white diamond braid nylon rope</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>72716</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Weatherproof electrical tape</td><td>Scotch</td><td>6143-BA-10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Schumacher 6A 12V automatic battery charger/ Carquest battery charger 8A</td><td>Schumacher/ Carquest</td><td>SP6/ CQ-80CR</td><td>Two possible car battery chargers</td></tr><tr><td>6 in. nails (14)</td><td>Grip-Rite</td><td>60HGC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18 Volt 1/2 in. Drill-Driver</td><td>Ryobi</td><td>P208B</td><td>Drill</td></tr><tr><td>25 watt standard duty soldering iron</td><td>Weller</td><td>SP25NKUS</td><td>Soldering iron</td></tr><tr><td>Leaded rosin core solder</td><td>Bernzomatic</td><td>354123</td><td>Solder</td></tr><tr><td>Wire cutter</td><td>Stanley</td><td>84-199</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Screwdriver</td><td>Husky</td><td>146340142</td><td>Came from 14 piece set of Phillips and flathead drivers</td></tr><tr><td>15 in. aggressive tooth saw</td><td>Home Depot</td><td>122SS159</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Rubber mallet</td><td>HDX</td><td>31030</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Post driver</td><td>Everbilt</td><td>901147EB</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a video surveillance system to monitor breeding colonies of common terns (sterna hirundo)

Many waterbird populations have faced declines over the last century, including the common tern (Sterna hirundo), a waterbird species with a widespread breeding distribution, that has been recently listed as endangered in some habitats of its range. Waterbird monitoring programs exist to track populations through time; however, some of the more intensive approaches require entering colonies and can be disruptive to nesting populations. This paper describes a protocol that utilizes a minimally invasive surveillance system to continuously monitor common tern nesting behavior in typical ground-nesting colonies. The video monitoring system utilizes wireless cameras focused on individual nests as well as over the colony as a whole, and allows for observation without entering the colony. The video system is powered with several 12 V car batteries that are continuously recharged using solar panels. Footage is recorded using a digital video recorder (DVR) connected to a hard drive, which can be replaced when full. The DVR may be placed outside of the colony to reduce disturbance. In this study, 3,624 h of footage recorded over 63 days in weather conditions ranging from 12.8 &#176;C to 35.0 &#176;C produced 3,006 h (83%) of usable behavioral data. The types of data retrieved from the recorded video can vary; we used it to detect external disturbances and measure nesting behavior during incubation. Although the protocol detailed here was designed for ground-nesting waterbirds, the principal system could easily be modified to accommodate alternative scenarios, such as colonial arboreal nesting species, making it widely applicable to a variety of research needs.

