The authors thank Yeon-Joo Jung for her experimental support during synaptosome purification and Jungjoo Park for images of synaptosomes with PS exposure. In addition, we thank all members in Chung&#39;s laboratory for helpful discussion. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIP) (NRF-2016M3C7A1905391 and NRF-2016R1C1B3006969) (W.-S. C).

<ol>
	<li>Singh, S. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Astrocytes+Assemble+Thalamocortical+Synapses+by+Bridging+NRX1alpha+and+NL1+via+Hevin.">Astrocytes Assemble Thalamocortical Synapses by Bridging NRX1alpha and NL1 via Hevin.</a> Cell. 164 (1-2), 183-196 (2016).</li><li>Allen, N. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Astrocyte+glypicans+4+and+6+promote+formation+of+excitatory+synapses+via+GluA1+AMPA+receptors.">Astrocyte glypicans 4 and 6 promote formation of excitatory synapses via GluA1 AMPA receptors.</a> Nature. 486 (7403), 410-414 (2012).</li><li>Xu, J., Xiao, N., Xia, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thrombospondin+1+accelerates+synaptogenesis+in+hippocampal+neurons+through+neuroligin+1.">Thrombospondin 1 accelerates synaptogenesis in hippocampal neurons through neuroligin 1.</a> Nat Neurosci. 13 (1), 22-24 (2010).</li><li>Chung, W. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Astrocytes+mediate+synapse+elimination+through+MEGF10+and+MERTK+pathways.">Astrocytes mediate synapse elimination through MEGF10 and MERTK pathways.</a> Nature. 504 (7480), 394-400 (2013).</li><li>Schafer, D. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microglia+sculpt+postnatal+neural+circuits+in+an+activity+and+complement-dependent+manner.">Microglia sculpt postnatal neural circuits in an activity and complement-dependent manner.</a> Neuron. 74 (4), 691-705 (2012).</li><li>Ma, Z., Stork, T., Bergles, D. E., Freeman, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuromodulators+signal+through+astrocytes+to+alter+neural+circuit+activity+and+behaviour.">Neuromodulators signal through astrocytes to alter neural circuit activity and behaviour.</a> Nature. 539 (7629), 428-432 (2016).</li><li>Parkhurst, C. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microglia+promote+learning-dependent+synapse+formation+through+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor.">Microglia promote learning-dependent synapse formation through brain-derived neurotrophic factor.</a> Cell. 155 (7), 1596-1609 (2013).</li><li>Iram, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Megf10+Is+a+Receptor+for+C1Q+That+Mediates+Clearance+of+Apoptotic+Cells+by+Astrocytes.">Megf10 Is a Receptor for C1Q That Mediates Clearance of Apoptotic Cells by Astrocytes.</a> J Neurosci. 36 (19), 5185-5192 (2016).</li><li>Tasdemir-Yilmaz, O. E., Freeman, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Astrocytes+engage+unique+molecular+programs+to+engulf+pruned+neuronal+debris+from+distinct+subsets+of+neurons.">Astrocytes engage unique molecular programs to engulf pruned neuronal debris from distinct subsets of neurons.</a> Genes Dev. 28 (1), 20-33 (2014).</li><li>Jones, R. S., Minogue, A. M., Connor, T. J., Lynch, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amyloid-beta-induced+astrocytic+phagocytosis+is+mediated+by+CD36,+CD47+and+RAGE.">Amyloid-beta-induced astrocytic phagocytosis is mediated by CD36, CD47 and RAGE.</a> J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 8 (1), 301-311 (2013).</li><li>Wang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TREM2+lipid+sensing+sustains+the+microglial+response+in+an+Alzheimer's+disease+model.">TREM2 lipid sensing sustains the microglial response in an Alzheimer's disease model.</a> Cell. 160 (6), 1061-1071 (2015).</li><li>Sekar, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Schizophrenia+risk+from+complex+variation+of+complement+component+4.">Schizophrenia risk from complex variation of complement component 4.</a> Nature. 530 (7589), 177-183 (2016).</li><li>Hong, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complement+and+microglia+mediate+early+synapse+loss+in+Alzheimer+mouse+models.">Complement and microglia mediate early synapse loss in Alzheimer mouse models.</a> Science. 352 (6286), 712-716 (2016).</li><li>Chung, W. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+allele-dependent+role+for+APOE+in+controlling+the+rate+of+synapse+pruning+by+astrocytes.">Novel allele-dependent role for APOE in controlling the rate of synapse pruning by astrocytes.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 113 (36), 10186-10191 (2016).</li><li>Purice, M. D., Speese, S. D., Logan, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Delayed+glial+clearance+of+degenerating+axons+in+aged+Drosophila+is+due+to+reduced+PI3K/Draper+activity.">Delayed glial clearance of degenerating axons in aged Drosophila is due to reduced PI3K/Draper activity.</a> Nat Commun. 7, 12871 (2016).</li><li>Loov, C., Mitchell, C. H., Simonsson, M., Erlandsson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Slow+degradation+in+phagocytic+astrocytes+can+be+enhanced+by+lysosomal+acidification.">Slow degradation in phagocytic astrocytes can be enhanced by lysosomal acidification.</a> Glia. , (2015).</li><li>Xiao, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhancing+astrocytic+lysosome+biogenesis+facilitates+Abeta+clearance+and+attenuates+amyloid+plaque+pathogenesis.">Enhancing astrocytic lysosome biogenesis facilitates Abeta clearance and attenuates amyloid plaque pathogenesis.</a> J Neurosci. 34 (29), 9607-9620 (2014).</li><li>Lu, T. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Axon+degeneration+induces+glial+responses+through+Draper-TRAF4-JNK+signalling.">Axon degeneration induces glial responses through Draper-TRAF4-JNK signalling.