RAF thanks the National Science Foundation (CHE-0844946) for support of this work.

1. Synthesis of SmI2 (0.1 M)
<ol>
 <li>Flame dry a 50 ml round bottomed flask and flush it with argon. Add a stir bar and cover the flask with septa. Weigh out samarium metal (0.2 g, 1.3 mmol) and add to flask, again flushing the flask with argon.</li>
 <li>Add 10 ml dry, thoroughly degassed tetrahydrofuran (THF) followed by iodine crystals (0.254 g, 2.0 mmol). Add an argon balloon through the septum; this keeps a positive pressure of Ar atmosphere on the reaction.</li>
 <li>Stir the solution vigorously at room temperature for over 3 hr. As SmI2 is generated the solution passes through a variety of color changes; orange followed by yellow (45 min), and green (1 hr) which eventually turns into blue.</li>
 <li>The final navy blue color is indication that singly ionized samarium has formed. In order to ensure full conversion, stir the solution for at least 3 hr before using SmI2 in synthesis.</li>
</ol>
2. Samarium Barbier Reaction-hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) Addition
<ol>
 <li>To make the SmI2-HMPA complex, take the freshly prepared SmI2 under argon (10 ml, 0.1 M, 1.0 mmol) and add 1.75 ml of HMPA (10 equiv., 10 mmol) through a syringe, dropwise, under argon. A deep purple color forms.</li>
 <li>Separately in a clean, dry vial under argon, add iodododecane (0.45 mmol, 110 &mu;l), 3-pentanone (0.45 mmol, 48 &mu;l) and 2 ml of dried THF.</li>
 <li>Add the substrate solution mixture dropwise to the SmI2/HMPA complex.</li>
 <li>Within 5 min of stirring, the purple color will start to look cloudy, indicating the end of the reaction.</li>
 <li>After the reaction is complete, expose the solution to air to quench it; upon stirring the color further changes to yellow.</li>
 <li>The reaction is then worked up by washing with saturated aqueous ammonium chloride. Add the solution to a separatory funnel and add diethylether (5 ml). After vigorous shaking remove the top organic layer, add more diethyl ether. Extract from the aqueous layer two more times and then combine all of the organic layers.</li>
 <li>Wash the organic layer with a saturated solution of aqueous sodium thiosulfate. Remove the bottom aqueous layer, followed by wash with water and then final wash with brine. Obtain the top organic layer and add magnesium sulfate to soak up any last amount of water present in the solution.</li>
 <li>Pass the solution through a plug of Florisil in order to remove excess HMPA.</li>
 <li>Concentrate the solution on a rotary evaporator to obtain Barbier product. The product was identified by GCMS and 1H NMR.23</li>
</ol>
3. Samarium Barbier Reaction-Ni(acac)2 Catalyst
<ol>
 <li>Weigh out Ni(acac)2 (1 mol%, 0.01 mmol, 0.0026 g) and add to a clean, dry vial containing 3 ml of degassed THF, under argon. Add the Ni(acac)2 solution through a syringe to a freshly prepared solution of 0.1 M SmI2 (1.0 mmol, 10 ml).</li>
 <li>Separately in a clean, dry vial under argon, add iodododecane (0.45 mmol, 110 &mu;l), 3-pentanone (0.45 mmol, 48 &mu;l) and 2 ml of dried THF.</li>
 <li>Add the substrate solution dropwise to the SmI2/Ni mixture.</li>
 <li>Within fifteen minutes of stirring, the blue color will dissipate to form a yellow-green color indicating the end of the reaction.</li>
 <li>After the reaction is complete, expose the solution to air to quench it; upon stirring the color further changes to yellow. Work up the reaction by washing with 0.1 M aq. Hydrochloric acid (3 ml). Add the solution to a separatory funnel and add diethylether (5 ml).</li>
 <li>Wash the organic layer using the protocol described previously with an aqueous solution of sodium thiosulfate, water and brine, and then dry over magnesium sulfate. Concentrate the solution to obtain Barbier product. The product can be identified by GCMS and 1H NMR.28</li>
</ol>

