We are very grateful to the current and former members of the Chakrapani lab for critical reading and comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant (1R01GM108921) and the American Heart Association (NCRP Scientist Development Grant 12SDG12070069) and to SC.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

EPR spectroscopy has proven to be an unparalleled structural approach in quantifying conformational changes in membrane proteins in a near-native environment. This approach allows us a peek into the molecular details of protein dynamics that are obscured in high-resolution structures from X-ray crystallography and Cryo-electron microscopy. However, it is important to consider the technical limitations of this approach that may affect the general applicability to other systems and also to keep in mind the potential experi...

Over the last decade, the structural understanding of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGIC) has grown in leaps and bounds, owing to multitudes of high-resolution structures of several members of the family. Key factors that led to the current advancements in the field include, the discovery of prokaryotic pLGIC channels,1-3 major progresses in eukaryotic membrane protein expression,4-6 and tremendous breakthroughs in structure determination approaches.7 These structures provide a clear consensus on the overall conservation of the three-dimensional architecture of pLGIC. However, two major areas that seem to trail behind are the functional characterization of these channel preparations and the mechanistic description of channel function.
Gating conformational changes are complex and occur over a 60 &#197; distance along the length of the channel and these transitions are extensively modulated by membrane lipids. In particular, negative lipids, cholesterol, and phospholipids have been shown to modulate the function of pLGIC8-11. While the precise role of these lipid constituents in channel function remains unknown, a complete molecular understanding of gating would require studying these channels in their native environment. Site-Directed Spin Labeling (SDSL) and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy are the techniques of choice for studying protein dynamics in reconstituted systems. EPR spectroscopy is not limited by the molecular size (as is NMR) or the optical property of the sample (as is fluorescence spectroscopy), and thereby allows measurements of full-length constructs reconstituted in native lipid conditions. The technique is extremely sensitive and has relatively low sample requirements (in the pico-mole range). Both these aspects make the technique well suited for studying large membrane proteins that are difficult to express in over milligram quantities.
The use of EPR spectroscopy in combination with site-directed spin labeling was developed by Wayne Hubbell and colleagues, and has been adapted for studying a range of protein types.12-24 EPR data have been used to investigate secondary structures, changes in the protein conformation, membrane-insertion depths, and protein-protein/protein-ligand interactions.
The method involves cysteine substitution at positions of interest by site-directed mutagenesis. To ensure site-specific labeling, it is necessary to substitute native cysteines with another amino acid (e.g., serine) to create a cysteine-less template. By far, the most popular spin label is a thiol-specific MTSL: (1-oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-&#916;3-pyrroline-3-methyl) methanethiosulfonate that attaches to the protein through a disulfide bond bridge. Due to its high specificity, relatively small size (slightly larger than tryptophan), and flexibility of the linker region, this spin label has been shown to have excellent reactivity even with a buried cysteine. Furthermore, to maximize reactivity, the labeling reaction of the protein is carried out in the detergent-solubilized form. After separation of the excess free spin-label by size exclusion chromatography, the protein is reconstituted into liposomes or bilayer-mimicking systems of defined lipid composition. In general, cysteine mutagenesis is well tolerated in most parts of the protein, and the relatively small size of the spin-probe causes minimal perturbation to the secondary and tertiary structures. To ensure that the modification retained wild type functions, the labeled and reconstituted channels can be studied by patch-clamp measurements.
The labeled-functional protein is then subjected to spectroscopic measurements, which essentially provide three main types of information:12,14,15,20,22,23,25-27 spin-probe dynamics by lineshape analysis; accessibility of the probe to paramagnetic relaxation agents; and distance distribution.27 EPR distances are measured by two different approaches. The first is based on the Continuous Wave (CW) technique, where spectral broadening arising from dipolar interactions between spin-labels (in the 8 - 20 &#197; distance range) is used to determine distance.28,29 The second is a pulsed-EPR method where distance measurements can be extended up to 70 &#197;.30-34 In Double Electron Electron Resonance (DEER), oscillations in the spin-echo amplitude are analyzed to determine distances and distance distributions. Here the spin echo is modulated at the frequency of the dipolar interaction. Together, these parameters are used to determine protein topology, secondary structural elements, and protein-conformational changes.