</a> Nat Commun. 8, 14355 (2017).</li><li>Dunkley, P. R., Jarvie, P. E., Robinson, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+Percoll+gradient+procedure+for+preparation+of+synaptosomes.">A rapid Percoll gradient procedure for preparation of synaptosomes.</a> Nat Protoc. 3 (11), 1718-1728 (2008).</li><li>Stigliani, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glia+re-sealed+particles+freshly+prepared+from+adult+rat+brain+are+competent+for+exocytotic+release+of+glutamate.">Glia re-sealed particles freshly prepared from adult rat brain are competent for exocytotic release of glutamate.</a> J Neurochem. 96 (3), 656-668 (2006).</li><li>Foo, L. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+method+for+the+purification+and+culture+of+rodent+astrocytes.">Development of a method for the purification and culture of rodent astrocytes.</a> Neuron. 71 (5), 799-811 (2011).</li><li>Gage, G. J., Kipke, D. R., Shain, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+animal+perfusion+fixation+for+rodents.">Whole animal perfusion fixation for rodents.</a> J Vis Exp. (65), (2012).</li><li>Cahoy, J. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+transcriptome+database+for+astrocytes,+neurons,+and+oligodendrocytes:+a+new+resource+for+understanding+brain+development+and+function.">A transcriptome database for astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes: a new resource for understanding brain development and function.</a> J Neurosci. 28 (1), 264-278 (2008).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this article, we present methods for a long-term live-imaging in vitro phagocytosis assay using purified glial cells and pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes. We show that compared with microglia, astrocytes possess different engulfment and degradation capacity during the phagocytosis of synaptosomes. In addition, our data suggest that astrocyte-secreted factors, which contain bridging molecules such as GAS6, ProteinS, and MEGE8, are essential for efficient PS-dependent phagocytosis of glial cells in the brain. Furthermore, Megf10 KO astrocytes show defective phagocytosis of synaptosomes.
To successfully perform this experiment, the media and DPBS need to be carefully exchanged during the washing steps (Section 5). Primary cultured astrocytes and microglia, especially microglia, are vulnerable to air exposure. Therefore, reducing time intervals between washing steps is critical for maintaining live cells. For setting up long-term live-imaging with live-imaging instruments, manual focus is recommended since auto focus may increase laser/LED exposure time, which could damage the cells.
In this method, the synaptosome purification protocol19 is slightly modified. The original paper separates gradient solutions into 3%, 10%, 15%, and 23%. However, we set up 3%, 10% and 23% gradient solutions to increase the yield of purified synaptosomes. The instructions for immunopanning astrocytes and microglial cells are also modified in this method. The goal of the original panning protocol21 is to purify only astrocytes and use BSL-1, secondary-only, CD45, O4, and Itgb5 (HepaCAM for mouse) as the immunopanning order. Since BSL-1 and secondary-only plates will remove endothelial cells as well as microglia, we changed the order to CD45, secondary-only, BSL-1, O4, and Itgb5 (HepaCAM for mouse) to increase the yield of microglia from the CD45 panning dish. In this protocol, we also perfused SD rat pups (~ P7-P10) with DPBS through the circulatory system to remove various blood cells to minimize contamination from CD45-positive non-microglial populations.
There are several advantages of the in vitro phagocytosis assay. The pH indicator used in synaptosome conjugation only emits red fluorescence in low pH conditions. Therefore, when processing data, we can directly quantify red fluorescence as a signal of phagocytic events without a quenching procedure to remove background signals or complicated imaging analysis to obtain co-localized signals of engulfed material inside of phagocytes. In addition, this method allows real-time tracking of glial phagocytosis by taking images of pH indicator intensity within a given ROI at multiple time points. By generating a graph with pH indicator intensity up to 100 h, the engulfment as well as degradation capacities can be easily monitored between different cells and conditions. Another advantage is the use of synaptosomes. Since astrocytes ensheathe synapses all the time with their fine processes and have been shown to engulf synapses in vivo4, using synaptosomes is very suitable for measuring the in vitro phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. Finally, this in vitro phagocytosis assay has the potential to be developed to study glial phagocytosis of myelin debris or amyloid beta, which is related to various neurological disorders.
With increased life expectancy, a dramatic increase in the number of patients with neurodegenerative diseases is inevitable. Synapse loss through glial cells is one of the leading factors in several neurodegenerative diseases13,14. In addition, abnormal synapse pruning and an imbalance of brain homeostasis can be associated with glial phagocytosis defects. Therefore, identifying factors and compounds that can control the engulfment and degradation capacities of astrocytes could be critical for finding successful treatments for various neurological disorders. Since this in vitro phagocytosis assay can be easily scaled up with multiwell plates, this method can be used as a suitable platform for various screenings to identify such factors.

