Portions of this work were supported by the II-VI Foundation and the Coastal Carolina Professional Enhancement Grant. We would also like to acknowledge Corrine Jacobs, Marek Jendrassak and William Merchant for help with the experimental setup.

<ol>
	<li>Maxey, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+gravitational+settling+of+aerosol+particles+in+homogeneous+turbulence+and+random+flow+fields.">The gravitational settling of aerosol particles in homogeneous turbulence and random flow fields.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 174, 441-465 (1987).</li><li>Good, G. H., Ireland, P. J., Bewley, G. P., Bodenschatz, E., Collins, L. R., Warhaft, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Settling+regimes+of+inertial+particles+in+isotropic+turbulence.">Settling regimes of inertial particles in isotropic turbulence.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 759, R3 (2014).</li><li>Ha, H. K., Maa, J. P. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+suspended+sediment+concentration+and+turbulence+on+settling+velocity+of+cohesive+sediment.">Effects of suspended sediment concentration and turbulence on settling velocity of cohesive sediment.</a> Geosciences Journal. 14 (2), 163-171 (2010).</li><li>Raffel, M., Willert, C. E., Wereley, S. T., Kompenhans, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Particle image velocimetry: A practical guide. , (2007).</li><li>Lu, L., Sick, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-speed+particle+image+velocimetry+near+surfaces.">High-speed particle image velocimetry near surfaces.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 76, e50559 (2013).</li><li>Yang, T. S., Shy, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+settling+velocity+of+heavy+particles+in+an+aqueous+near-isotropic+turbulence.">The settling velocity of heavy particles in an aqueous near-isotropic turbulence.</a> Physics of Fluids. 15 (4), 868-880 (2003).</li><li>Jacobs, C. N., Merchant, W., Jendrassak, M., Limpasuvan, V., Gurka, R., Hackett, E. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+scales+of+influence+on+the+settling+velocities+of+particles+with+varying+characteristics.">Flow scales of influence on the settling velocities of particles with varying characteristics.</a> PLoS One. 11 (8), 0159645 (2016).</li><li>Murray, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Settling+velocities+and+vertical+diffusion+of+particles+in+turbulent+water.">Settling velocities and vertical diffusion of particles in turbulent water.</a> Journal of Geophysical Research. 75 (9), 1647-1654 (1970).</li><li>Nielsen, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turbulence+effects+on+the+settling+of+suspended+particles.">Turbulence effects on the settling of suspended particles.</a> Journal of Sedimentary Research. 63 (5), 835-838 (1993).</li><li>Kawanisi, K., Shiozaki, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turbulent+effects+on+the+settling+velocity+of+suspended+sediment.">Turbulent effects on the settling velocity of suspended sediment.</a> Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 134 (2), 261-266 (2008).</li><li>Maxey, M. R., Corrsin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gravitational+settling+of+aerosol+particles+in+randomly+oriented+cellular+flow+fields.">Gravitational settling of aerosol particles in randomly oriented cellular flow fields.</a> Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 43, 1112-1134 (1986).</li><li>Melling, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracer+particles+and+seeding+for+particle+image+velocimetry.">Tracer particles and seeding for particle image velocimetry.</a> Measurement Science and Technology. 8 (12), 1406-1416 (1997).</li><li>Hadad, T., Gurka, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+particle+size,+concentration+and+surface+coating+on+turbulent+flow+properties+obtained+using+PIV/PTV.">Effects of particle size, concentration and surface coating on turbulent flow properties obtained using PIV/PTV.</a> Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 45, 203-212 (2013).</li><li>Adrian, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Particle-imaging+techniques+for+experimental+fluid+mechanics.">Particle-imaging techniques for experimental fluid mechanics.</a> Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 23 (1), 261-304 (1991).</li><li>Shy, S. S., Tang, C. Y., Fann, S. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+nearly+isotropic+turbulence+generated+by+a+pair+of+vibrating+grids.">A nearly isotropic turbulence generated by a pair of vibrating grids.</a> Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 14 (3), 251-262 (1997).</li><li>Dietrich, W. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Settling+velocity+of+natural+particles.">Settling velocity of natural particles.</a> Water Resources Research. 18 (6), 1615-1626 (1982).</li><li>Huang, H., Dabiri, D., Gharib, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+errors+of+digital+particle+image+velocimetry.">On errors of digital particle image velocimetry.</a> Measurement Science and Technology. 8 (12), 1427 (1997).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The method described herein is relatively inexpensive and provides a simple way to simultaneously measure particle trajectories and turbulence in order to examine the influence of flow on particle kinematics. It is noteworthy to mention that flows or particle motions that are strongly three-dimensional are not well-suited for this technique. The out-of-plane motion will result in errors17 in both the 2D tracking and the PIV analysis and should be minimized. In addition, the method requires the concentration of tracked particles to be relatively low (on the order of tens of particles per PT image). This restriction is important in order to maximize confidence that the same particle is being tracked in consecutive images. If too many particles exist simultaneously in the FOV of the PT camera, then inaccuracies in the trajectory calculations and early termination of trajectories can occur as well as increased errors in the PIV image analysis. Consequently, problems associated with particle flocculation would be challenging for this technique to investigate because large particle concentrations are usually needed. Finally, this technique is best suited for tracking larger particles (&#62;50 &#181;m). There must be sufficient separation between the PIV tracers (~10 &#181;m) from the particles that are being tracked. A factor of at least 5 is suggested.
The most critical steps in the protocol for the particle tracking are the calibration steps, selection of the frame rate, particle concentration in the images, and ensuring high signal-to-noise ratio in the high-speed images. The blob analysis requires conversion of the gray scale image to a black-and-white image upon which the particle trajectories are computed. If the contrast in the high-speed images is such that this conversion is difficult, then errors in the trajectories are likely because there will be uncertainty in identification of the particles. Insufficient particle displacement, too large of displacement between frames, or too many particles can lead to errors in the particle trajectories and/or early termination of particle trajectories. For the PIV, the calibration of the image size, setting of the time between image pairs, proper selection of the tracers, and detailed alignment between the PIV camera and the laser are the most important steps to ensuring a good result in the PIV correlation analysis, which is key for obtaining accurate statistics on the turbulence.
Here, we demonstrated the results of the technique by applying it to examine the settling velocity of various types and sizes of sediment particles in varying turbulent conditions. The results show a nearly Gaussian distribution of particle settling velocities (as well as horizontal velocities) of which the mean is considered a typical settling velocity for that particle in different conditions. The RMS of the turbulent velocity fluctuations show an increase with grid frequency as expected7,15 and are approximately uniform over the FOV vertical height (aside from one low turbulence case - 2 Hz grid frequency, see Figure 3). Together, these results demonstrate that the simultaneous measurement of the particles and flow field were successful. They also demonstrate that there are increased settling speeds with increasing turbulence7, which is consistent with the &#34;fast-tracking&#34; theory of particle settling behavior in turbulent flow11.
The utilization of the method herein is one example of addressing a scientific question involving particle-turbulence interaction; the method can be utilized in other research disciplines and applications. In addition to examining trends in a particular aspect of particle behavior in varying flow conditions, it is also feasible to examine the flow velocities at particular instances in time along the trajectory of a particle. The integration of the flow velocity information with the particle trajectory data depends on the specific question investigated and offers a potential wealth of information regarding particle kinematics in flows for a large range of applications. In summary, this technique offers a low-cost solution to simultaneous measurement of particle trajectories and turbulence relevant in a number of applications where fluid flow interacts with natural or man-made particulates.