The implementation of this video monitoring protocol will result in continuous datasets of footage from five waterbird nests at close range and one set of footage of the entire colony from an elevated vantage point. A successful use of this system will minimize time where the footage is out of range or displaying a poor-quality image and will maximize time where the footage is of high quality (Figure 2; Figure 3). Cameras were installed on Poplar Island over the summer 2017 on nests with one egg because adult terns do not begin attending their nest regularly until a complete clutch (2-4 eggs) is laid24. Installation time averaged between 1-2 h, including both time inside the colony setting up the &#34;Camera system&#34; bin and time outside the colony setting up the &#34;DVR system&#34; bin. By installing the camera monitoring system prior to regular nest attendance, adult terns were given time to acclimate.
The fully functional electronic system resulted in the collection of 3,120 h of footage from 8 nests and 504 h of footage from one colony camera (Table 1). The nest count is more than five in this case because cameras with failed or successfully hatched nests were removed and reused for re-nesting attempts later in the season. Footage was recorded over 63 days in weather conditions ranging from 55 &#176;F to 95 &#176;F. Of these 3,624 h of footage, 3,006 h (83%) of footage contained usable data and 618 h (17%) of footage was out of range. Because the DVR system has a 2 TB capacity, the hard drive was replaced every 10 days. Signal interference was the primary cause of signal loss, though reduced charge on batteries and camera interference also contributed in small amounts. Footage obtained was sufficient to differentiate food items and nest markings, but insufficient to read numbers on the size 2 metal USGS bands. Behaviors such as feeding, incubation, nest maintenance, and preening were observed by adults on the nest level cameras and flocking and disturbance were observed by adults on the colony camera.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Total Footage (h)</td>
			<td>Total Nests</td>
			<td>Season Length (Days)</td>
			<td>Lost Footage (h)</td>
			<td>Usable Footage (h)</td>
			<td>Percent of Footage Usable (%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ground Nest Cameras</td>
			<td>3120</td>
			<td>8</td>
			<td>63</td>
			<td>508.52</td>
			<td>2611.48</td>
			<td>83.7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colony Cameras</td>
			<td>504</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>63</td>
			<td>109.82</td>
			<td>394.18</td>
			<td>78.2</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Overall video footage collection data for the 2017 nesting season. The following data was recorded during the 2017 common tern nesting season on Poplar Island in the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Schematic of Parallel Battery Wiring System. A simplified diagram depicting the parallel wiring structure for the DVR system. The charge controller is depicted at the top with four car batteries forming a 2x2 pattern below. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Visual representation of video footage quality. A. High quality imagery with no signal interference. B. Poor quality imagery with lines denoting signal interference. C. Out of range imagery denoting lost footage. A successful use of this system will maximize high quality footage and minimize both poor quality and out of range imagery outcomes. Note that B was captured from a separate trial location as opposed to A and C, which were captured on Poplar Island. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Visual representation of video image from colony camera. Example of high quality imagery from the colony camera on Poplar Island. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/57928/57928fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Video Surveillance System to Monitor Breeding Colonies of Common Terns Sterna Hirundo at JoVE.com

A Video Surveillance System to Monitor Breeding Colonies of Common Terns Sterna Hirundo

This paper describes a protocol that uses a remote video monitoring surveillance system to continuously monitor breeding colonies of ground-nesting waterbirds. The system includes five cameras monitoring individual nests and one camera monitoring the colony as a whole, and is powered by car batteries that are recharged via solar panels.

A Video Surveillance System to Monitor Breeding Colonies of Common Terns (Sterna Hirundo)

Many waterbird populations have faced declines over the last century, including the common tern (Sterna hirundo), a waterbird species with a widespread ...

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7.6K Views.  Chesapeake Bay Trust. Dit witboek beschrijft een protocol dat gebruikmaakt van een externe video monitoring surveillancesysteem continu controleren fokken kolonies van de grond-nesten watervogels. Het systeem omvat vijf camera's toezicht op individuele nesten en één camera bewaking van de kolonie als geheel, en wordt gevoed door auto-batterijen die worden opgeladen via zonnepanelen.

Video: A Video Surveillance System to Monitor Breeding Colonies of Common Terns Sterna Hirundo

Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software (VTS) have allowed it to be coupled to LMA testing, dramatically improving specificity and sensitivity when compared to the line crossings method with manual scoring. In addition, VTS enables high-throughput experimentation. While similar to automated video tracking used for the open field test (OFT), LMA testing is unique in that it allows mice to remain in their home cage and does not utilize the anxiogenic stimulus of bright lighting during the active phase of the light-dark cycle. Traditionally, LMA has been used for short periods of time (mins), while longer movement studies (hrs-days) have often used implanted transmitters and biotelemetry. With the option of real-time tracking, long-, like short-term LMA testing, can now be conducted using videography. Long-term LMA testing requires a specialized, but easily constructed, cage so that food and water (which is usually positioned on the cage top) does not obstruct videography. Importantly, videography and VTS allows for the quantification of parameters, such as path of mouse movement, that are difficult or unfeasible to measure with line crossing and/or biotelemetry. In sum, LMA testing coupled to VTS affords a more complete description of mouse movement and the ability to examine locomotion over an extended period of time.

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice. Coupling of video tracking software (VTS) and LMA allows for the improvement of specificity and sensitivity, especially when compared with the manual, line crossing method of LMA analysis. Additionally VTS allows long-term tracking of mouse LMA.

Locomotor  activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice  and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software ...