Glial cells, which refer to non-excitable cells in the brain, are the major cell type in the central nervous system (CNS). Previously, glial cells were regarded as mere supporting cells that mainly play passive roles in maintaining neuronal survival and basal synaptic properties. However, emerging evidence has revealed that glial cells play more active roles in various aspects of neurobiology, such as maintaining brain homeostasis, mediating synapse formation1,2,3 and synapse elimination4,5, and modulating synaptic plasticity6,7. Glial cells in the CNS include astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. Among these cells, astrocytes and microglia have been shown to play phagocytic roles by engulfing synapses4,5, apoptotic cells8, neural debris9, and pathogenic proteins, such as amyloid beta plaques10,11. In the developing brain, astrocytes eliminate synapses in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) through MERTK- and MEGF10-dependent phagocytosis4. Similarly, microglia also eliminate C1q-coated synapses during developmental stages through the classical complement cascade5. Interestingly, it has been suggested that defects in synapse pruning can be one of the initiators of several neurological disorders. For example, it has been shown that mutations in complement component 4 (C4), which increases complement-mediated synapse pruning by microglia, are strongly associated with the prevalence of schizophrenia in humans12. A recent paper has also shown that the classical complement pathway is hyperactivated in the initiation stages of AD and induces early synapse loss in this disease13.
Compared with microglia-mediated phagocytosis, whether astrocyte-mediated phagocytosis contributes to the initiation and progression of various neurological disorders is less clear. However, a recent paper suggests that factors that alter the rate of normal synapse pruning by astrocytes may disrupt brain homeostasis and contribute to AD susceptibility and pathology14. The rate of synapse pruning by astrocytes is powerfully controlled by ApoE isomers, with a protective allele for AD (ApoE2) strongly enhancing the rate and a risk allele for AD (ApoE4) significantly lowering the rate. Moreover, transgenic mice expressing ApoE4 accumulated much more synaptic C1q than control or ApoE2 mice14. These data suggest that impaired astrocyte-mediated phagocytosis in the early AD brain may induce the accumulation of senescent C1q-coated synapses/synaptic debris that activates complement-mediated microglial phagocytosis, driving synaptic degeneration. The impaired phagocytic capacity of astrocytes in ApoE4 carriers may also contribute to the uncontrolled accumulation of amyloid beta plaques in AD-affected brains.
In addition, it has been shown that glial cells in the aged Drosophila brain lose their phagocytic capacity due to decreased translation of Draper, a homolog of Megf10 that astrocytes use for phagocytosing synapses. Restoring Draper levels rescued the phagocytic capacity of glial cells, which efficiently cleared damaged axonal debris in the aged brain to a similar extent as that in the young brain, indicating that aging-induced alterations in the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes may contribute to disruption of brain homeostasis15.
Based on these new findings, modulating the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes may be an attractive therapeutic strategy to prevent and treat various neurological disorders. In this regard, there have been several attempts to enhance the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes, for example, by inducing acidification of lysosomes with acidic nanoparticles16 and overexpressing transcription factor EB (TFEB), which can enhance lysosome biogenesis17. Despite these attempts, it is still unclear how astrocytes and microglial cells differ in their phagocytic kinetics and whether we should increase or decrease their phagocytic capacities in various diseases.
In this paper, we present a novel in vitro assay for detecting the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes in real-time. The data show different kinetics of engulfment and degradation in astrocytes and microglia. Astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM), which contains secreted factors from astrocytes, is essential for effective phagocytosis of both astrocytes and microglia. Furthermore, Megf10, a phagocytic receptor in astrocytes and a homolog of Ced-1 and Draper, plays critical roles in astrocyte-mediated phagocytosis8,18.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Synaptosome purification&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Percoll</td><td>GE healthcare life sciences</td><td>17-0891-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Quick Start Bradford Protein Assay Kit 2</td><td>BIO-RAD</td><td>5000202</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;pH indicator conjugation&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO)</td><td>LPS solution</td><td>DMSO100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pHrodo red, succinimidyl ester</td><td>Molecula probes</td><td>P36600</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Immunopanning&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10X Earle&amp;rsquo;s balanced salt solution (EBSS)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>E7510</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine serum albumin</td><td>Bovogen</td><td>BSA025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Deoxyrebonuclease 1 (DNase)</td><td>Worthington</td><td>Is002007</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(DMEM)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>11960-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(dPBS)</td><td>Welgene</td><td>LB001-02</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>16000-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Griffonia Simplicifolia Lectin(BSL-1)</td><td>Vector Labs</td><td>L-1100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Goat anti-mouse IgG+IgM(H+L)</td><td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td><td>115-005-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Goat anti-mouse IgM (&amp;mu;-chain)</td><td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td><td>115-005-020</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor</td><td>Sigma</td><td>E4643</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Human HepaCAM antibody</td><td>R&amp;amp;D systems</td><td>MAB4108</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Integrin beta 5 monoclonal antibody (KN52)</td><td>eBioscience</td><td>14-0497-82</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L-cysteine</td><td>Sigma</td><td>C7880</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L-glutamate</td><td>Gibco</td><td>25030-081</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>N-acetly-L-cyteine (NAC)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A8199</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neurobasal media</td><td>Gibco</td><td>21103-049</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>O4 hybridoma supernatant(mouse IgM)</td><td>Bansal et al.&lt;sup class=&quot;xref&quot;&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Papain</td><td>Worthington</td><td>Is003126</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin/streptomycin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15140-122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pluristrainer 20 &amp;mu;m</td><td>PluriSelect</td><td>43-50020-03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poly-D-lysine</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P6407</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Progesterone</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P8783</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Putrescine dihydrochloride</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P5780</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Purified rat anti-mouse CD45</td><td>BD Pharmingen</td><td>550539</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Purified mouse anti-rat CD45</td><td>BD Pharmingen</td><td>554875</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium pyruvate</td><td>Gibco</td><td>11360-070</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium selenite</td><td>Sigma</td><td>S5261</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Transferrin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T1147</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T9935</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin inhibitor</td><td>Worthington</td><td>LS003086</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultra-clear tube (Tube, Thinwall, Ultra-Clear)</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td>344059</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Collect IP-ACM&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Macrosep Advance Centrifugal Devices with Omega Membrane (10k)</td><td>PALL</td><td>MAP010C37</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Macrosep Advance Centrifugal Devices with Omega Membrane (30k)</td><td>PALL</td><td>MAP030C37</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Phagocytosis live imaging assay&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Juli stage</td><td>NanoEntek</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Time Series Analyzer V3 plugins</td><td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/plugins/time-series.html</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a novel in vitro live-imaging assay of astrocyte-mediated phagocytosis using ph indicator-conjugated synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major immune cells and only phagocytes in the brain, recent studies have shown that astrocytes also participate in various phagocytic processes, such as developmental synapse elimination and clearance of amyloid beta plaques in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). Despite these findings, the efficiency of astrocyte engulfment and degradation of their targets is unclear compared with that of microglia. This lack of information is mostly due to the lack of an assay system in which the kinetics of astrocyte- and microglia-mediated phagocytosis are easily comparable. To achieve this goal, we have developed a long-term live-imaging in vitro phagocytosis assay to evaluate the phagocytic capacity of purified astrocytes and microglia. In this assay, real-time detection of engulfment and degradation is possible using pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes, which emit bright red fluorescence in acidic organelles, such as lysosomes. Our novel assay provides simple and effective detection of phagocytosis through live-imaging. In addition, this in vitro phagocytosis assay can be used as a screening platform to identify chemicals and compounds that can enhance or inhibit the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. As synaptic pruning malfunction and pathogenic protein accumulation have been shown to cause mental disorders or neurodegenerative diseases, chemicals and compounds that modulate the phagocytic capacity of glial cells should be helpful in treating various neurological disorders.