There exist a large number of applications in both scientific and engineering fields that involve the behavior of particles in turbulent flows, for example, aerosols in the atmosphere, contaminants and/or sediments in engineered systems, and marine micro-organisms or sediment in the ocean1,2,3. In such applications, it is often of interest to understand how the particles respond to turbulence, which requires simultaneous measurement of the particle kinematics and the fluid dynamics.
Existing technologies to measure particle motions, called particle tracking (PT), which tracks individual particle trajectories, and the statistical technique of particle image velocimetry4,5 (PIV), used to measure flow velocities, both incorporate non-intrusive optical techniques. The main challenge in using these non-intrusive optical techniques to measure both the flow and particle kinematics simultaneously is the separate illumination required for each imaging technique that cannot interfere with the other&#39;s measurement accuracy (e.g., the illumination source for measuring the particle kinematics cannot act as a significant noise source in the fluid velocity measurement and vice-versa). The image contrast in both sets of images needs to be sufficient to obtain reliable results. For example, the PT images are converted to black and white images in order to perform a blob analysis to determine particle positions; thus, insufficient contrast leads to errors in particle position. Poor contrast in PIV images amounts to a low signal-to-noise ratio that will cause inaccuracies in estimation of the fluid velocities.
Here, a relatively low cost and simple method to simultaneously measure both particle kinematics and flow velocities is described. Through use of a high-power monochromatic light emitting diode (LED) line light, where the line refers to the light aperture, and dual-head high-intensity laser, both the particles of interest and the flow field are imaged in the same region simultaneously. The high power of the LED is sufficient for the imaging of the (tracked) particles by the high-speed camera but does not impact the PIV images because the light intensity scattered from PIV tracers is too low. When the dual-head high-intensity laser illuminates the flow field for the PIV images, it occurs over a short time interval and these images are easily identified and removed from the time series obtained by the high-speed PT camera when they are registered. PIV laser pulses recorded in the high-speed image (used for particle tracking) time series can be minimized by not running the two systems at frame acquisition rates that are commensurate with each other. In more advanced setups, one could externally trigger the PT and PIV cameras with a delay that would ensure this does not happen. Finally, by careful consideration of the amount of particles being tracked within the PIV field of view (FOV), any errors introduced by these tracked particles in the correlation analysis of PIV images are already taken into account by the overall error estimation, including errors associated with non-uniform size distribution of PIV tracers within the interrogation window. The vast majority of the PIV seeding tracers are following the flow, yielding accurate flow velocity estimates. These techniques enable the simultaneous direct measurement of both the particle kinematics and flow field in a two-dimensional plane.
This technique is demonstrated by applying it to determine particle settling characteristics in a turbulent flow, similar to that used in studies by Yang and Shy6 and Jacobs et al.7. Particle settling is the final stage in sediment transport, which generally consists of sediment suspension, transport, and settling. In most prior studies that have addressed particle settling in turbulent flows, either particle trajectories or turbulent velocities are not directly measured but inferred theoretically or modeled8,9,10. Details on the interactions between particles and turbulence have most often been investigated using theoretical and numerical models due to the experimental limitations in measuring both simultaneously6,11. We present a particle-turbulence interaction case study in an oscillating grid facility, where we study the settling velocity of particles and their coupling with turbulence. For clarity, hereafter we will refer to the particles under investigation as &#34;particles&#34; and the seeding particles used for the PIV technique as &#34;tracers&#34;; additionally, we will refer to the camera used for the high-speed imaging of the particle trajectories as the &#34;particle tracking&#34;, &#34;PT&#34;, or &#34;high-speed&#34; camera, which measures &#34;high-speed images&#34; and the camera used for the PIV method the &#34;PIV camera&#34;, which measures &#34;images&#34;. The method described herein enables the simultaneous measurement of particles kinematics and fluid dynamics over a pre-defined field of interest within the facility. The obtained data provides a two-dimensional description of the particle-turbulence interaction.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical lenses</td>
			<td>CVI LASER OPTICS</td>
			<td>Y2-1025-45, RCC-25.0-15.0-12.7-C, PLCC-25.4-515.1-UV</td>
			<td>Other optics companies are acceptable. Spherical and cyclindrical lenses for generating PIV light sheet.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera lens for PIV</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Nikkor 105mm f/2D</td>
			<td>Other camera lens companies are acceptable. Camera lens for PIV imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera lens for high-speed</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Nikkor 50mm f/1.8D</td>
			<td>Other camera lens companies are acceptable. Camera lens for high-speed imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dual-head pulsed laser</td>
			<td>Quantel</td>
			<td>EverGreen: 532nm, 70mJ@15Hz</td>
			<td>Other laser companies are acceptable. Dual-head Pulsed-laser for PIV: Nd:YAG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED line light</td>
			<td>Gardasoft Vision, Ltd.</td>
			<td>VLX2 LED Line Lighting - Green - GAR-VLX2-250-LWD-G-T04</td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. Line light for LED.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIV seeding particles/tracers</td>
			<td>Potters Industries</td>
			<td>SPHERICAL Hollow Glass Spheres: 11 mm average diameter</td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. PIV seeding particles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD cross-correlation camera</td>
			<td>TSI, Inc.</td>
			<td>POWERVIEW 11M: CCD, Double-exposure, 4008x2672 pixels @ 4.2 Hz with 12bit dynmic range</td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. Double-exposurem, CCD camera for PIV imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-speed camera</td>
			<td>Photron</td>
			<td>FASTCAM SA3; Model 60K: 1024x1024 pixels @ 1kHz</td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. CMOS camera for high speed imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synchronizer</td>
			<td>TSI, Inc.</td>
			<td>LASERPULSE SYNCHRONIZER 610036</td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. Synchronize the acquisition of the PIV camera and laser.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calibration target</td>
			<td>TSI, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Other companies are acceptable. Precision target for image calibration.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simultaneous measurement of turbulence and particle kinematics using flow imaging techniques