Behavior

Automated Interactive Video Playback for Studies of Animal Communication

Video playback is a widely-used technique for the controlled manipulation and presentation of visual signals in animal communication. In particular, parameter-based computer animation offers the opportunity to independently manipulate any number of behavioral, morphological, or spectral characteristics in the context of realistic, moving images of animals on screen. A major limitation of conventional playback, however, is that the visual stimulus lacks the ability to interact with the live animal. Borrowing from video-game technology, we have created an automated, interactive system for video playback that controls animations in response to real-time signals from a video tracking system. We demonstrated this method by conducting mate-choice trials on female swordtail fish, Xiphophorus birchmanni. Females were given a simultaneous choice between a courting male conspecific and a courting male heterospecific (X. malinche) on opposite sides of an aquarium. The virtual male stimulus was programmed to track the horizontal position of the female, as courting males do in the wild. Mate-choice trials on wild-caught X. birchmanni females were used to validate the prototype's ability to effectively generate a realistic visual stimulus.

Video playback is a widely used technique in animal behavior. We created and evaluated a program that applies rules-based, interactive playback of 3-D computer animations in response to real-time, automated data on subject behavior.

Video playback is a widely-used technique for the controlled manipulation and presentation of visual signals in animal communication. In particular, ...

Neuroscience

Video Tracking Protocol to Screen Deterrent Chemistries for Honey Bees

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is an economically and agriculturally important pollinator that generates billions of dollars annually. Honey bee colony numbers have been declining in the United States and many European countries since 1947. A number of factors play a role in this decline, including the unintentional exposure of honey bees to pesticides. The development of new methods and regulations are warranted to reduce pesticide exposures to these pollinators. One approach is the use of repellent chemistries that deter honey bees from a recently pesticide-treated crop. Here, we describe a protocol to discern the deterrence of honey bees exposed to select repellent chemistries. Honey bee foragers are collected and starved overnight in an incubator 15 h prior to testing. Individual honey bees are placed into Petri dishes that have either a sugar-agarose cube (control treatment) or sugar-agarose-compound cube (repellent treatment) placed into the middle of the dish. The Petri dish serves as the arena that is placed under a camera in a light box to record the honey bee locomotor activities using video tracking software. A total of 8 control and 8 repellent treatments were analyzed for a 10 min period with each treatment was duplicated with new honey bees. Here, we demonstrate that honey bees are deterred from the sugar-agarose cubes with a compound treatment whereas honey bees are attracted to the sugar-agarose cubes without an added compound.

The loss of honey bee colonies presents a challenge to crop pollination services. Current pollinator protection practices warrant an alternative approach to minimize the contact of honey bees to harmful pesticides using repellent chemistries. Here, we provide detailed methods for a visual tracking protocol to screen deterrents for bees.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is an economically and agriculturally important pollinator that generates billions of dollars annually. Honey ...

Individual Culturing of Tigriopus Copepods and Quantitative Analysis of Their Mate-guarding Behavior

Copepods of the genus Tigriopus, which are common zooplankton in rocky tide pools, show precopulatory mate-guarding behavior where a male clasps a potential mate to form a pair. While this phenomenon has attracted interest of researchers, methods for its analysis have not been well described. Here we describe procedures for: 1) individual culturing and staging of Tigriopus juveniles and adults, and 2) video-based analysis of their mate-guarding behavior. The culturing method enables experimental control of paring experience of animals as well as the ability to track their development before behavioral tests. The analysis method allows quantitative evaluation of several aspects of the mate-guarding behavior, including capturing attempts by males and swimming trajectory of mate-guarding pairs. Although these methods were originally established for ethological studies on Tigriopus, with proper modifications they can also be applied to studies of other zooplankton in different research fields, such as physiology, toxicology, and ecological genetics.

Individual Culturing of Tigriopus Copepods and Quantitative Analysis of Their Mate-guarding Behavior

Mate-guarding behavior plays an important role in reproduction of intertidal copepods of the genus Tigriopus. However, methods for studying this behavior have not been well described. Here we describe methods for: 1) individual culture of virgin Tigriopus animals, and 2) quantitative analysis of their mate-guarding behavior.

Copepods of the genus Tigriopus, which are common zooplankton in rocky tide pools, show precopulatory mate-guarding behavior where a male clasps a ...