In this in vitro phagocytosis assay with long-term live-imaging, we used synaptosomes from adult mouse brain homogenates, which were separated in the gradient solution between 23% gradient solution and 10% gradient solution by ultracentrifugation (Figure 3). After the preparation, synaptosomes exposed PS in their outer membrane (Figure 4), suggesting that they lost their function and could be recognized by PS receptors in astrocytes and microglia. As shown in Figure 5, pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes emitted bright red fluorescence when they were engulfed by astrocytes. Real-time comparison of the engulfment and degradation capacities of glial cells is possible by taking multiple images of a ROI every 1 or 2 h (Supplementary Movie 1, Supplementary Movie 2). With this method, we demonstrated different kinetics of astrocyte- and microglia-mediated phagocytosis (Figure 6). To quantify phagocytosis of glial cells, the area (&#181;m2) of red fluorescence signal was measured, which is referred to phagocytic index in Figure 6B and Figure 7. Although astrocytes appeared to be efficient in phagocytosing large amounts of pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes, microglia were faster at engulfing and degrading synaptosomes (Figure 6B). Microglia showed maximum pH indicator intensity at 26 h after pH indicator-conjugated synaptosome treatment, whereas astrocytes showed their maximum at 45 h (p-value &#60; 0.05, two-way ANOVA between astrocyte with 1X ACM and microglia with 1X ACM). Likewise, microglial cells showed a 20.7% reduction in total pH indicator intensity 40 h after the peak point, whereas astrocytes showed a 17% reduction in total pH indicator intensity during the same time period. Interestingly, our data showed that astrocyte-secreted factors, which were contained in ACM, are essential for increasing both astrocyte- and microglia-mediated phagocytosis (Figure 6B). Astrocytes have been shown to release bridging molecules, such as MFGE8, GAS6, and ProteinS, which can bridge and induce interactions between phagocytic receptors and &#34;eat-me&#34; signals such as PS23. As mentioned above, astrocytes eliminate synapses via the MERTK and MEGF10 pathways4. MEGF10 is only expressed by astrocytes in the brain and participates in synapse engulfment through recognizing &#34;eat-me&#34; signals with unknown identities. In agreement with previous findings, the assay showed that compared with wild-type (WT) mouse astrocytes, Megf10 knock-out (KO) mouse astrocytes possessed significantly impaired phagocytic capacity (Figure 7). Compared with WT astrocytes, Megf10 KO astrocytes showed an approximately 40% reduction in total pH indicator intensity at the peak point (31 h) (Figure 7).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic of astrocyte purification using immunopanning methods. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Schematic of phagocytosis live-imaging assay. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Representative brain homogenate fractionation in the gradient solutions. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Representative images of PS-exposed synaptosomes. (A) A bright field image of astrocytes with synaptosomes. Synaptosomes are attached to astrocytes. (B) A fluorescent image of tdTomato-positive synaptosomes, which are purified from tdTomato-expressing mouse brains. (C) pSIVA binds to PS, which is exposed to outer membrane of synaptosome, and emits green fluorescence. (D) PS detected by pSIVA (green) is co-localized with tdTomato-positive synaptosomes (red). Scale bar: 20 &#181;m <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Representative bright field and fluorescent images of astrocytes with pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes at two time points. At 11 h after treatment (bottom panel), pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes are engulfed by astrocytes and emit red fluorescence whereas they do not at 1 h after treatment (upper panel). Scale bar: 50 &#181;m. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6. Phagocytic kinetics of rat astrocytes and microglia through long-term live-imaging. (A) A schematic diagram of an in vitro phagocytosis assay using purified astrocytes and microglia along with pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes. Note that before live images are taken, unbound synaptosomes are washed away after 40 min of incubation. (B) Representative graphs showing the engulfment and degradation kinetics of astrocytes and microglia. ACM, which contains astrocyte-secreted factors, significantly enhances both astrocyte- and microglia-mediated synaptosome uptake. Astrocyte: Control vs. Astrocyte with ACM 1X, ****, Tukey&#39;s multiple comparisons test. Microglia: Control vs. Microglia with ACM 1X, ****, Tukey&#39;s multiple comparison test. Error bars indicate S.E.M. *p &#8804; 0.05, **** p &#8804; 0.0001, two-way ANOVA. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7. Decreased phagocytic capacity of Megf10 KO mouse astrocytes with 1X ACM compared with that of WT mouse astrocytes with 1X ACM. WT vs. Megf10 KO astrocytes with 1X ACM, ****, two-way ANOVA. Error bars indicate S.E.M. * p &#8804; 0.05, ** p &#8804; 0.01, *** p &#8804; 0.001 two-way ANOVA. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/56647fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Table 1: Solution recipes. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/JoVE_Materials_R.xls">Please click here to download this file.</a>
Supplemental Movie 1. A representative live-imaging video showing the phagocytosis of pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes by astrocytes. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/Supplementary_data_Movie_1A_Astrocytes.mp4">Please click here to download this file.</a>
Supplemental Movie 2. A representative live-imaging video showing phagocytosis of pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes by microglial cells. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56647/Supplementary_data_Movie_1B_Microglia.mp4">Please click here to download this file.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes at JoVE.com