Numerous problems in scientific and engineering fields involve understanding the kinematics of particles in turbulent flows, such as contaminants, marine micro-organisms, and/or sediments in the ocean, or fluidized bed reactors and combustion processes in engineered systems. In order to study the effect of turbulence on the kinematics of particles in such flows, simultaneous measurements of both the flow and particle kinematics are required. Non-intrusive, optical flow measurement techniques for measuring turbulence, or for tracking particles, exist but measuring both simultaneously can be challenging due to interference between the techniques. The method presented herein provides a low cost and relatively simple method to make simultaneous measurements of the flow and particle kinematics. A cross section of the flow is measured using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique, which provides two components of velocity in the measurement plane. This technique utilizes a pulsed-laser for illumination of the seeded flow field that is imaged by a digital camera. The particle kinematics are simultaneously imaged using a light emitting diode (LED) line light that illuminates a planar cross section of the flow that overlaps with the PIV field-of-view (FOV). The line light is of low enough power that it does not affect the PIV measurements, but powerful enough to illuminate the larger particles of interest imaged using the high-speed camera. High-speed images that contain the laser pulses from the PIV technique are easily filtered by examining the summed intensity level of each high-speed image. By making the frame rate of the high-speed camera incommensurate with that of the PIV camera frame rate, the number of contaminated frames in the high-speed time series can be minimized. The technique is suitable for mean flows that are predominantly two-dimensional, contain particles that are at least 5 times the mean diameter of the PIV seeding tracers, and are low in concentration.