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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemical+investigation+of+the+reducing+power+of+SmI2+in+THF+and+the+effect+of+HMPA+cosolvent.">Electrochemical investigation of the reducing power of SmI2 in THF and the effect of HMPA cosolvent.</a> Tetrahedron Lett. 38, 1137-1140 (1997).</li><li>Enenaerke, R. J., Hertz, T., Skrydstrup, T., Daasbjerg, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+ionic+samarium(II)+species+in+THF/HMPA+solution+and+investigation+of+Their+electron-donating+properties.">Evidence for ionic samarium(II) species in THF/HMPA solution and investigation of Their electron-donating properties.</a> Chem. Eur. J. 6, 3747-3754 (2000).</li><li>Hou, Z., Zhang, Y., Wakatsuki, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+structures+of+HMPA-coordinated+samarium(II)+and+ytterbium(II)+iodide+complexes.+A+structural+basis+for+the+HMPA+effects+in+SmI2-promoted+reactions.">Molecular structures of HMPA-coordinated samarium(II) and ytterbium(II) iodide complexes. A structural basis for the HMPA effects in SmI2-promoted reactions.</a> Bull. Chem. Soc. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanistic+study+of+samarium+diodide-HMPA+initiated+5-exo-trig+ketyl-Olefin+coupling:+the+role+of+HMPA+in+post-electron+transfer+steps.">Mechanistic study of samarium diodide-HMPA initiated 5-exo-trig ketyl-Olefin coupling: the role of HMPA in post-electron transfer steps.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 7228-7229 (2008).</li><li>Choquette, K. A., Sadasivam, D. V., Flowers, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Uncovering+the+mechanistic+role+of+HMPA+in+the+samarium+Barbier+reaction.">Uncovering the mechanistic role of HMPA in the samarium Barbier reaction.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 17396-17398 (2010).</li><li>Molander, G. A., Hu&#233;rou, V. L., Brown, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequenced+reactions+with+samarium(II)+iodide.+Sequential+intramolecular+Barbier+byclization/Grob+fragmentation+for+the+synthesis+of+medium-sized+carbocycles.">Sequenced reactions with samarium(II) iodide. Sequential intramolecular Barbier byclization/Grob fragmentation for the synthesis of medium-sized carbocycles.</a> J. Org. Chem. 66, 4511-4516 (2001).</li><li>Molander, G. A., K&#246;llner, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+protocol+for+eight-+and+nine-membered+ring+synthesis+in+the+annulation+of+sp2,sp3-hybridized+organic+dihalides+with+keto+ester.">Development of a protocol for eight- and nine-membered ring synthesis in the annulation of sp2,sp3-hybridized organic dihalides with keto ester.</a> J. Org. Chem. 65, 8333-8339 (2000).</li><li>Molander, G. A., Alonso-Alija, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequenced+reactions+with+samarium(II)+iodide.+Sequential+intermolecular+carbonyl+addition/intramolecular+nucleophilic+acyl+substitution+for+the+preparation+of+seven-,+eight-,+and+nine-membered+carbocycles.">Sequenced reactions with samarium(II) iodide. Sequential intermolecular carbonyl addition/intramolecular nucleophilic acyl substitution for the preparation of seven-, eight-, and nine-membered carbocycles.</a> J. Org. Chem. 63, 4366-4373 (1998).</li><li>Machrouhi, F., Hamann, B., Namy, J. L., Kagan, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+reactivity+of+diiodosamarium+by+catalysis+with+transition+metal+salts.">Improved reactivity of diiodosamarium by catalysis with transition metal salts.</a> Synlett. 7, 633-634 (1996).</li><li>Choquette, K. A., Sadasivam, D. V., Flowers, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Catalytic+Ni(II)+in+reactions+of+SmI2:+Sm(II)-+or+Ni(0)-+based+chemistry?.">Catalytic Ni(II) in reactions of SmI2: Sm(II)- or Ni(0)- based chemistry?.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 10655-10661 (2011).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