Long-term Video Tracking of Cohoused Aquatic Animals: A Case Study of the Daily Locomotor Activity of the Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)

We present a protocol related to a video-tracking technique based on the background subtraction and image thresholding that makes it possible to individually track cohoused animals. We tested the tracking routine with four cohoused Norway lobsters (Nephrops norvegicus) under light-darkness conditions for 5 days. The lobsters had been individually tagged. The experimental setup and the tracking techniques used are entirely based on the open source software. The comparison of the tracking output with a manual detection indicates that the lobsters were correctly detected 69% of the times. Among the correctly detected lobsters, their individual tags were correctly identified 89.5% of the times. Considering the frame rate used in the protocol and the movement rate of lobsters, the performance of the video tracking has a good quality, and the representative results support the validity of the protocol in producing valuable data for research needs (individual space occupancy or locomotor activity patterns). The protocol presented here can be easily customized and is, hence, transferable to other species where the individual tracking of specimens in a group can be valuable for answering research questions.

Long-term Video Tracking of Cohoused Aquatic Animals: A Case Study of the Daily Locomotor Activity of the Norway Lobster Nephrops norvegicus

Here we present a protocol to individually track animals over a long period of time. It uses computer vision methods to identify a set of manually constructed tags by using a group of lobsters as case study, simultaneously providing information on how to house, manipulate, and mark the lobsters.

We present a protocol related to a video-tracking technique based on the background subtraction and image thresholding that makes it possible to ...

Tracking Rats in Operant Conditioning Chambers Using a Versatile Homemade Video Camera and DeepLabCut

Operant conditioning chambers are used to perform a wide range of behavioral tests in the field of neuroscience. The recorded data is typically based on the triggering of lever and nose-poke sensors present inside the chambers. While this provides a detailed view of when and how animals perform certain responses, it cannot be used to evaluate behaviors that do not trigger any sensors. As such, assessing how animals position themselves and move inside the chamber is rarely possible. To obtain this information, researchers generally have to record and analyze videos. Manufacturers of operant conditioning chambers can typically supply their customers with high-quality camera setups. However, these can be very costly and do not necessarily fit chambers from other manufacturers or other behavioral test setups. The current protocol describes how to build an inexpensive and versatile video camera using hobby electronics components. It further describes how to use the image analysis software package DeepLabCut to track the status of a strong light signal, as well as the position of a rat, in videos gathered from an operant conditioning chamber. The former is a great aid when selecting short segments of interest in videos that cover entire test sessions, and the latter enables analysis of parameters that cannot be obtained from the data logs produced by the operant chambers.

This protocol describes how to build a small and versatile video camera, and how to use videos obtained from it to train a neural network to track the position of an animal inside operant conditioning chambers. This is a valuable complement to standard analyses of data logs obtained from operant conditioning tests.

Operant conditioning chambers are used to perform a wide range of behavioral tests in the field of neuroscience. The recorded data is typically based on ...

Radio Frequency Identification and Motion-sensitive Video Efficiently Automate Recording of Unrewarded Choice Behavior by Bumblebees

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers built into artificial flowers that display various visual cues, and RFID tags (i.e., passive transponders) glued to the thorax of bumblebee workers. The novelty in our implementation is that RFID readers are built directly into artificial flowers that are capable of displaying several distinct visual properties such as color, pattern type, spatial frequency (i.e., &#8220;busyness&#8221; of the pattern), and symmetry (spatial frequency and symmetry were not manipulated in this experiment). Additionally, these visual displays in conjunction with the automated systems are capable of recording unrewarded and untrained choice behavior. The second method consists of recording choice behavior at artificial flowers using motion-sensitive high-definition camcorders. Bumblebees have number tags glued to their thoraces for unique identification. The advantage in this implementation over RFID is that in addition to observing landing behavior, alternate measures of preference such as hovering and antennation may also be observed. Both automation methods increase experimental control, and internal validity by allowing larger scale studies that take into account individual differences. External validity is also improved because bees can freely enter and exit the testing environment without constraints such as the availability of a research assistant on-site. Compared to human observation in real time, the automated methods are more cost-effective and possibly less error-prone.

This video describes Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and motion-sensitive video recording methods to monitor choice behavior by bumblebees.