A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. The figure shows the arrangement of light sheets (LED and laser), the overlap in the FOVs, and the position of the FOVs relative to the oscillating grid and tank walls. The turbulence and particles are measured simultaneously as described in the protocol section. Figure 2 shows example results of the measurements of instantaneous velocity and vorticity along with sample particle trajectories. The results of the PIV analysis are evaluated based on computing the RMS of the turbulent fluctuations. For this oscillating grid facility, the magnitude of the spatial mean of the RMS velocity fluctuation over the PIV FOV should increase with grid frequency for both velocity components7,15. If this result is not obtained, then the grid facility, PIV setup, or PIV analysis contain errors and should be repeated. An example of the vertical profile of RMS velocity fluctuations for different grid frequencies is provided in Figure 3, where it is shown that the RMS turbulent fluctuations increase with grid frequency.
The particle trajectories are evaluated by examining the distribution of velocities obtained from the particle trajectories, as shown in Figure 4. These distributions should be approximately Gaussian in distribution. If they are not, then there may be a problem with the acquisition of the high-speed images depending on the specific flow conditions, an issue with the analysis of the high-speed images, or an insufficient number of particle trajectories. In this particular application of the method, the validation of the trajectory results can also be achieved by comparison to the Dietrich16 curves for stagnant water. Trajectory computations in still water using the same procedures outlined here for the particles should yield a settling velocity that is approximately consistent with these empirical curves as shown in Figure 5, where the results for the stagnant flow condition show agreement with the Dietrich16 curves. Figure 5 also demonstrates that particles tend to have increased settling speeds in turbulence as discussed in Jacobs et al.7.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Schematic description of the experimental setup, which consists of a grid turbulence tank, particle image velocimetry setup (using a CCD (PIV) camera and laser), and 2D high-speed imaging particle tracking setup (using a CMOS (PT) camera and LED light). Dimensions on the schematic are provided in centimeters. This figure has been modified from that shown in Jacobs et al.7 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Velocity distribution and trajectories. (A) An example instantaneous fluid velocity distribution represented by vectors in pixels/s overlaid on instantaneous vorticity characterized by color. The red scale vector in the lower left corner represents 500 pixels/s. (B) An example of time-lapse (over 30 PT images) trajectories of particles with a 261 &#181;m mean diameter at 5 Hz grid oscillations. Panel B of this figure has been modified from that shown in Jacobs et al.7 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Horizontally averaged vertical profiles of the RMS of the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical turbulent fluctuations for all grid frequencies (see legend). Turbulent RMS velocities increase with grid frequency. RMS values are based on 500 vector maps computed at all locations and then subsequently averaged over all horizontal positions (50 points) at each vertical position to obtain the vertical profiles shown. This figure has been modified from that shown in Jacobs et al.7 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Histograms of the particles&#39; measured horizontal and vertical velocities in stagnant water and turbulent conditions (see subtitles) for (A, left two panels) a natural (irregularly shaped) sand particle with 261 &#181;m mean diameter and (B, right two panels) a spherical synthetic particle with a 71 &#181;m mean diameter. The lines in the subplots are Gaussian fits to the histograms. This figure has been modified from that shown in Jacobs et al.7 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Settling velocities in stagnant and turbulent flow conditions versus particle size for several different types of particles. As illustrated in the legend, the colors represent different sediment types: synthetic or manufactured particles, several industrial sand types (120, 100, 35), and sand from a local beach in Myrtle Beach, SC-see Table 1 in Jacobs et al.7 for more details. The symbols, including the filled circle, indicate the flow conditions represented as grid frequency in the legend, where stagnant refers to zero frequency. As grid frequency increases, the RMS turbulent velocity fluctuations increase. The empirical curves of Dietrich16&#160;for particle settling velocity in stagnant water are also shown for several different shape factors. This figure has been modified from that shown in Jacobs et al.7 <a href="https://www-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/58036/58036fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Measurement of Turbulence and Particle Kinematics Using Flow Imaging Techniques at JoVE.com

