著者は、夫人ポーレット ・ マッケナと秘書のサポート、この研究ではリサ Pezzino 氏フィル アウエルバッハをテクニカル サポートありがちましょう。著者も培養で分離されたヘッド準備にご紹介夫妻マイケル アリエルとマイケル ・ s ・ ジョーンズ (セントルイス大学医学部) に感謝します。この共同作業のサポートのための資金は、ラファイエット大学で神経科学プログラム、学術研究委員会生物学科 (ロバート ・ s. チェイス基金) によって提供されました。最後に、この作品は 2016 年 9 月 28 日に亡くなった氏フィル アウエルバッハに捧げられて彼は走査型電子顕微鏡を使用停止し、このプロトコルで使用するため、5 軸ステージの有用性を認識しました。彼の友情と機知を大幅に惜しまれるでしょう。

<ol>
	<li>Kikillus, K. H., Hare, K. M., Hartley, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minimizing+false-negatives+when+predicting+the+potential+distribution+of+an+invasive+species:+A+bioclimatic+envelope+for+the+red-eared+slider+at+global+and+regional+scales.">Minimizing false-negatives when predicting the potential distribution of an invasive species: A bioclimatic envelope for the red-eared slider at global and regional scales.</a> Anim Conserv. 13, 5-15 (2010).</li><li>Lutz, P. L., Rosenthal, M., Sick, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Living+without+oxygen:+turtle+brain+as+a+model+of+anaerobic+metabolism.">Living without oxygen: turtle brain as a model of anaerobic metabolism.</a> Mol Physiol. 8, 411-425 (1985).</li><li>Lutz, P. L., Milton, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Negotiating+brain+anoxia+survival+in+the+turtle.">Negotiating brain anoxia survival in the turtle.</a> J Exp Biol. 207, 3141-3147 (2004).</li><li>Storey, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anoxia+tolerance+in+turtles:+Metabolic+regulation+and+gene+expression.">Anoxia tolerance in turtles: Metabolic regulation and gene expression.</a> Comp Biochem Physiol A-Mol Integr Physiol. 147 (2), 263-276 (2007).</li><li>Granda, A. M., Dearworth, J. R., Subramaniam, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Balanced+interactions+in+ganglion-cell+receptive+fields.">Balanced interactions in ganglion-cell receptive fields.</a> Vis Neurosci. 16, 319-332 (1999).</li><li>Dearworth, J. R., Granda, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiplied+functions+unify+shapes+of+ganglion-cell+receptive+fields+in+retina+of+turtle.">Multiplied functions unify shapes of ganglion-cell receptive fields in retina of turtle.</a> J Vis. 2 (3), 204-217 (2002).</li><li>Nesbit, S. C., Van Hoof, A. G., Le, C. C., Dearworth Jr, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+recording+of+light+responses+from+optic+nerve+fibers+and+the+caudal+photoreceptor+in+the+crayfish.">Extracellular recording of light responses from optic nerve fibers and the caudal photoreceptor in the crayfish.</a> J Undergrad Neurosci Educ. 14 (1), A29-A38 (2015).</li><li>McMahon, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Respiratory+and+circulatory+compensation+to+hypoxia+in+crustaceans.">Respiratory and circulatory compensation to hypoxia in crustaceans.</a> Resp Phsiol. 128 (3), 349-364 (2001).</li><li>Leigh, R. J., Zee, D. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The neurology of eye movements. , (1999).</li><li>Robinson, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+of+measuring+eye+movement+using+a+scleral+search+coil+in+a+magnetic+field.">A method of measuring eye movement using a scleral search coil in a magnetic field.</a> IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 10, 137-145 (1963).</li><li>Judge, S. J., Richmond, B. J., Chu, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Implantation+of+magnetic+search+coils+for+measurement+of+eye+position:+an+improved+method.">Implantation of magnetic search coils for measurement of eye position: an improved method.</a> Vis Res. 20, 535-538 (1980).</li><li>Ong, J. K. 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D., Ariel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+"beat-to-beat"+interval+generator+for+optokinetic+nystagmus.">A "beat-to-beat" interval generator for optokinetic nystagmus.