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

This protocol presents an in vitro live-imaging phagocytosis assay to measure the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. Purified rat astrocytes and microglia are used along with pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes. This method can detect real-time engulfment and degradation kinetics and provides a suitable screening platform to identify factors modulating astrocyte phagocytosis.

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major ...

a-novel-vitro-live-imaging-assay-astrocyte-mediated-phagocytosis

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

12.1K Views.  Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology. Dit protocol biedt een in vitro live-imaging fagocytose assay voor het meten van de fagocytische capaciteit van astrocyten. Gezuiverde rat astrocyten en microglia worden gebruikt samen met pH-indicator-geconjugeerd synaptosomes. Deze methode kan detecteren real-time engulfment en afbraak kinetiek en biedt een platform geschikt screening om te identificeren factoren moduleren Astrocyt fagocytose.

Video: A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

An Engulfment Assay: A Protocol to Assess Interactions Between CNS Phagocytes and Neurons

Phagocytosis is a process in which a cell engulfs material (entire cell, parts of a cell, debris, etc.) in its surrounding extracellular environment and subsequently digests this material, commonly through lysosomal degradation. Microglia are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) whose phagocytic function has been described in a broad range of conditions from neurodegenerative disease (e.g., beta-amyloid clearance in Alzheimer&#8217;s disease) to development of the healthy brain (e.g., synaptic pruning)1-6. The following protocol is an engulfment assay developed to visualize and quantify microglia-mediated engulfment of presynaptic inputs in the developing mouse retinogeniculate system7. While this assay was used to assess microglia function in this particular context, a similar approach may be used to assess other phagocytes throughout the brain (e.g., astrocytes) and the rest of the body (e.g., peripheral macrophages) as well as other contexts in which synaptic remodeling occurs (e.g. ,brain injury/disease).

Microglia are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) with a high capacity to phagocytose or engulf material in their extracellular environment. Here, a broadly applicable, reliable, and highly quantitative assay for visualizing and measuring microglia-mediated engulfment of synaptic components is described.

Phagocytosis is a process in which a cell engulfs material (entire cell, parts of a cell, debris, etc.) in its surrounding extracellular environment and ...

Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to replace lost neurons and regenerate axonal pathways. However, during nervous system development, neuronal migration and axonal extension often occur along pathways formed by other cells, referred to as &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. Seeking to emulate these mechanisms and to design a strategy that circumvents the inhibitory environment of the CNS, this manuscript presents a protocol to fabricate tissue engineered astrocyte-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. To create these constructs, we employed a novel biomaterial encasement scheme to induce astrocytes to self-assemble into dense three-dimensional bundles of bipolar longitudinally-aligned somata and processes. First, hollow hydrogel micro-columns were assembled, and the inner lumen was coated with collagen extracellular-matrix. Dissociated cerebral cortical astrocytes were then delivered into the lumen of the cylindrical micro-column and, at a critical inner diameter of &#60;350 &#181;m, spontaneously self-aligned and contracted to produce long fiber-like cables consisting of dense bundles of astrocyte processes and collagen fibrils measuring &#60;150 &#181;m in diameter yet extending several cm in length. These engineered living scaffolds exhibited &#62;97% cell viability and were virtually exclusively comprised of astrocytes expressing a combination of the intermediate filament proteins glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and nestin. These aligned astrocyte networks were found to provide a permissive substrate for neuronal attachment and aligned neurite extension. Moreover, these constructs maintain integrity and alignment when extracted from the hydrogel encasement, making them suitable for CNS implantation. These preformed constructs structurally emulate key cytoarchitectural elements of naturally occurring glial-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34; in vivo. As such, these engineered living scaffolds may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms in vitro or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding following CNS degeneration in vivo.

We showcase the development of self-assembled, three-dimensional bundles of longitudinally aligned astrocytic somata and processes within a novel biomaterial encasement. These engineered &#34;living scaffolds&#34;, exhibiting micron-scale diameter yet extending centimeters in length, may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding.

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to ...

Bioengineering

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

Microglia are the tissue resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and they perform a variety of functions that support CNS homeostasis, including phagocytosis of damaged synapses or cells, debris, and/or invading pathogens. Impaired phagocytic function has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Alzheimer's and age-related macular degeneration, where amyloid-&#946; plaque and drusen accumulate, respectively. Despite its importance, microglial phagocytosis has been challenging to assess in vivo. Here, we describe a simple, yet robust, technique for precisely monitoring and quantifying the in vivo phagocytic potential of retinal microglia. Previous methods have relied on immunohistochemical staining and imaging techniques. Our method uses flow cytometry to measure microglial uptake of fluorescently labeled particles after intravitreal delivery to the eye in live rodents. This method replaces conventional practices that involve laborious tissue sectioning, immunostaining, and imaging, allowing for more precise quantification of microglia phagocytic function in just under six hours. This procedure can also be adapted to test how various compounds alter microglial phagocytosis in physiological settings. While this technique was developed in the eye, its use is not limited to vision research.

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

Microglial phagocytosis is critical for the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and inadequate phagocytic function has been implicated in pathology. However, assessing microglia function in vivo is technically challenging. We have developed a simple but robust technique for precisely monitoring and quantifying the phagocytic potential of microglia in a physiological setting.

Microglia are the tissue resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and they perform a variety of functions that support CNS homeostasis, ...