Simultaneous Measurement of Turbulence and Particle Kinematics Using Flow Imaging Techniques

The technique described herein offers a low cost and relatively simple method to simultaneously measure particle kinematics and turbulence in flows with low particle concentrations. The turbulence is measured using particle image velocimetry (PIV), and particle kinematics are calculated from images obtained with a high-speed camera in an overlapping field-of-view.

Numerous problems in scientific and engineering fields involve understanding the kinematics of particles in turbulent flows, such as contaminants, marine ...

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6.9K 조회수.  Coastal Carolina University. The technique described herein offers a low cost and relatively simple method to simultaneously measure particle kinematics and turbulence in flows with low particle concentrations. The turbulence is measured using particle image velocimetry (PIV), and particle kinematics are calculated from images obtained with a high-speed camera in an overlapping field-of-view.

비디오: Simultaneous Measurement of Turbulence and Particle Kinematics Using Flow Imaging Techniques

Echo Particle Image Velocimetry

The transport of mass, momentum, and energy in fluid flows is ultimately determined by spatiotemporal distributions of the fluid velocity field.1 Consequently, a prerequisite for understanding, predicting, and controlling fluid flows is the capability to measure the velocity field with adequate spatial and temporal resolution.2 For velocity measurements in optically opaque fluids or through optically opaque geometries, echo particle image velocimetry (EPIV) is an attractive diagnostic technique to generate "instantaneous" two-dimensional fields of velocity.3,4,5,6 In this paper, the operating protocol for an EPIV system built by integrating a commercial medical ultrasound machine7 with a PC running commercial particle image velocimetry (PIV) software8 is described, and validation measurements in Hagen-Poiseuille (i.e., laminar pipe) flow are reported.
For the EPIV measurements, a phased array probe connected to the medical ultrasound machine is used to generate a two-dimensional ultrasound image by pulsing the piezoelectric probe elements at different times. Each probe element transmits an ultrasound pulse into the fluid, and tracer particles in the fluid (either naturally occurring or seeded) reflect ultrasound echoes back to the probe where they are recorded. The amplitude of the reflected ultrasound waves and their time delay relative to transmission are used to create what is known as B-mode (brightness mode) two-dimensional ultrasound images. Specifically, the time delay is used to determine the position of the scatterer in the fluid and the amplitude is used to assign intensity to the scatterer. The time required to obtain a single B-mode image, t, is determined by the time it take to pulse all the elements of the phased array probe. For acquiring multiple B-mode images, the frame rate of the system in frames per second (fps) = 1/&delta;t. (See 9 for a review of ultrasound imaging.)
For a typical EPIV experiment, the frame rate is between 20-60 fps, depending on flow conditions, and 100-1000 B-mode images of the spatial distribution of the tracer particles in the flow are acquired. Once acquired, the B-mode ultrasound images are transmitted via an ethernet connection to the PC running the PIV commercial software. Using the PIV software, tracer particle displacement fields, D(x,y)[pixels], (where x and y denote horizontal and vertical spatial position in the ultrasound image, respectively) are acquired by applying cross correlation algorithms to successive ultrasound B-mode images.10 The velocity fields, u(x,y)[m/s], are determined from the displacements fields, knowing the time step between image pairs, &Delta;T[s], and the image magnification, M[meter/pixel], i.e., u(x,y) = MD(x,y)/&Delta;T. The time step between images &Delta;T = 1/fps + D(x,y)/B, where B[pixels/s] is the time it takes for the ultrasound probe to sweep across the image width. In the present study, M = 77[&mu;m/pixel], fps = 49.5[1/s], and B = 25,047[pixels/s]. Once acquired, the velocity fields can be analyzed to compute flow quantities of interest.