</a> Biol Cybern. 66, 203-216 (1992).</li><li>Keifer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+eye-blink+reflex+model:+Role+of+excitatory+amino+acid+receptors+and+labeling+of+network+activity+with+sulforhodamine.">In vitro eye-blink reflex model: Role of excitatory amino acid receptors and labeling of network activity with sulforhodamine.</a> Exp Brain Res. 97, 239-253 (1993).</li><li>Keifer, J., Armstrong, K. E., Houk, J. 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F., Ariel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+model+for+optokinetic+eye+movements+in+turtles+that+incorporates+properties+of+retinal+slip+neurons.">A model for optokinetic eye movements in turtles that incorporates properties of retinal slip neurons.</a> Vis Neurosci. 13, 375-383 (1996).</li><li>Ariel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open-loop+optokinetic+responses+of+the+turtle.">Open-loop optokinetic responses of the turtle.</a> Vis Res. 37, 925-933 (1997).</li><li>Anderson, C. W., Keifer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Properties+of+conditioned+abducens+nerve+responses+in+a+highly+reduced+in+vitro+brainstem+preparation+from+the+turtle.">Properties of conditioned abducens nerve responses in a highly reduced in vitro brainstem preparation from the turtle.</a> J Neurophysiol. 81, 1242-1250 (1999).</li><li>Keifer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+classical+conditioning+of+the+turtle+eyeblink+reflex:+Approaching+cellular+mechanisms+of+acquisition.">In vitro classical conditioning of the turtle eyeblink reflex: Approaching cellular mechanisms of acquisition.</a> Cerebell. 2, 55-61 (2003).</li><li>Zhu, D., Keifer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathways+controlling+trigeminal+and+auditory+nerve-evoked+abducens+eyeblink+reflexes+in+pond+turtles.">Pathways controlling trigeminal and auditory nerve-evoked abducens eyeblink reflexes in pond turtles.</a> Brain Behav Evol. 64, 207-222 (2004).</li><li>Jones, M. S., Ariel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+unilateral+eighth+nerve+block+on+fictive+VOR+in+the+turtle.">The effects of unilateral eighth nerve block on fictive VOR in the turtle.</a> Br Res. 1094, 149-162 (2006).</li><li>Jones, M. S., Ariel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphology,+intrinsic+membrane+properties,+and+rotation-evoked+responses+of+trochlear+motoneurons+in+the+turtle.">Morphology, intrinsic membrane properties, and rotation-evoked responses of trochlear motoneurons in the turtle.</a> J Neurophysiol. 99 (3), 1187-1200 (2008).</li><li>Krenz, J. G., Naylor, G. J. P., Shaffer, H. B., Janzen, F. 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著者が明らかに何もありません。

重要なステップ:
このプロトコルの中で重要な手順次のとおりです: 1) 解剖および切断の神経の生存を維持するために取られる心配2) 一貫した応答を提供するために脳神経に吸引電極によるサイズのマッチング・ 3) の目の回転の適切な校正を提供するジンバル ヘッドの配置。
トラブルシューティング。
解剖は、挑戦することができますが、それを完了すると、数回、手順必要があります比較的まっすぐになります。神経応答のない場合は、最も可能性の高い原因は、解離障害です。脳の削除中にのみ最小限の張力および圧力の切削時に神経に適用するべき。金属製の手術器具で、神経に触れることも避けるべき、できるだけしのでガラス フックとプラスチックの鉗子、代用できます金属ツール トラブル34が持続する場合。亀組織は、焼きたての酸素の使用の変数のレベルを生き残るために能力を持っている亀リンゲル液バブル 95/5% O2/CO2冷蔵お勧め。しかし、これはより重要です。結局のところ、準備を使用しての利点は、さまざまな酸素レベルと温度変動2,3,4,35の下で生存です。重要なは、カメと準備の定期的な灌漑リンゲル液組織乾燥を避けるために。
実験を行う前に吸引電極の様々 なサイズのヒントの設定を行うと、神経に良いフィットのチャンスを改善します。郭清と同様に、火研磨のヒントいくつかの練習が必要。事前実験からヒントを作ることができます、参照としてそれを使用する神経と頭を維持すること。大径サイズに小さいからヒントを整理し、いくつかのモデリング粘土に保存する実験中に簡単なフィッティングが可能です。小さいヒント、炎の中にヒントを圧延するより多くの時間が必要です。ヒントは亀裂の無料で、滑らかなエッジを可能にする神経に良いシールを持っています。
ジンバルの頭の向きは、適切な必要があります。ない場合は、測定値の軸にゆがみが生じます。たとえば、左に同じ間隔より大きい右に回転は、目の中心がオフセットは、右にシフトする必要があることを示します。いくつかのトラブルも、回転中に生徒から信頼性の高い信号を維持するために発生します。LED は、少しより良い結果を達成するため助けることができる赤外線による瞳孔の照明を調整します。
制限事項:
準備の欠点は、特定の筋肉によってアクションの運動学を識別するの困難です。NIII と nVI の刺激後測定の動きのためこれは特に当てはまります。個々 の筋肉操作を解決する 1 つの方法は、特定の筋肉に移動経路を分離するために神経の枝の体系的な transections をすることです。たとえば、私たちは切削 nIII 毛様体神経節と括約筋虹彩33,36のアクションを分離する短い毛様体神経を刺激する遠位に成功しています。別のアプローチは、アゴニストと拮抗筋の両方にひずみゲージ システムをマウントし、特定の筋肉37,38の活動と運動をし、対応することです。そのメソッドの特定の筋肉への旅行経路の分離が必要ではありません。
準備ができます (内側直筋と外直筋や括約筋虹彩括約筋と散大、例えば対応する筋肉の反対の方向で行動する粘弾性要素に関連付けられている受動的ストレッチ)39。皮質と小脳で火花を散らしている; 準備を使用して得られたもの、粘弾性要素を解析する前述のように、刺激的な切断神経によって得られた回答を比較できます。したがってこれはそのままに、機能神経インテグレーターを続けているし、それは各筋40を支配する脳幹内の単一ニューロンの領域を刺激することが可能。
他の脊椎動物モデルに関して意義:
Cryoanesthesia はカメのため問題ありませんが、このアプローチは温血動物41,42の仕事を承認できません。したがって、ペントバルビ タール、ケタミンなど薬理学的エージェントは必要です。エージェントは、しかし、目動き43を混同します。それにもかかわらず、アプローチは、爬虫類に役立ちます、それは分離の遠心性神経によって生成挙動の比較を可能にするためにその他横目非-哺乳動物、両生類と魚44,45, などに適用できます。そのまま動物32,33によって作られたものへの道。
将来のアプリケーション:
準備は神経組織の存続性の測定として役立つことができます。プロトコルは、眼球運動に影響を与えるさまざまな要因を体系的に対処する設計でした。アプローチは異なる温度や鎮痛剤を含む薬剤のテストと同じくらい簡単かもしれない。動きは nIII と nVI の解釈が困難なのでその使用はより限られています。したがって、わたしは、操作のための最良の選択でしょう。
ただし、個々 の筋肉運動を解決する nIII と nVI、刺激から得られた準備の変更が必要、神経の枝の系統的切除を行うなどターゲット筋肉セットにひずみゲージを含みます。最後に、神経インテグレーターがそのまま保たれる準備で応答を測定により定量方法粘弾性要素の制限できること可能性が運動の。

電気生理学的実験ではミシシッピアカミミガメ カメを使用するための理論的根拠:
ミシシッピアカミミガメ カメ (Trachemys scripta elegans) の世界の最悪の侵略的な種の1つと考えられ、生態系が困っていることを示すことができます。ミシシッピアカミミガメ カメが成功した理由はよくわかっていないが、その耐性の生理と低酸素の条件2,3,4 の下で生き残ることができる神経組織の所有物のための一部ことがあります。.実験は自分の番号を脅かすことはない、最小限の努力、電気生理学的製剤残ることができる実行可能な拡張の期間、18 時間5,6限り上を使用します。メリットは、これも酸素8の低レベルに耐える能力を持っているザリガニ7など無脊椎動物の動物を使用する利点に似ています。
眼球運動の測定方法:
ヒト以外の霊長類を用いた前頭葉目動物の眼球運動を測定する方法は、よく発達した9をされています。3 軸軌道回転目: 水平方向、垂直方向、およびねじり。磁気サーチコイル法は一般的に測定の回転の最も信頼性の高いと見なされますが、動物10,11scleras に挿入される小さなコイルを必要とする侵襲的です。ビデオ ベースのシステムは、回転を測定し、非侵襲的であることの利点を持っていることができます。革新的な画像処理と一緒により良いカメラの開発、拡張、機能12,13,14を考慮する魅力的な代替ビデオ ベースのシステムを作るします。
Nonmammals 中の眼球運動を測定するための技術は大いにより少なく重要なされています。対策は、いずれか低解像度または回転15,16,17,18の一部のみを記述します。開発の欠如は、部分的に視標に従う訓練 nonmammals の難しさのせいにできます。眼球運動はミシシッピアカミミガメ カメ19,20,21,22,23,24,25 でよく研究されているが、26,27,28,29,30、ターゲットを追跡する訓練動物の挑戦のための眼球運動の正確な運動が不十分で理解しました。
ミシシッピアカミミガメのカメでは、脊椎動物の外側眼が考えられているが、甲による横方向の視野の重要な咬合が32を発生します彼らのシェル31に頭完全に撤回することができます、ため。結果は視覚的視界正面目の哺乳類のように動作し、正面に向かってならないこと。したがって、眼球運動を測定するためのアプローチを開発するためのモデルとして使用する際は、独自の進化論的視点を提供しています。
この作品で説明されているプロトコルは、ミシシッピアカミミガメ カメにおける眼球運動の運動学を識別するために培養で分離されたヘッド準備を使用します。脳は脳神経をそのまま頭蓋骨から解剖しました。頭は、目の筋肉を支配する脳神経の電気刺激による眼球運動を調整し、応答を換起するジンバルに配置されます。目の回転の措置は、暗い瞳孔と虹彩のマーキングを追跡、ソフトウェア アルゴリズムを使ってビデオ ベースのシステムによって行われます。(すなわち、水平方向、垂直方向、およびねじり回転) 両方の眼の運動を測定する機会を提供する、32と眼内 (すなわち瞳孔の変化)33動き。
遠心性神経経路の解析のモデル システム:
一般的に、どのように遠心性の神経信号を勉強する機会眼球運動を生成は、筋肉がリラックスした状態から開始脳32、によって処理される統合された感覚情報のない状態で捜査官を提供するアプローチ 33。したがって、のみ残して脳と筋肉に synapsing 遠心性の神経線維によって処理される、モデル系で目の運動を調べることができます。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Red-eared slider turtles</td>
			<td>Kons Scientific</td>
			<td>Trachemys scripta elegans</td>
			<td>Large size (carapace length 15-20 cm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>P5405</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium choride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>M7304</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>C5767</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Concentrated hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>H7020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>C7902</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH meter</td>
			<td>Oakton</td>
			<td>pH 6+</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Suction stimulation electrode</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>573000</td>
			<td>Bipolar suction electrode. Note that 573000 has been replaced with 573050.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass</td>
			<td>A-M systems</td>
			<td>626000</td>
			<td>Single-barrel borosilicate capillary glass without microfilament, length 10 cm, outside diameter 1.0 mm, inner diameter 0.50 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative suction stimulation electrode</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>573050</td>