A straightforward procedure for generating SmI2 solution and its application in organic synthesis using two of the most common additives is presented here. The two examples described portray the importance of mechanistic understanding of the reaction to fine tune the reactivity of SmI2. Knowledge of the underpinning of the reaction mechanism allows the use of this reagent to be adapted by synthetic chemists as per the requirements of their reaction.
This single electron homogeneous reductant is easy to handle and can be purchased from commercial sources. While the above protocol is straight forward when done under inert conditions, some of the common troubleshooting procedures are: (a) make sure the THF is properly degassed and dry, (b) if Sm metal has had prolonged exposure to air it could have an oxidized outside layer, grind the metal with a mortar and pestal to expose the clean metal surface, (c) flame-dry all glassware and cool under argon, (d) argon is preferred inert atmosphere over Nitrogen, as the later has been shown to interact with the metal, (e) The presence of excess Sm-metal helps to maintain the concentration of SmI2, (f) resublime the iodine crystals.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Samarium metal</td><td>Acros</td><td>29478-0100</td><td>-40 mesh, 99.9% (metals basis)</td></tr><tr><td>THF</td><td>OmniSolv</td><td>TX0282-1</td><td>Purified through Innovative Technologies solvent purification system. Alternatively it can be degassed through free-pump-thaw method</td></tr><tr><td>Iodine</td><td>Alfa Aesar</td><td>41955-22</td><td>Resublimed crystals, 99.8%</td></tr><tr><td>Iodododecane</td><td>Acros</td><td>25009-0250</td><td>98%</td></tr><tr><td>3-pentanone</td><td>Alfa Aesar</td><td>AAA15297-AE</td><td>99%</td></tr><tr><td>HMPA</td><td>Alderich</td><td>H11602</td><td>98%; distill from CaO under Argon</td></tr><tr><td>NiI&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Alfa Aesar</td><td>22893</td><td>99.5% (metals basis)</td></tr></tbody></table>

preparation and use of samarium diiodide (smi2) in organic synthesis: the mechanistic role of hmpa and ni(ii) salts in the samarium barbier reaction

Although initially considered an esoteric reagent, SmI2 has become a common tool for synthetic organic chemists. SmI2 is generated through the addition of molecular iodine to samarium metal in THF.1,2-3 It is a mild and selective single electron reductant and its versatility is a result of its ability to initiate a wide range of reductions including C-C bond-forming and cascade or sequential reactions. SmI2 can reduce a variety of functional groups including sulfoxides and sulfones, phosphine oxides, epoxides, alkyl and aryl halides, carbonyls, and conjugated double bonds.2-12 One of the fascinating features of SmI-2-mediated reactions is the ability to manipulate the outcome of reactions through the selective use of cosolvents or additives. In most instances, additives are essential in controlling the rate of reduction and the chemo- or stereoselectivity of reactions.13-14 Additives commonly utilized to fine tune the reactivity of SmI2 can be classified into three major groups: (1) Lewis bases (HMPA, other electron-donor ligands, chelating ethers, etc.), (2) proton sources (alcohols, water etc.), and (3) inorganic additives (Ni(acac)2, FeCl3, etc).3
Understanding the mechanism of SmI2 reactions and the role of the additives enables utilization of the full potential of the reagent in organic synthesis. The Sm-Barbier reaction is chosen to illustrate the synthetic importance and mechanistic role of two common additives: HMPA and Ni(II) in this reaction. The Sm-Barbier reaction is similar to the traditional Grignard reaction with the only difference being that the alkyl halide, carbonyl, and Sm reductant are mixed simultaneously in one pot.1,15 Examples of Sm-mediated Barbier reactions with a range of coupling partners have been reported,1,3,7,10,12 and have been utilized in key steps of the synthesis of large natural products.16,17 Previous studies on the effect of additives on SmI2 reactions have shown that HMPA enhances the reduction potential of SmI2 by coordinating to the samarium metal center, producing a more powerful,13-14,18 sterically encumbered reductant19-21 and in some cases playing an integral role in post electron-transfer steps facilitating subsequent bond-forming events.22 In the Sm-Barbier reaction, HMPA has been shown to additionally activate the alkyl halide by forming a complex in a pre-equilibrium step.23
Ni(II) salts are a catalytic additive used frequently in Sm-mediated transformations.24-27 Though critical for success, the mechanistic role of Ni(II) was not known in these reactions. Recently it has been shown that SmI2 reduces Ni(II) to Ni(0), and the reaction is then carried out through organometallic Ni(0) chemistry.28
These mechanistic studies highlight that although the same Barbier product is obtained, the use of different additives in the SmI2 reaction drastically alters the mechanistic pathway of the reaction. The protocol for running these SmI2-initiated reactions is described.