An echo particle image velocimetry (EPIV) system capable of acquiring two-dimensional fields of velocity in optically opaque fluids or through optically opaque geometries is described, and validation measurements in pipe flow are reported.

The transport of mass, momentum, and energy in fluid flows is ultimately determined by spatiotemporal distributions of the fluid velocity field.1 ...

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Thermal Measurement Techniques in Analytical Microfluidic Devices

Thermal measurement techniques have been used for many applications such as thermal characterization of materials and chemical reaction detection. Micromachining techniques allow reduction of the thermal mass of fabricated structures and introduce the possibility to perform high sensitivity thermal measurements in the micro-scale and nano-scale devices. Combining thermal measurement techniques with microfluidic devices allows performing different analytical measurements with low sample consumption and reduced measurement time by integrating the miniaturized system on a single chip. The procedures of thermal measurement techniques for particle detection, material characterization, and chemical detection are introduced in this paper.

Here, we present three protocols for thermal measurements in microfluidic devices.

분석 미세 유체 장치의 열 측정 기술

Thermal measurement techniques have been used for many applications such as thermal characterization of materials and chemical reaction detection. ...

Development of an Experimental Setup for the Measurement of the Coefficient of Restitution under Vacuum Conditions

The Discrete Element Method is used for the simulation of particulate systems to describe and analyze them, to predict and afterwards optimize their behavior for single stages of a process or even an entire process. For the simulation with occurring particle-particle and particle-wall contacts, the value of the coefficient of restitution is required. It can be determined experimentally. The coefficient of restitution depends on several parameters like the impact velocity. Especially for fine particles the impact velocity depends on the air pressure and under atmospheric pressure high impact velocities cannot be reached. For this, a new experimental setup for free-fall tests under vacuum conditions is developed. The coefficient of restitution is determined with the impact and rebound velocity which are detected by a high-speed camera. To not hinder the view, the vacuum chamber is made of glass. Also a new release mechanism to drop one single particle under vacuum conditions is constructed. Due to that, all properties of the particle can be characterized beforehand.

The coefficient of restitution is a parameter that describes the loss of kinetic energy during collision. Here, a free-fall setup under vacuum conditions is developed to be able to determine the coefficient of restitution parameter for particles in micrometer range with high impact velocities.

진공 조건에서 반발 계수의 측정을위한 실험 장치 개발

The Discrete Element Method is used for the simulation of particulate systems to describe and analyze them, to predict and afterwards optimize their ...

Measurement of Scattering Nonlinearities from a Single Plasmonic Nanoparticle

Plasmonics, which are based on the collective oscillation of electrons due to light excitation, involve strongly enhanced local electric fields and thus have potential applications in nonlinear optics, which requires extraordinary optical intensity. One of the most studied nonlinearities in plasmonics is nonlinear absorption, including saturation and reverse saturation behaviors. Although scattering and absorption in nanoparticles are closely correlated by the Mie theory, there has been no report of nonlinearities in plasmonic scattering until very recently. 
Last year, not only saturation, but also reverse saturation of scattering in an isolated plasmonic particle was demonstrated for the first time. The results showed that saturable scattering exhibits clear wavelength dependence, which seems to be directly linked to the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). Combined with the intensity-dependent measurements, the results suggest the possibility of a common mechanism underlying the nonlinear behaviors of scattering and absorption. These nonlinearities of scattering from a single gold nanosphere (GNS) are widely applicable, including in super-resolution microscopy and optical switches. 
In this paper, it is described in detail how to measure nonlinearity of scattering in a single GNP and how to employ the super-resolution technique to enhance the optical imaging resolution based on saturable scattering. This discovery features the first super-resolution microscopy based on nonlinear scattering, which is a novel non-bleaching contrast method that can achieve a resolution as low as l/8 and will potentially be useful in biomedicine and material studies.

Saturable and reverse saturable scattering were discovered in isolated plasmonic particles and adopted as a novel non-bleaching contrast method in super-resolution microscopy. Here the experimental procedures of detecting and extracting nonlinear scattering are explained in detail, as well as how to enhance resolution with the aid of saturated excitation microscopy.