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Site-Directed Mutagenesis and Cys mutations</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10x PfuUltra HF reaction buffer</td><td>Agilent Technologies</td><td>600380-52</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dNTPS</td><td>New England BioLabs Inc&amp;lrm;</td><td>N0447L</td><td>10 mM each dNTP</td></tr><tr><td>pfu Ultra DNA polymerase</td><td>Agilent Technologies</td><td>600380-51</td><td>2.5 U/ul</td></tr><tr><td>DPNI</td><td>New England BioLabs Inc&amp;lrm;</td><td>R0176S</td><td>20,000 U/ml</td></tr><tr><td>XL10 GOLD</td><td>Agilent Technologies</td><td>200314</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SOC media</td><td>New England BioLabs Inc&amp;lrm;</td><td>B9020S</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Kanamycin</td><td>Fisher Scientfic</td><td>BP905</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LB media</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>127957084</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Miniprep kit</td><td>QIAGEN</td><td>27106</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C43 competent cells</td><td>Lucigen</td><td>60446</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Expression and Purification</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glucose</td><td>Fisher Scientfic</td><td>D16</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tryptone</td><td>Fisher Bioreagents</td><td>BP1421-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yeast extract</td><td>Amresco</td><td>J850</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glycerol</td><td>Fisher Bioreagents</td><td>BP229</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;HPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Amresco</td><td>0705</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;HPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Amresco</td><td>0781</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IPTG (isopropyl-thio-&amp;beta;-galactoside)</td><td>Gold Biotechnology</td><td>I2481C25</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trizma Base</td><td>Sigma Life Science</td><td>T1503</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaCl</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S7653</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DNase I</td><td>Sigma Life Science</td><td>DN25</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PMSF</td><td>Amresco</td><td>M145</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Leupeptine</td><td>Amresco</td><td>J580</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pepstatin</td><td>Amresco</td><td>J583</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DDM (n-Docecyl-&amp;beta;-D-Maltopyranoside)</td><td>Anatrace</td><td>D310S</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amylose resin</td><td>New England BioLabs Inc&amp;lrm;</td><td>E8021L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TCEP</td><td>Amresco</td><td>K831</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EDTA</td><td>Fisher Scientfic</td><td>BP118</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Maltose</td><td>Acros Organics</td><td>329915000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Superdex 200 GL</td><td>GE Healthcare</td><td>17-5175-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Empty polypropylene Chromatography column</td><td>BioRad</td><td>731-1550</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Site-Directed Spin Labeling</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MTSL (1-oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-3-pyrroline-3-methyl) Methanethiosulfonate</td><td>Toronto Reaserch chemicals Inc</td><td>O873900</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(1-acetoxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-&amp;Delta;3-pyrroline-3-methyl) methanethiosulfonate</td><td>Toronto Reaserch chemicals Inc</td><td>A167900</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMSO</td><td>J.T. Baker</td><td>9224-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reconstitution</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Asolectin lipid</td><td>Avanti polar lipids Inc</td><td>541602C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Biobeads (Polystyrine beads)</td><td>Bio Rad</td><td>152-3920</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methanol</td><td>Fisher chemicals</td><td>A413</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FRET</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescein-maleimide</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>F-150</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tetramethylrhodamine-maleimide</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>T-6027</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>POPC</td><td>Avanti polar lipids Inc</td><td>850457C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>POPG</td><td>Avanti polar lipids Inc</td><td>840457C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;em&gt;E.coli&lt;/em&gt; polar lipid extract</td><td>Avanti polar lipids Inc</td><td>100600C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES</td><td>Sigma Life Science</td><td>H3375</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EPR measurement</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TPX plastic capillaries</td><td>Bruker</td><td>ER221</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EDDA (Ethylenediamine-N, N&#039;-diacetic acid)</td><td>Aldrich</td><td>158186</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ni(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Aldrich</td><td>283622</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

site directed spin labeling and epr spectroscopic studies of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels

Ion channel gating is a stimulus-driven orchestration of protein motions that leads to transitions between closed, open, and desensitized states. Fundamental to these transitions is the intrinsic flexibility of the protein, which is critically modulated by membrane lipid-composition. To better understand the structural basis of channel function, it is necessary to study protein dynamics in a physiological membrane environment. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is an important tool to characterize conformational transitions between functional states. In comparison to NMR and X-ray crystallography, the information obtained from EPR is intrinsically of lower resolution. However, unlike in other techniques, in EPR there is no upper-limit to the molecular weight of the protein, the sample requirements are significantly lower, and more importantly the protein is not constrained by the crystal lattice forces. Therefore, EPR is uniquely suited for studying large protein complexes and proteins in reconstituted systems. In this article, we will discuss general protocols for site-directed spin labeling and membrane reconstitution using a prokaryotic proton-gated pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channel (pLGIC) from Gloeobacter violaceus (GLIC) as an example. A combination of steady-state Continuous Wave (CW) and Pulsed (Double Electron Electron Resonance-DEER) EPR approaches will be described that will enable a complete quantitative characterization of channel dynamics.

Biochemical Characterization of Spin-labeled GLIC Mutants
Following the above described protocol would typically yield GLIC-MBP fusion protein in the range of 10 - 12 mg/L of culture. Although this value may vary across different mutants, particularly for positions buried within the protein, the yield may be significantly compromised. In these cases, the culture volumes may require scaling up. The cleavage of th...

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Site Directed Spin Labeling and EPR Spectroscopic Studies of Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

This article describes methods for site-directed spin labeling and reconstitution of pentameric ligand-gated channels for Electron Paramagnetic Resonance studies. This protocol can be adapted for any membrane protein. The reconstitution method described here can also be used for patch-clamp measurements of macroscopic and single-channel currents in a defined lipid system.

Ion channel gating is a stimulus-driven orchestration of protein motions that leads to transitions between closed, open, and desensitized states. ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

10.6K Views.  Case Western Reserve University. This article describes methods for site-directed spin labeling and reconstitution of pentameric ligand-gated channels for Electron Paramagnetic Resonance studies. This protocol can be adapted for any membrane protein. The reconstitution method described here can also be used for patch-clamp measurements of macroscopic and single-channel currents in a defined lipid system.

Video: Site Directed Spin Labeling and EPR Spectroscopic Studies of Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

High Precision FRET at Single-molecule Level for Biomolecule Structure Determination

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule level in multiparameter fluorescence detection (MFD) mode is presented here. MFD maximizes the usage of all &#34;dimensions&#34; of fluorescence to reduce photophysical and experimental artifacts and allows for the measurement of interdye distance with an accuracy up to ~1 &#197; in rigid biomolecules. This method was used to identify three conformational states of the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor to explain the activation of the receptor upon ligand binding. When comparing the known crystallographic structures with experimental measurements, they agreed within less than 3 &#197; for more dynamic biomolecules. Gathering a set of distance restraints that covers the entire dimensionality of the biomolecules would make it possible to provide a structural model of dynamic biomolecules.

A protocol for high-precision FRET experiments at the single molecule level is presented here. Additionally, this methodology can be used to identify three conformational states in the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Determining precise distances is the first step towards building structural models based on FRET experiments.

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule ...

Biochemistry

Purification and Reconstitution of TRPV1 for Spectroscopic Analysis

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine and remain largely unknown. With recent advances in single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) shedding light on the structural features of agonist binding sites and the activation mechanism of several ion channels, the stage is set for an in-depth dynamic analysis of their gating mechanisms using spectroscopic approaches. Spectroscopic techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and double electron-electron resonance (DEER) have been mainly restricted to the study of prokaryotic ion channels that can be purified in large quantities. The requirement for large amounts of functional and stable membrane proteins has hampered the study of mammalian ion channels using these approaches. EPR and DEER offer many advantages, including determination of the structure and dynamic changes of mobile protein regions, albeit at low resolution, that might be difficult to obtain by X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM, and monitoring reversible gating transition (i.e., closed, open, sensitized, and desensitized). Here, we provide protocols for obtaining milligrams of functional detergent-solubilized transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) that can be labeled for EPR and DEER spectroscopy.