Immunology and Infection

Monitoring Astrocyte Reactivity and Proliferation in Vitro Under Ischemic-Like Conditions

Ischemic stroke is a complex brain injury caused by a thrombus or embolus obstructing blood flow to parts of the brain. This leads to deprivation of oxygen and glucose, which causes energy failure and neuronal death. After an ischemic stroke insult, astrocytes become reactive and proliferate around the injury site as it develops. Under this scenario, it is difficult to study the specific contribution of astrocytes to the brain region exposed to ischemia. Therefore, this article introduces a methodology to study primary astrocyte reactivity and proliferation under an in vitro model of an ischemia-like environment, called oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). Astrocytes were isolated from 1-4 day-old neonatal rats and the number of non-specific astrocytic cells was assessed using astrocyte selective marker Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) and nuclear staining. The period in which astrocytes are subjected to the OGD condition can be customized, as well as the percentage of oxygen they are exposed to. This flexibility allows scientists to characterize the duration of the ischemic-like condition in different groups of cells in vitro. This article discusses the timeframes of OGD that induce astrocyte reactivity, hypertrophic morphology, and proliferation as measured by immunofluorescence using Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA). Besides proliferation, astrocytes undergo energy and oxidative stress, and respond to OGD by releasing soluble factors into the cell medium. This medium can be collected and used to analyze the effects of molecules released by astrocytes in primary neuronal cultures without cell-to-cell interaction. In summary, this primary cell culture model can be efficiently used to understand the role of isolated astrocytes upon injury.

Monitoring Astrocyte Reactivity and Proliferation in Vitro Under Ischemic-Like Conditions

Ischemic stroke is a complex event in which the specific contribution of astrocytes to the affected brain region exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) is difficult to study. This article introduces a methodology to obtain isolated astrocytes and study their reactivity and proliferation under OGD conditions.

Ischemic stroke is a complex brain injury caused by a thrombus or embolus obstructing blood flow to parts of the brain. This leads to deprivation of ...

Visualizing and Analyzing Intracellular Transport of Organelles and Other Cargos in Astrocytes

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in brain homeostasis, astrocytes supply neurons with vital metabolites and buffer extracellular water, ions, and glutamate. An integral component of the &#8220;tri-partite&#8221; synapse, astrocytes are also critical in the formation, pruning, maintenance, and modulation of synapses. To enable these highly interactive functions, astrocytes communicate among themselves and with other glial cells, neurons, the brain vasculature, and the extracellular environment through a multitude of specialized membrane proteins that include cell adhesion molecules, aquaporins, ion channels, neurotransmitter transporters, and gap junction molecules. To support this dynamic flux, astrocytes, like neurons, rely on tightly coordinated and efficient intracellular transport. Unlike neurons,&#160;where intracellular trafficking has been extensively delineated, microtubule-based transport in astrocytes has been less studied. Nonetheless, exo- and endocytic trafficking of cell membrane proteins and intracellular organelle transport orchestrates astrocytes&#8217; normal biology, and these processes are often affected in disease or in response to injury. Here we present a straightforward protocol to culture high quality murine astrocytes, to fluorescently label astrocytic proteins and organelles of interest, and to record their intracellular transport dynamics using time-lapse confocal microscopy. We also demonstrate how to extract and quantify relevant transport parameters from the acquired movies using available image analysis software (i.e., ImageJ/FIJI) plugins.

Here we describe an in vitro live-imaging method to visualize intracellular transport of organelles and trafficking of plasma membrane proteins in murine astrocytes. This protocol also presents an image analysis methodology to determine cargo transport itineraries and kinetics.

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in ...

In vitro Quantitative Imaging Assay for Phagocytosis of Dead Neuroblastoma Cells by iPSC-Macrophages

Microglia orchestrate neuroimmune responses in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson&#39;s disease and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. Microglia clear up dead and dying neurons through the process of efferocytosis, a specialized form of phagocytosis. The phagocytosis function can be disrupted by environmental or genetic risk factors that affect microglia. This paper presents a rapid and simple in vitro&#160;microscopy protocol for studying microglial efferocytosis in an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model of microglia, using a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) labeled with a pH-sensitive dye for the phagocytic cargo. The procedure results in a high yield of dead neuroblastoma cells, which display surface phosphatidylserine, recognized as an &#34;eat-me&#34; signal by phagocytes. The 96-well plate assay is suitable for live-cell time-lapse imaging, or the plate can be successfully fixed prior to further processing and quantified by high-content microscopy. Fixed-cell high-content microscopy enables the assay to be scaled up for screening of small molecule inhibitors or assessing the phagocytic function of genetic variant iPSC lines. While this assay was developed to study phagocytosis of whole dead neuroblastoma cells by iPSC-macrophages, the assay can be easily adapted for other cargoes relevant to neurodegenerative diseases, such as synaptosomes and myelin, and other phagocytic cell types.

Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with dysregulated microglia functions. This article outlines an in vitro assay of phagocytosis of neuroblastoma cells by iPSC-macrophages. Quantitative microscopy readouts are described for both live-cell time-lapse imaging and fixed-cell high-content imaging.