Figure 1 illustrates the samarium Barbier reaction. With no additives the Sm-mediated reaction takes 72 hr; yielding 69% of the desired product with the remaining being starting materials. With the addition of 10 or more equiv. of HMPA the reaction is nearly quantitative and complete within a few minutes.15,23 With the addition of 1 mol% Ni(acac)2, the reaction is complete within 15 min, with a 97% yield.28
When HMPA is added to SmI2, the cosolvent displaces the coordinated THF to form SmI2-(HMPA)4. With the addition of even more HMPA (6-10 equiv.), the iodide ions are displaced to the outer sphere (Figure 2).19-21 Mechanistic studies indicate that when HMPA is used in the Sm-Barbier reaction the cosolvent also interacts with the alkyl halide substrate forming a complex which elongates the carbon-halide bond, activating the species making it more susceptible to reduction by Sm (Figure 3). Through this detailed understanding of the roles of HMPA, a mechanism for the Sm-Barbier reaction with HMPA was proposed (Figure 4).23 The alkyl halide-HMPA complex formed in a pre-equilibrium step is reduced by Sm/HMPA to form the radical in the rate determining step. The radical undergoes further reduction to form an organosamarium species which couples with the carbonyl and upon protonation yields the final product.
In the case of Ni(II) additive, SmI2 initially reduces Ni(II) to Ni(0) preferentially over reduction of either of the substrates. Based on kinetic and mechanistic studies the following mechanism was proposed (Figure 5).28 After reduction by SmI2, the soluble Ni(0) species inserts into the alkyl halide bond forming an organonickel species. Driven by the highly oxophilic nature of Sm(III), transmetallation to form an organosamarium intermediate releases Ni(II) back into the catalytic cycle. The organosamarium then couples with the carbonyl, and upon protonation forms the desired tertiary alcohol. It was also observed that Ni(0) nanoparticles are formed through Sm-mediated reduction of Ni(II), however these particles were found to be inactive and the source of deactivation of the catalyst.
<img alt="Organic synthesis reaction formula; SmI₂-mediated reduction, chemical diagram with reagents." fo:content-width="4in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig1.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 1"> 
Figure 1. Samarium Barbier reaction with iodododecane and 3-pentanone.
<img alt="Samaric complex equilibrium; chemical reaction diagram; ligand exchange with THF, HMPA in synthesis." fo:content-width="4in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig2.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 2"> 
Figure 2. SmI2-HMPA complex.
<img alt="Chemical reaction mechanism, formula R-CH2-X, HMPA, P(NMe2)3; molecular diagram of intermediates." fo:content-width="3.5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig3highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig3.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 3"> 
Figure 3. HMPA and alkyl iodide complex.
<img alt="Chemical reaction mechanism with samarium, equations illustrating organometallic transformations." fo:content-width="4.5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig4highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig4.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 4"> 
Figure 4. Proposed mechanism for the samarium Barbier reaction with excess HMPA.
<img alt="Nickel-catalyzed organic reaction cycle diagram with Sm(II)/Sm(III) redox process showing chemical transformation." fo:content-width="4in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig5highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/4323/4323fig5.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1747911167000" data-alt="Figure 5"> 
Figure 5. Proposed mechanism for the samarium Barbier reaction containing catalytic Ni(II).

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Preparation and Use of Samarium Diiodide SmI2 in Organic Synthesis: The Mechanistic Role of HMPA and NiII Salts in the Samarium Barbier Reaction

A straightforward procedure for the preparation of samarium diiodide (SmI2) in THF is described. The role of two main additives namely hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) and Ni(acac)2 in Sm mediated reactions is demonstrated in the Sm-Barbier reaction.

Preparation and Use of Samarium Diiodide (SmI2) in Organic Synthesis: The Mechanistic Role of HMPA and Ni(II) Salts in the Samarium Barbier Reaction

Although initially considered an esoteric reagent, SmI2 has become a common tool for synthetic organic chemists. SmI2 is generated through the addition of ...

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32.9K Views.  Lehigh University. Een eenvoudige procedure voor de bereiding van samariumdijodide (SmI 2) In THF beschreven. De rol van twee additieven namelijk hexamethylfosforamide (HMPA) en Ni (acac) 2 Sm in gemedieerde reacties blijkt in de Sm-Barbier reactie.