			<td>Bipolar suction electrode. Requires larger diameter capillary glass: 627000, outside diameter 1.2 mm, inner diameter 0.68 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereoscope</td>
			<td>Lieca</td>
			<td>GZ7</td>
			<td>Magnification range, 10x &#8211; 70x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiber optic light source</td>
			<td>Amscope</td>
			<td>HL250-A</td>
			<td>150W Fiber optical microscope illuminator light box</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rongeurs</td>
			<td>Carolina Biological Supply Company</td>
			<td>625654</td>
			<td>stainless steel, straight spring, 5.25&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blunt dissection probe</td>
			<td>Carolina Biological Supply Company</td>
			<td>627405</td>
			<td>Huber mall probe, double-ended probe and seeker, 6&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscissors</td>
			<td>Carolina Biological Supply Company</td>
			<td>623555</td>
			<td>Iris microdissecting scissors, stainless steel, 0.5&#34; blades, 4.75&#34; long</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine forceps</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>F6521</td>
			<td>Jewelers forceps, dumont No. 5, inox alloy, 4.25&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved forceps</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>Z168696</td>
			<td>Medium tip, curved forceps, stainless steel, 4&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel handle</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>S2896</td>
			<td>Scalpel handles, No. 3, stainless steel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.</td>
			<td>S2771</td>
			<td>Scalpel blades, No. 11, steel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Guillotine</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>73-1918</td>
			<td>Kleine guillotine type 7575</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spatula</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z648299</td>
			<td>Micro spoon and spatula weighing set. Use small spatula: 5.9&#8221; long x 0.07&#8221; diameter handle with square end: 0.17&#8221; x 1.3&#8221; long, other end round: 0.17&#8221; x 1.27&#8221; long</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hook</td>
			<td>Autozone</td>
			<td>98069</td>
			<td>SureBilt hook and pick set. Use grinder to dull sharp points of hook to prevent injury to animals mouth.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95/5% O2/CO2</td>
			<td>Airgas, Inc.</td>
			<td>X02OX95C2003102</td>
			<td>5% Carbon dioxide balance oxygen certified standard gas mixture, size 200 Cylinder, CGA-296</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Regulator</td>
			<td>Airgas, Inc.</td>
			<td>Y11244D296-AG</td>
			<td>Single stage brass 0-100 psi analytical cylinder regulator CGA-296 with needle outlet. Use brass adjustable airline pipe valve to go from 3/8&#34;, inner diameter, vinyl airline tubing connected to regulator to a 3/16&#34;, inner diameter, airline connection going to airstone or glass pasteur pipette.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adjustable airline pipe valve</td>
			<td>Doctors Foster and Smith</td>
			<td>CD-12061</td>
			<td>Brass valve</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rigid table</td>
			<td>Unknown</td>
			<td>Unknown</td>
			<td>Auto-clave door laid on top of a sturdy table. Nine 5&#34; diameter tennis balls isolate vibrations from the top surface of the table.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5&#34; tennis ball</td>
			<td>Petco Animal Supplies, Inc.</td>