This article describes specific methods to obtain biochemical quantities of detergent-solubilized TRPV1 for spectroscopic analysis. The combined protocols provide biochemical and biophysical tools that can be adapted to facilitate structural and functional studies for mammalian ion channels in a membrane-controlled environment.

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine ...

Measuring Interactions of Globular and Filamentous Proteins by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) and Microscale Thermophoresis (MST)

Filamentous proteins such as vimentin provide organization within cells by providing a structural scaffold with sites that bind proteins containing plakin repeats. Here, a protocol for detecting and measuring such interactions is described using the globular plakin repeat domain of envoplakin and the helical coil of vimentin. This provides a basis for determining whether a protein binds vimentin (or similar filamentous proteins) and for measurement of the affinity of the interaction. The globular protein of interest is labeled with 15N and titrated with vimentin protein in solution. A two-dimensional NMR spectrum is acquired to detect interactions by observing changes in peak shape or chemical shifts, and to elucidate effects of solution conditions including salt levels, which influence vimentin quaternary structure. If the protein of interest binds the filamentous ligand, the binding interaction is quantified by MST using the purified proteins. The approach is a straightforward way for determining whether a protein of interest binds a filament, and for assessing how alterations, such as mutations or solution conditions, affect the interaction.

Measuring Interactions of Globular and Filamentous Proteins by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy NMR and Microscale Thermophoresis MST

Here, we present a protocol for the production and purification of proteins that are labeled with stable isotopes, and subsequent characterization of protein-protein interactions using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) experiments.

Filamentous proteins such as vimentin provide organization within cells by providing a structural scaffold with sites that bind proteins containing plakin ...

Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study Conformational Changes in Membrane Proteins Expressed in Mammalian Cells

Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer, or LRET, is a powerful technique used to measure distances between two sites in proteins within the distance range of 10-100 &#197;. By measuring the distances under various ligated conditions, conformational changes of the protein can be easily assessed. With LRET, a lanthanide, most often chelated terbium, is used as the donor fluorophore, affording advantages such as a longer donor-only emission lifetime, the flexibility to use multiple acceptor fluorophores, and the opportunity to detect sensitized acceptor emission as an easy way to measure energy transfer without the risk of also detecting donor-only signal. Here, we describe a method to use LRET on membrane proteins expressed and assayed on the surface of intact mammalian cells. We introduce a protease cleavage site between the LRET fluorophore pair. After obtaining the original LRET signal, cleavage at that site removes the specific LRET signal from the protein of interest allowing us to quantitatively subtract the background signal that remains after cleavage. This method allows for more physiologically relevant measurements to be made without the need for purification of protein.

We describe here an improved Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (LRET) method where we introduce a protease cleavage site between the donor and acceptor fluorophore sites. This modification allows us to obtain specific LRET signals arising from membrane proteins of interest, allowing for the study of membrane proteins without protein purification.

Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer, or LRET, is a powerful technique used to measure distances between two sites in proteins within the distance range ...

Bioengineering

Measuring Nucleotide Binding to Intact, Functional Membrane Proteins in Real Time

We have developed a method to measure binding of adenine nucleotides to intact, functional transmembrane receptors in a cellular or membrane environment. This method combines expression of proteins tagged with the fluorescent non-canonical amino acid ANAP, and FRET between ANAP and fluorescent (trinitrophenyl) nucleotide derivatives. We present examples of nucleotide binding to ANAP-tagged KATP ion channels measured in unroofed plasma membranes and excised, inside-out membrane patches under voltage clamp. The latter allows for simultaneous measurements of ligand binding and channel current, a direct readout of protein function. Data treatment and analysis are discussed extensively, along with potential pitfalls and artefacts. This method provides rich mechanistic insights into the ligand-dependent gating of KATP channels and can readily be adapted to the study of other nucleotide-regulated proteins or any receptor for which a suitable fluorescent ligand can be identified.