단일 플라즈몬 나노 입자에서 비선형 산란 측정

Plasmonics, which are based on the collective oscillation of electrons due to light excitation, involve strongly enhanced local electric fields and thus ...

Methods for Measuring the Orientation and Rotation Rate of 3D-printed Particles in Turbulence

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing technology is used to fabricate particles with slender arms connected at a common center. Shapes explored are crosses (two perpendicular rods), jacks (three perpendicular rods), triads (three rods in triangular planar symmetry), and tetrads (four arms in tetrahedral symmetry). Methods for producing on the order of 10,000 fluorescently dyed particles are described. Time-resolved measurements of their orientation and solid-body rotation rate are obtained from four synchronized videos of their motion in a turbulent flow between oscillating grids with R&#955; = 91. In this relatively low-Reynolds number flow, the advected particles are small enough that they approximate ellipsoidal tracer particles. We present results of time-resolved 3D trajectories of position and orientation of the particles as well as measurements of their rotation rates.

We use 3D printing to fabricate anisotropic particles in the shapes of jacks, crosses, tetrads, and triads, whose alignments and rotations in turbulent fluid flow can be measured from multiple simultaneous video images.

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing ...

Three-dimensional Particle Tracking Velocimetry for Turbulence Applications: Case of a Jet Flow

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic recording of image sequences. The basic components, features, constraints and optimization tips of a 3D-PTV topology consisting of a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter are described and discussed in this article. The technique is applied to the intermediate flow field (5 &#60;x/d &#60;25) of a circular jet at Re &#8776; 7,000. Lagrangian flow features and turbulence quantities in an Eulerian frame are estimated around ten diameters downstream of the jet origin and at various radial distances from the jet core. Lagrangian properties include trajectory, velocity and acceleration of selected particles as well as curvature of the flow path, which are obtained from the Frenet-Serret equation. Estimation of the 3D velocity and turbulence fields around the jet core axis at a cross-plane located at ten diameters downstream of the jet is compared with literature, and the power spectrum of the large-scale streamwise velocity motions is obtained at various radial distances from the jet core.

A three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) system based on a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter is described here. The technique is applied to a jet flow from a circular pipe in the vicinity of ten diameters downstream at Reynolds number Re &#8776; 7,000.

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic ...

Optical Trap Loading of Dielectric Microparticles In Air

We demonstrate a method to trap a selected dielectric microparticle in air using radiation pressure from a single-beam gradient optical trap. Randomly scattered dielectric microparticles adhered to a glass substrate are momentarily detached using ultrasonic vibrations generated by a piezoelectric transducer (PZT). Then, the optical beam focused on a selected particle lifts it up to the optical trap while the vibrationally excited microparticles fall back to the substrate. A particle may be trapped at the nominal focus of the trapping beam or at a position above the focus (referred to here as the levitation position) where gravity provides the restoring force. After the measurement, the trapped particle can be placed at a desired position on the substrate in a controlled manner. 
In this protocol, an experimental procedure for selective optical trap loading in air is outlined. First, the experimental setup is briefly introduced. Second, the design and fabrication of a PZT holder and a sample enclosure are illustrated in detail. The optical trap loading of a selected microparticle is then demonstrated with step-by-step instructions including sample preparation, launching into the trap, and use of electrostatic force to excite particle motion in the trap and measure charge. Finally, we present recorded particle trajectories of Brownian and ballistic motions of a trapped microparticle in air. These trajectories can be used to measure stiffness or to verify optical alignment through time domain and frequency domain analysis. Selective trap loading enables optical tweezers to track a particle and its changes over repeated trap loadings in a reversible manner, thereby enabling studies of particle-surface interaction.

A protocol for launching and stably trapping selected dielectric microparticles in air is presented.

공기에서 유전체 미세 입자의 광학 트랩로드

We demonstrate a method to trap a selected dielectric microparticle in air using radiation pressure from a single-beam gradient optical trap. Randomly ...