Video: Preparation and Use of Samarium Diiodide SmI2 in Organic Synthesis: The Mechanistic Role of HMPA and NiII Salts in the Samarium Barbier Reaction

Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of molecular behaviors that underlie cellular biology 1-4. To image an individual molecule of interest, it is typically conjugated to a fluorescent tag (dye, protein, bead, or quantum dot) and observed with epifluorescence or total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. While dyes and fluorescent proteins have been the mainstay of fluorescence imaging for decades, their fluorescence is unstable under high photon fluxes necessary to observe individual molecules, yielding only a few seconds of observation before complete loss of signal. Latex beads and dye-labeled beads provide improved signal stability but at the expense of drastically larger hydrodynamic size, which can deleteriously alter the diffusion and behavior of the molecule under study.
Quantum dots (QDs) offer a balance between these two problematic regimes. These nanoparticles are composed of semiconductor materials and can be engineered with a hydrodynamically compact size with exceptional resistance to photodegradation 5. Thus in recent years QDs have been instrumental in enabling long-term observation of complex macromolecular behavior on the single molecule level. However these particles have still been found to exhibit impaired diffusion in crowded molecular environments such as the cellular cytoplasm and the neuronal synaptic cleft, where their sizes are still too large 4,6,7.
Recently we have engineered the cores and surface coatings of QDs for minimized hydrodynamic size, while balancing offsets to colloidal stability, photostability, brightness, and nonspecific binding that have hindered the utility of compact QDs in the past 8,9. The goal of this article is to demonstrate the synthesis, modification, and characterization of these optimized nanocrystals, composed of an alloyed HgxCd1-xSe core coated with an insulating CdyZn1-yS shell, further coated with a multidentate polymer ligand modified with short polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains (Figure 1). Compared with conventional CdSe nanocrystals, HgxCd1-xSe alloys offer greater quantum yields of fluorescence, fluorescence at red and near-infrared wavelengths for enhanced signal-to-noise in cells, and excitation at non-cytotoxic visible wavelengths. Multidentate polymer coatings bind to the nanocrystal surface in a closed and flat conformation to minimize hydrodynamic size, and PEG neutralizes the surface charge to minimize nonspecific binding to cells and biomolecules. The end result is a brightly fluorescent nanocrystal with emission between 550-800 nm and a total hydrodynamic size near 12 nm. This is in the same size range as many soluble globular proteins in cells, and substantially smaller than conventional PEGylated QDs (25-35 nm).

We describe the preparation of colloidal quantum dots with minimized hydrodynamic size for single-molecule fluorescence imaging. Compared to conventional quantum dots, these nanoparticles are similar in size to globular proteins and are optimized for single-molecule brightness, stability against photodegradation, and resistance to nonspecific binding to proteins and cells.

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for  understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the  spatial and temporal ...

Engineering

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and technological applications. Their signature property is their ultrahigh porosity, which however imparts a series of challenges when it comes to both constructing them and working with them. Securing desired MOF chemical and physical functionality by linker/node assembly into a highly porous framework of choice can pose difficulties, as less porous and more thermodynamically stable congeners (e.g., other crystalline polymorphs, catenated analogues) are often preferentially obtained by conventional synthesis methods. Once the desired product is obtained, its characterization often requires specialized techniques that address complications potentially arising from, for example, guest-molecule loss or preferential orientation of microcrystallites. Finally, accessing the large voids inside the MOFs for use in applications that involve gases can be problematic, as frameworks may be subject to collapse during removal of solvent molecules (remnants of solvothermal synthesis). In this paper, we describe synthesis and characterization methods routinely utilized in our lab either to solve or circumvent these issues. The methods include solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries, and materials activation (cavity evacuation) by supercritical CO2 drying. Finally, we provide a protocol for determining a suitable pressure region for applying the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis to nitrogen isotherms, so as to estimate surface area of MOFs with good accuracy.

Synthesis, activation, and characterization of intentionally designed metal-organic framework materials is challenging, especially when building blocks are incompatible or unwanted polymorphs are thermodynamically favored over desired forms. We describe how applications of solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries and activation via supercritical CO2 drying, can address some of these challenges.

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and ...