This protocol presents a method for measuring adenine nucleotide binding to receptors in real time in a cellular environment. Binding is measured as F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between trinitrophenyl nucleotide derivatives and protein labeled with a non-canonical, fluorescent amino acid.

We have developed a method to measure binding of adenine nucleotides to intact, functional transmembrane receptors in a cellular or membrane environment. ...

Paramagnetic Relaxation Enhancement for Detecting and Characterizing Self-Associations of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Intrinsically disordered proteins and intrinsically disordered regions within proteins make up a large and functionally significant part of the human proteome. The highly flexible nature of these sequences allows them to form weak, long-range, and transient interactions with diverse biomolecular partners. Specific yet low-affinity interactions promote promiscuous binding and enable a single intrinsically disordered segment to interact with a multitude of target sites. Because of the transient nature of these interactions, they can be difficult to characterize by structural biology methods that rely on proteins to form a single, predominant conformation. Paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR is a useful tool for identifying and defining the structural underpinning of weak and transient interactions. A detailed protocol for using paramagnetic relaxation enhancement to characterize the lowly-populated encounter complexes that form between intrinsically disordered proteins and their protein, nucleic acid, or other biomolecular partners is described.

A protocol for the application of paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR spectroscopy to detect weak and transient inter- and intra-molecular interactions in intrinsically disordered proteins is presented.

Intrinsically disordered proteins and intrinsically disordered regions within proteins make up a large and functionally significant part of the human ...

High-Resolution Studies of Proteins in Natural Membranes by Solid-State NMR

Membrane proteins are vital for cell function and thus represent important drug targets. Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (ssNMR) spectroscopy offers a unique access to probe the structure and dynamics of such proteins in biological membranes of increasing complexity. Here, we present modern solid-state NMR spectroscopy as a tool to study structure and dynamics of proteins in natural lipid membranes and at atomic scale. Such spectroscopic studies profit from the use of high-sensitivity ssNMR methods, i.e., proton-(1H)-detected ssNMR and DNP (Dynamic Nuclear Polarization) supported ssNMR. Using bacterial outer membrane beta-barrel protein BamA and the ion channel KcsA, we present methods to prepare isotope-labeled membrane proteins and to derive structural and motional information by ssNMR.

This work details robust basic routines on how to prepare isotope-labeled membrane protein samples and analyze them at high-resolution with modern solid-state NMR spectroscopy methods.

Membrane proteins are vital for cell function and thus represent important drug targets. Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (ssNMR) spectroscopy ...

Visualizing the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Receptors Using Single-Molecule FRET

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the environment, a cell must be able to recognize and process it. This task mainly relies on the function of membrane receptors, whose role is to convert signals into the biochemical language of the cell. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of membrane receptor proteins in humans. Among GPCRs, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are a unique subclass that function as obligate dimers and possess a large extracellular domain that contains the ligand-binding site. Recent advances in structural studies of mGluRs have improved the understanding of their activation process. However, the propagation of large-scale conformational changes through mGluRs during activation and modulation is poorly understood. Single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) is a powerful technique to visualize and quantify the structural dynamics of biomolecules at the single-protein level. To visualize the dynamic process of mGluR2 activation, fluorescent conformational sensors based on unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation were developed that allowed site-specific protein labeling without perturbation of the native structure of receptors. The protocol described here explains how to perform these experiments, including the novel UAA labeling approach, sample preparation, and smFRET data acquisition and analysis. These strategies are generalizable and can be extended to investigate the conformational dynamics of a variety of membrane proteins.

This study presents a detailed procedure to perform single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) experiments on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) using site-specific labeling via unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation. The protocol provides a step-by-step guide for smFRET sample preparation, experiments, and data analysis.

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the ...