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification ...

SwarmSight: Real-time Tracking of Insect Antenna Movements and Proboscis Extension Reflex Using a Common Preparation and Conventional Hardware

Many scientifically and agriculturally important insects use antennae to detect the presence of volatile chemical compounds and extend their proboscis during feeding. The ability to rapidly obtain high-resolution measurements of natural antenna and proboscis movements and assess how they change in response to chemical, developmental, and genetic manipulations can aid the understanding of insect behavior. By extending our previous work on assessing aggregate insect swarm or animal group movements from natural and laboratory videos using the video analysis software SwarmSight, we developed a novel, free, and open-source software module, SwarmSight Appendage Tracking (SwarmSight.org) for frame-by-frame tracking of insect antenna and proboscis positions from conventional web camera videos using conventional computers. The software processes frames about 120 times faster than humans, performs at better than human accuracy, and, using 30 frames per second (fps) videos, can capture antennal dynamics up to 15 Hz. The software was used to track the antennal response of honey bees to two odors and found significant mean antennal retractions away from the odor source about 1 s after odor presentation. We observed antenna position density heat map cluster formation and cluster and mean angle dependence on odor concentration.

This protocol describes steps for using the novel software, SwarmSight, for frame-by-frame tracking of insect antenna and proboscis positions from conventional web camera videos using conventional computers. The free, open-source software processes frames about 120 times faster than humans and performs at better than human accuracy.

Many scientifically and agriculturally important insects use antennae to detect the presence of volatile chemical compounds and extend their proboscis ...

Using an Automated 3D-tracking System to Record Individual and Shoals of Adult Zebrafish

Like many aquatic animals, zebrafish (Danio rerio) moves in a 3D space. It is thus preferable to use a 3D recording system to study its behavior. The presented automatic video tracking system accomplishes this by using a mirror system and a calibration procedure that corrects for the considerable error introduced by the transition of light from water to air. With this system it is possible to record both single and groups of adult zebrafish. Before use, the system has to be calibrated. The system consists of three modules: Recording, Path Reconstruction, and Data Processing. The step-by-step protocols for calibration and using the three modules are presented. Depending on the experimental setup, the system can be used for testing neophobia, white aversion, social cohesion, motor impairments, novel object exploration etc. It is especially promising as a first-step tool to study the effects of drugs or mutations on basic behavioral patterns. The system provides information about vertical and horizontal distribution of the zebrafish, about the xyz-components of kinematic parameters (such as locomotion, velocity, acceleration, and turning angle) and it provides the data necessary to calculate parameters for social cohesions when testing shoals.

The use of a 3D automatic video system that can track individual and groups of zebrafish is described. As application example we explore the effects of the NMDA-receptor antagonist MK-801 on shoals of zebrafish.

Like many aquatic animals, zebrafish (Danio rerio) moves in a 3D space. It is thus preferable to use a 3D recording system to study its behavior. The ...

Biology

Visually Sexing Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius Ludovicianus) Using Plumage Coloration and Pattern

The loggerhead shrike is a small sexually monomorphic passerine bird using grassland habitats across North America. Based on Breeding Bird Survey data, the species has undergone a drastic decline since the mid-1960s. The cause of decline is unknown, and research is actively underway to address this knowledge gap. These efforts are hindered by an inability to sex the species in hand, which to date was only possible using molecular markers. Here, we present a protocol to sex loggerhead shrikes by visually analyzing the coloration and pattern in the sixth primary feather. The application of the method will facilitate our ability to identify threats on a finer scale than has been possible to date and to address various ecological and evolutionary hypotheses. The methodology is simple and results reliable&#8211;we encourage including this method for research of both in situ and ex situ populations.

Visually Sexing Loggerhead Shrike Lanius Ludovicianus Using Plumage Coloration and Pattern

We present a protocol to characterize the sex of loggerhead shrike visually based on the coloration and pattern of the sixth primary wing feather.

The loggerhead shrike is a small sexually monomorphic passerine bird using grassland habitats across North America. Based on Breeding Bird Survey data, ...

A Video Surveillance System to Monitor Breeding Colonies of Common Terns (Sterna Hirundo)

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