Ethylene Polymerizations Using Parallel Pressure Reactors and a Kinetic Analysis of Chain Transfer Polymerization

We demonstrate a method for high-throughput catalyst screening using a parallel pressure reactor starting from the initial synthesis of a nickel &#945;-diimine ethylene polymerization catalyst. Initial polymerizations with the catalyst lead to optimized reaction conditions, including catalyst concentration, ethylene pressure and reaction time. Using gas-uptake data for these reactions, a procedure to calculate the initial rate of propagation (kp) is presented. Using the optimized conditions, the ability of the nickel &#945;-diimine polymerization catalyst to undergo chain transfer with diethylzinc (ZnEt2) during ethylene polymerization was investigated. A procedure to assess the ability of the catalyst to undergo chain transfer (from molecular weight and 13C NMR data), calculate the degree of chain transfer, and calculate chain transfer rates (ke) is presented.

A protocol for the high-throughput analysis of polymerization catalyst, chain transfer polymerizations, polyethylene characterization, and reaction kinetic analysis is presented.

We demonstrate a method for high-throughput catalyst screening using a parallel pressure reactor starting from the initial synthesis of a nickel ...

Palladium N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes: Synthesis from Benzimidazolium Salts and Catalytic Activity in Carbon-carbon Bond-forming Reactions

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from benzimidazolium salts. Detailed and generalized protocols are also presented for testing the catalytic activity of such complexes in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. Representative results are shown for the catalytic activity of the four complexes in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura type reactions. For each of the reactions investigated, at least one of the four complexes successfully catalyzed the reaction, qualifying them as promising candidates for catalysis of many carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions. The protocols presented are general enough to be adapted for the synthesis, purification and catalytic activity testing of new palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes.

Palladium N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes: Synthesis from Benzimidazolium Salts and Catalytic Activity in Carbon-carbon Bond-forming Reactions

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from benzimidazolium salts. The complexes were tested for catalytic activity in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura reactions. For each reaction investigated, at least one of the four complexes successfully catalyzed the reaction.

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from ...

Preparation and Reactivity of a Triphosphenium Bromide Salt: A Convenient and Stable Source of Phosphorus(I)

We present herein the optimized synthesis of a triphosphenium bromide salt. Apart from being a versatile metathesis reagent, this unusually stable low-valent-phosphorus-containing compound acts as a useful P+ transfer agent. Unlike traditional methods employed to access low-coordinate phosphorus species which usually require pyrophoric phosphorus-containing precursors (white phosphorus, Tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphine, etc.), or harsh reducing agents (alkali metals, potassium graphite, etc.), the current approach does not involve pyrophoric or explosive reagents and can be done on large scales (&#62;20 g) in excellent yields by undergraduates with basic air-free synthetic training. The bromide counter ion is readily exchanged with other anions such as tetraphenyl borate (described herein) using typical salt metathesis reagents to obtain materials with desired properties and reactivities. The versatility of this P+ transfer approach is exemplified by the reactions of these triphosphenium precursors with an N-heterocyclic carbene and an anionic bisphosphine, each of which readily displace the neutral bisphosphine to give an NHC-stabilized phosphorus(I) cation and a phosphorus(I) containing zwitterion, respectively.

Preparation and Reactivity of a Triphosphenium Bromide Salt: A Convenient and Stable Source of PhosphorusI

The synthesis of a triphosphenium bromide salt is described and its use as a P+ transfer agent is outlined by reactions with an N-heterocyclic carbene and an anionic bisphosphine, yielding an NHC-stabilized P(I) cation and a P(I) containing zwitterion, respectively.

We present herein the optimized synthesis of a triphosphenium bromide salt. Apart from being a versatile metathesis reagent, this unusually stable ...

Accessing Valuable Ligand Supports for Transition Metals: A Modified, Intermediate Scale Preparation of 1,2,3,4,5-Pentamethylcyclopentadiene

A reliable, intermediate scale preparation of 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadiene (Cp*H) is presented, based on modifications of existing protocols that derive from initial 2-bromo-2-butene lithiation followed by acid mediated dienol cyclization. The revised synthesis and purification of the ligand avoids the use of mechanical stirring while still permitting access to significant quantities (39 g) of Cp*H in good yield (58%). The procedure offers other additional benefits, including a more controlled quench of excess lithium during the production of the intermediate heptadienols and a simplified isolation of Cp*H of sufficient purity for metallation with transition metals. The ligand was subsequently used to synthesize [Cp*MCl2]2 complexes of both iridium and ruthenium to demonstrate the utility of the Cp*H prepared and purified by our method. The procedure outlined herein affords substantial quantities of a ubiquitous ancillary ligand support used in organometallic chemistry while minimizing the need for specialized laboratory equipment, thus providing a simpler and more accessible entry point into the chemistry of 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadiene.