Examining the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Proteins in situ with Site-directed Fluorescence Labeling

Two electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology (TEVC) is a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of ion transport1 for a wide variety of membrane proteins including ion channels2, ion pumps3, and transporters4. Recent developments have combined site-specific fluorophore labeling alongside TEVC to 
concurrently examine the conformational dynamics at specific residues and function of these proteins on the surface of single cells.
We will describe a method to study the conformational dynamics of membrane proteins by simultaneously monitoring fluorescence and current changes using voltage-clamp fluorometry. This approach can be used to examine the molecular motion of membrane proteins site-specifically following cysteine replacement and site-directed fluorophore labeling5,6. Furthermore, this method provides an approach to determine distance constraints between specific residues7,8. 
This is achieved by selectively attaching donor and acceptor fluorophores to two mutated cysteine residues of interest.
In brief, these experiments are performed following functional expression of the desired protein on the surface of Xenopus leavis oocytes. The large surface area of these oocytes enables facile functional measurements and a robust fluorescence signal5. It is also possible to readily change the extracellular conditions such as pH, ligand or cations/anions, which can provide further information on the mechanism of membrane proteins4. Finally, recent developments 
have also enabled the manipulation of select internal ions following co-expression with a second protein9.
Our protocol is described in multiple parts. First, cysteine scanning mutagenesis proceeded by fluorophore labeling is completed at residues located at the interface of the transmembrane and extracellular domains. Subsequent experiments are designed to identify residues which demonstrate large changes in fluorescence intensity (&lt;5%)3 upon a conformational change of the protein. Second, these changes in fluorescence intensity are compared to the kinetic parameters of 
the membrane protein in order to correlate the conformational dynamics to the function of the protein10. This enables a rigorous biophysical analysis of the molecular motion of the target protein. Lastly, two residues of the holoenzyme can be labeled with a donor and acceptor fluorophore in order to determine distance constraints using donor photodestruction methods. It is also possible to monitor the relative movement of protein subunits following labeling with a donor and acceptor fluorophore.

Examining the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Proteins in situ with Site-directed Fluorescence Labeling

We will describe a method which measures the kinetics of ion transport of membrane proteins alongside site-specific analysis of conformational changes using fluorescence on single cells. This technique is adaptable to ion channels, transporters and ion pumps and can be utilized to determine distance constraints between protein subunits.

Two electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology (TEVC) is a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of ion transport1 for a wide variety of membrane ...

Biology

FRET-Based Method to Monitor LRRC8 Channel Activity Without Electrophysiology

Monitoring Leucine-Rich Repeat Containing 8 Channel (LRRC8/VRAC) Activity Using Sensitized-Emission F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (SE-FRET)

Members of the LRRC8 protein family form heteromeric ion and osmolyte channels with roles in numerous physiological processes. As volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs)/volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying channels (VSORs), they are activated upon osmotic cell swelling and mediate the extrusion of chloride and organic osmolytes, leading to the efflux of water and hence cell shrinkage. Beyond their role in osmotic volume regulation, VRACs have been implicated in cellular processes such as differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. Through their effect on membrane potential and their transport of various signaling molecules, leucine-rich repeat containing 8 (LRRC8) channels play roles in neuron-glia communication, insulin secretion, and immune response. The activation mechanism has remained elusive. LRRC8 channels, like other ion channels, are typically studied using electrophysiological methods. Here, we describe a method to detect LRRC8 channel activation by measuring intra-complex sensitized-emission F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (SE-FRET) between fluorescent proteins fused to the C-terminal leucine-rich repeat domains of LRRC8 subunits. This method offers the possibility to study channel activation in situ without exchange of the cytosolic environment and during processes such as cell differentiation and apoptosis.

Electrophysiology is the gold standard for investigating ion channel activity. However, there are plenty of alternative approaches, including optical methods. Here, we describe a method to monitor the activity of the leucine-rich repeat containing 8 channel (LRRC8)-formed anion channels using an inter-subunit F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based method.

Members of the LRRC8 protein family form heteromeric ion and osmolyte channels with roles in numerous physiological processes. As volume-regulated anion ...

Site Directed Spin Labeling and EPR Spectroscopic Studies of Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

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