Microglia orchestrate neuroimmune responses in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson&#39;s disease and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. ...

Human Microglia-like Cells: Differentiation from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and In Vitro Live-cell Phagocytosis Assay using Human Synaptosomes

Microglia are the resident immune cells of myeloid origin that maintain homeostasis in the brain microenvironment and have become a key player in multiple neurological diseases. Studying human microglia in health and disease represents a challenge due to the extremely limited supply of human cells. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from human individuals can be used to circumvent this barrier. Here, it is demonstrated how to differentiate human iPSCs into microglia-like cells (iMGs) for in vitro experimentation. These iMGs exhibit the expected and physiological properties of microglia, including microglia-like morphology, expression of proper markers, and active phagocytosis. Additionally, documentation for isolating and labeling synaptosome substrates derived from human iPSC-derived lower motor neurons (i3LMNs) is provided. A live-cell, longitudinal imaging assay is used to monitor engulfment of human synaptosomes labeled with a pH-sensitive dye, allowing for investigations of iMG's phagocytic capacity. The protocols described herein are broadly applicable to different fields that are investigating human microglia biology and the contribution of microglia to disease.

Human Microglia-like Cells: Differentiation from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and In Vitro Live-cell Phagocytosis Assay using Human Synaptosomes

This protocol describes the differentiation process of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into microglia-like cells for in vitro experimentation. We also include a detailed procedure for generating human synaptosomes from iPSC-derived lower motor neurons that can be used as a substrate for in vitro phagocytosis assays using live-cell imaging systems.

Microglia are the resident immune cells of myeloid origin that maintain homeostasis in the brain microenvironment and have become a key player in multiple ...

Flow Cytometry-Based Assays for Microglial Engulfment of Synaptic Materials

Quantification of Microglial Engulfment of Synaptic Material Using Flow Cytometry

Microglia play a pivotal role in synaptic refinement in the brain. Analysis of microglial engulfment of synapses is essential for comprehending this process; however, currently available methods for identifying microglial engulfment of synapses, such as immunohistochemistry (IHC) and imaging, are laborious and time-intensive. To address this challenge, herein we present in vitro and in vivo* assays that allow fast and high-throughput quantification of microglial engulfment of synapses using flow cytometry.
In the in vivo* approach, we performed intracellular vGLUT1 staining following fresh cell isolation from adult mouse brains to quantify engulfment of vGLUT1+ synapses by microglia. In the in vitro synaptosome engulfment assay, we used freshly isolated cells from the adult mouse brain to quantify the engulfment of pHrodo&#160;Red-labeled synaptosomes by microglia. These protocols together provide a time-efficient approach to quantifying microglial engulfment of synapses and represent promising alternatives to labor-intensive image analysis-based methods. By streamlining the analysis, these assays can contribute to a better understanding of the role of microglia in synaptic refinement in different disease models.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Understanding Through Technological Innovations in Psychoneuroimmunology

Here we present two protocols to quantify microglial engulfment of vGLUT1-positive synapses and pHRodo&#160;Red-labeled crude synaptosomes using flow cytometry.

Microglia play a pivotal role in synaptic refinement in the brain. Analysis of microglial engulfment of synapses is essential for comprehending this ...

Microglial Phagocytosis Assay: An In Vitro Assay to Establish Microglial Phagocytosis Model for Neuroblastoma Cells Using iPSC Macrophages

Source: Hall-Roberts, H. et al. <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/v/62217/in-vitro-quantitative-imaging-assay-for-phagocytosis-dead">In vitro Quantitative Imaging Assay for Phagocytosis of Dead Neuroblastoma Cells by iPSC-Macrophages.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
In this video, we perform the microglial phagocytosis assay for neuroblastoma using induced pluripotent stem cells. The assay helps assess the impairment of microglial function in neurodegenerative diseases.

Source: Hall-Roberts, H. et al. In vitro Quantitative Imaging Assay for Phagocytosis of Dead Neuroblastoma Cells by iPSC-Macrophages. J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Cancer Research

Cancers of the Nervous System

In vitro studies

Live-cell Phagocytosis Assay of Microglia-Like Cells Using Human Synaptosomes

<a href='https://app-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/v/64323/human-microglia-like-cells-differentiation-from-induced-pluripotent'>Source: Funes, S., et. al.,&#160; Human Microglia-like Cells: Differentiation from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and In Vitro Live-cell Phagocytosis Assay using Human Synaptosomes. J. Vis. Exp. (2022)</a>This video demonstrates an assay to study the phagocytic capacity of microglia-like cells using pH-sensitive fluorescent dye-labeled synaptosomes.

Source: Funes, S., et. al.,&#160; Human Microglia-like Cells: Differentiation from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and In Vitro Live-cell Phagocytosis ...

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Samenvatting

Meer video's verkennen