Generation of Size-controlled Poly (ethylene Glycol) Diacrylate Droplets via Semi-3-Dimensional Flow Focusing Microfluidic Devices

Uniform and size-controllable poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) droplets could be produced via the flow focusing process in a microfluidic device. This paper proposes a semi-three-dimensional (semi-3D) flow-focusing microfluidic chip for droplet formation. The polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chip was fabricated using the multi-layer soft lithography method. Hexadecane containing surfactant was used as the continuous phase, and PEGDA with the ultraviolet (UV) photo-initiator was the dispersed phase. Surfactants allowed the local surface tension to drop and formed a more cusped tip which promoted breaking into tiny micro-droplets. As the pressure of dispersed phase was constant, the size of droplets became smaller with increasing continuous phase pressure before dispersed phase flow was broken off. As a result, droplets with size variation from 1 &#181;m to 80 &#181;m in diameter could be selectively achieved by changing the pressure ratio in two inlet channels, and the average coefficient of variation was estimated to be below 7%. Furthermore, droplets could turn into micro-beads by UV exposure for photo-polymerization. Conjugating biomolecules on such micro-beads surface have many potential applications in the fields of biology and chemistry.

Generation of Size-controlled Poly ethylene Glycol Diacrylate Droplets via Semi-3-Dimensional Flow Focusing Microfluidic Devices

Here, we present a protocol to illustrate the fabrication processes and verifying experiments of a semi-three-dimensional (semi-3D) flow-focusing microfluidic chip for droplet formation.

크기 제어 폴 리 (에틸렌 글리콜) 빛 방울 장치를 통해 세미 3 차원 흐름 초점 미세의 세대

Uniform and size-controllable poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) droplets could be produced via the flow focusing process in a microfluidic device. ...

Method Development for Contactless Resonant Cavity Dielectric Spectroscopic Studies of Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of data that can be obtained from an individual sample and renders it difficult to produce statistically relevant data for unique and rare materials. Resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy is a non-destructive, contactless technique which can simultaneously interrogate both sides of a sheeted material and provide measurements which are suitable for statistical interpretations. This offers analysts the ability to quickly discriminate between sheeted materials based on composition and storage history. In this methodology article, we demonstrate how contactless resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy may be used to differentiate between paper analytes of varying fiber species compositions, to determine the relative age of the paper, and to detect and quantify the amount of post-consumer waste (PCW) recycled fiber content in manufactured office paper.

A protocol for the non-destructive analysis of the fiber content and relative age of paper.

비접촉식 공진성 유전체 분광연구용 셀룰로오스 종이 공진법 개발

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of ...

In Situ Measurement of Vacuum Window Birefringence using 25Mg+ Fluorescence

Accurate control of the polarization states of laser light is important in precision measurement experiments. In experiments involving the use of a vacuum environment, the stress-induced birefringence effect of the vacuum windows will affect the polarization states of laser light inside the vacuum system, and it is very difficult to measure and optimize the polarization states of the laser light in situ. The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate how to optimize the polarization states of the laser light based on the fluorescence of ions in the vacuum system, and how to calculate the birefringence of vacuum windows based on azimuthal angles of external wave plates with Mueller matrix. The fluorescence of 25Mg+ ions induced by laser light that is resonant with the transition of |32P3/2,F = 4, mF&#160;= 4<img align="center" alt="Equation 100" src="/files/ftp_upload/61175/61175img1.jpg" style="color: rgb(68, 0, 68); font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;" />&#160;&#8594;&#160;|32S1/2,F = 3, mF&#160;= 3<img align="center" alt="Equation 100" src="/files/ftp_upload/61175/61175img1.jpg" style="color: rgb(68, 0, 68); font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;" />&#160;is sensitive to the polarization state of the laser light, and maximum fluorescence will be observed with pure circularly polarized light. A combination of half-wave plate (HWP) and quarter-wave plate (QWP) can achieve arbitrary phase retardation and is used for compensating the birefringence of the vacuum window. In this experiment, the polarization state of the laser light is optimized based on the fluorescence of 25Mg+ ion with a pair of HWP and QWP outside the vacuum chamber. By adjusting the azimuthal angles of the HWP and QWP to obtain maximum ion fluorescence, one can obtain a pure circularly polarized light inside the vacuum chamber. With the information on the azimuthal angles of the external HWP and QWP, the birefringence of the vacuum window can be determined.

In Situ Measurement of Vacuum Window Birefringence using 25Mg+ Fluorescence

Presented here is a method to measure the birefringence of vacuum windows by maximizing the fluorescence counts emitted by Doppler cooled 25Mg+ ions in an ion trap. The birefringence of vacuum windows will change the polarization states of the laser, which can be compensated by changing the azimuthal angles of external wave plates.

25Mg+ 형광을 사용하여 진공 창 비류의 현장 측정

Accurate control of the polarization states of laser light is important in precision measurement experiments. In experiments involving the use of a vacuum ...