Reliable, intermediate scale preparation of 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadiene (Cp*H) is presented. The revised protocol for the synthesis and purification of the ligand minimizes the need for specialized laboratory equipment while simplifying reaction workups and product purification. Use of Cp*H in the synthesis of [Cp*MCl2]2 complexes (M = Ru, Ir) is also described.

A reliable, intermediate scale preparation of 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadiene (Cp*H) is presented, based on modifications of existing protocols that ...

Synthesis of High Purity Nonsymmetric Dialkylphosphinic Acid Extractants

We present the synthesis of (2,3-dimethylbutyl)(2,4,4&#39;-trimethylpentyl)phosphinic acid as an example to demonstrate a method for the synthesis of high purity nonsymmetric dialkylphosphinic acid extractants. Low toxic sodium hypophosphite was chosen as the phosphorus source to react with olefin A (2,3-dimethyl-1-butene) to generate a monoalkylphosphinic acid intermediate. Amantadine was adopted to remove the dialkylphosphinic acid byproduct, as only the monoalkylphosphinic acid can react with amantadine to form an amantadine&#8729;mono-alkylphosphinic acid salt, while the dialkylphosphinic acid cannot react with amantadine due to its large steric hindrance. The purified monoalkylphosphinic acid was then reacted with olefin B (diisobutylene) to yield nonsymmetric dialkylphosphinic acid (NSDAPA). The unreacted monoalkylphosphinic acid can be easily removed by a simple base-acid post-treatment and other organic impurities can be separated out through the precipitation of the cobalt salt. The structure of the (2,3-dimethylbutyl)(2,4,4&#39;-trimethylpentyl)phosphinic acid was confirmed by 31P NMR, 1H NMR, ESI-MS, and FT-IR. The purity was determined by a potentiometric titration method, and the results indicate that the purity can exceed 96%.

A protocol for the synthesis of high purity nonsymmetric dialkylphosphinic acid extractants is presented, taking (2,3-dimethylbutyl)(2,4,4&#39;-trimethylpentyl)phosphinic acid as an example.

We present the synthesis of (2,3-dimethylbutyl)(2,4,4&#39;-trimethylpentyl)phosphinic acid as an example to demonstrate a method for the synthesis of high ...

Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes

Here, we describe an effective protocol that combines photoredox Ni/Ir catalysis with the use of a Zn-alkoxide for efficient ring-opening polymerization, allowing for the synthesis of isotactic poly(&#945;-hydroxy acids) with expected molecular weights (&#62;140 kDa) and narrow molecular weight distributions (Mw/Mn &#60; 1.1). This ring-opening polymerization is mediated by Ni and Zn complexes in the presence of an alcohol initiator and a photoredox Ir catalyst, irradiated by a blue LED (400 - 500 nm). The polymerization is performed at a low temperature (-15 &#176;C) to avoid undesired side reactions. The complete monomer consumption can be achieved within 4 - 8 hours, providing a polymer close to the expected molecular weight with narrow molecular weight distribution. The resulted number-average molecular weight shows a linear correlation with the degree of polymerization up to 1000. The homodecoupling 1H NMR study confirms that the obtained polymer is isotactic without epimerization. This polymerization reported herein offers a strategy for achieving rapid, controlled O-carboxyanhydrides polymerization to prepare stereoregular poly(&#945;-hydroxy acids) and its copolymers bearing various functional side-chain groups.

Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes

A protocol for the controlled photoredox ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides mediated by Ni/Zn complexes is presented.

Here, we describe an effective protocol that combines photoredox Ni/Ir catalysis with the use of a Zn-alkoxide for efficient ring-opening polymerization, ...

Chemoselective Preparation of 1-Iodoalkynes, 1,2-Diiodoalkenes, and 1,1,2-Triiodoalkenes Based on the Oxidative Iodination of Terminal Alkynes

We present the chemoselective synthesis of 1-(iodoethynyl)-4-methylbenzene, 1-(1,2-diiodovinyl)-4-methylbenzene, and 1-methyl-4-(1,2,2-triiodovinyl)benzene as representative examples for the practical chemoselective preparation of 1-iodoalkynes, 1,2-diiodoalkenes, and 1,1,2-triiodoalkenes from the chemoselective iodination of terminal alkynes mediated by hypervalent-iodine reagents. The chemoselectivity was confirmed by using p-tolylethyne as a model substrate to screen a variety of iodine sources and/or the hypervalent-iodine reagents. A combination of tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI) and (diacetoxyiodo)benzene (PIDA) selectively generates 1-iodoalkynes, while a combination of KI and PIDA generates 1,2-diiodoalkenes. A one-pot synthesis based on both TBAI-PIDA and KI-PIDA yields the corresponding 1,1,2-triiodoalkenes. These protocols were subsequently applied to the synthesis of synthetically important aromatic and aliphatic 1-iodoalkynes, 1,2-diiodoalkenes, and 1,1,2-triiodoalkenes, which were obtained in good yield with excellent chemoselectivity.

Herein, detailed protocols for the oxidative iodination of terminal alkynes using hypervalent-iodine reagents are presented, which chemoselectively afford 1-iodoalkynes, 1,2-diiodoalkenes, and 1,1,2-triiodoalkenes.

We present the chemoselective synthesis of 1-(iodoethynyl)-4-methylbenzene, 1-(1,2-diiodovinyl)-4-methylbenzene, and ...

Imine Metathesis by Silica-Supported Catalysts Using the Methodology of Surface Organometallic Chemistry

With this protocol, a well-defined singlesite silica-supported heterogeneous catalyst [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(=NMe)(&#951;1-NMe2)] is designed and prepared according to the methodology developed by surface organometallic chemistry (SOMC). In this framework, catalytic cycles can be determined by isolating crucial intermediates. All air-sensitive materials are handled under inert atmosphere (using gloveboxes or a Schlenk line) or high vacuum lines (HVLs, &#60;10-5 mbar). The preparation of SiO2-700 (silica dehydroxylated at 700 &#176;C) and subsequent applications (the grafting of complexes and catalytic runs) requires the use of HVLs and double-Schlenk techniques. Several well-known characterization methods are used, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), elemental microanalysis, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (SSNMR), and state-of-the-art dynamic nuclear polarization surface enhanced NMR spectroscopy (DNP-SENS). FTIR and elemental microanalysis permit scientists to establish the grafting and its stoichiometry. 1H and 13C SSNMR allows the structural determination of the hydrocarbon ligands coordination sphere. DNP SENS is an emerging powerful technique in solid characterization for the detection of poorly sensitive nuclei (15N, in our case). SiO2-700 is treated with about one equivalent of the metal precursor compared to the amount of surface silanol (0.30 mmol&#183;g-1) in pentane at room temperature. Then, volatiles are removed, and the powder samples are dried under dynamic high vacuum to afford the desired materials [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(&#951;2&#960;-MeNCH2)(&#951;1-NMe2)(&#951;1-HNMe2)]. After a thermal treatment under high vacuum, the grafted complex is converted into metal imido silica complex [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(=NMe)(&#951;1-NMe2)]. [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(=NMe)(&#951;1-NMe2)] effectively promotes the metathesis of imines, using the combination of two imine substrates, N-(4-phenylbenzylidene)benzylamine, or N-(4-fluorobenzylidene)-4-fluoroaniline, with N-benzylidenetert-butylamine as substrates. A significantly lower conversion is observed with the blank runs; thus, the presence of the imido group in [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(=NMe)(&#951;1-NMe2)] is correlated to the catalytic performance.

A new group IV metal catalyst for imine metathesis is prepared by grafting amine metal complex onto dehydroxylated silica. Surface metal fragments are characterized using FT-IR, elemental microanalysis, and solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Further dynamic nuclear polarization surface enhanced NMR spectroscopy experiments complement the determination of the coordination sphere.

With this protocol, a well-defined singlesite silica-supported heterogeneous catalyst [(&#8801;Si-O-)Hf(=NMe)(&#951;1-NMe2)] is designed and prepared ...

Preparation and Use of Samarium Diiodide (SmI₂) in Organic Synthesis: The Mechanistic Role of HMPA and Ni(II) Salts in the Samarium Barbier Reaction

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