			<td>712868</td>
			<td>Petco Jumbo Pet Tennis Ball: balls are unsliced and held within an integrated frame on the underside part of the autoclave door.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative vibration isolation table</td>
			<td>Newport Corporation</td>
			<td>INT1-36-6-N</td>
			<td>Rigid vibration control system, integrity 1: Surface dimensions, 3&#39; x 6&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gimbal</td>
			<td>ISI, International Scientific Instruments, Inc.</td>
			<td>Stage from SUPER III-A Scanning EM</td>
			<td>5-axis eucentric stage: X, Y, and Z linear movements, &#177;20 mm, 0.1 mm precision; Rotations, vertical, &#177;10&#176;, and horizontal, &#177;12.5&#176;, with 1.25&#176; precision. Note: from decommission instrument.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chuck for gimbal</td>
			<td>Unknown</td>
			<td>Unknown</td>
			<td>Chuck from an old microtome of unknown manufacture was machined to fit the shaft of the specimen holder of the Scanning EM stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative gimbal</td>
			<td>ThorLabs, Inc.</td>
			<td>GN2/M with MBT602/M</td>
			<td>Dual-axis goniometer (GN2/M) mounted on 3-axis microblock stage with thumbscrew adjusters (MBT602/M): design a chuck to hold turtle head with eye at 12.7 mm above top surface of goniometer (distance to point of rotation)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Video-based eye tracking system</td>
			<td>Arrington Research, Inc.</td>
			<td>ViewPoint EyeTracker, PC-60</td>
			<td>Tracking method: Infrared video by dark pupil; Black and white camera (Item BC02): 30 Hz, 640 x 480; System requirements: Windows 2000, XP, 7, 8, 8.1, 10; Visual range: Horizontal +/- 44&#176;; vertical +/- 20&#176;; Accuracy ~0.5&#176;; Spatial resolution ~0.15&#176;; Pupil size resolution ~0.03 mm; Eye data: X, Y position of gaze, pupil height and width, torsion, delta time, total time, and regions of interest (ROI); Real-time communication (Item 0022): 4-Channel AnalogOut with eight TTL input channels to mark codes into the data file</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multi-position magnetic base</td>
			<td>Harbor Freight Tools</td>
			<td>Pittsburg, item #5645</td>
			<td>Magnetic holder reaches up to 12&#34; and produces 45 lbs. of magnetic pull. Use to position camera. Machine thread holes onto the end of the rod to mount cameras.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Kopf</td>
			<td>900</td>
			<td>5 axis manipulation for mount of suction electrode: X, Y, Z linear travel, 2 axis of rotation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection scope on boom</td>
			<td>Lieca</td>
			<td>GZ6</td>
			<td>Magnification range, 6.7x &#8211; 40x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nerve/muscle stimulator</td>
			<td>Astro-Med Grass Telefactor</td>
			<td>Grass S88</td>
			<td>Dual pulse voltage stimulator: two output channels that can be operated independently or synchronized to generate non-isolated constant voltage pulses (10 mv to 150 V). Pulses can be single (10 &#956;sec to 10 sec), repetitive (0.01 Hz to 1 KHz), and trains (1 ms to 10 s) and synchronized with TTL inputs and output. Send TTL outputs via the output channels of a DB25 connector to the TTL input channels of the ViewPoint EyeTracker. Note: Astro-Med Grass Telefactor is no longer in business.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Current isolation device</td>
			<td>Astro-Med Grass Telefactor</td>
			<td>PSIU6</td>
			<td>Current stimulus isolation unit: enables safe delivery of constant currents by the S88 to the preparation. The PSIU6 connects by a BNC cable to one of the output channels of the S88. Multiplier switches on the PSIU6 allow the S88 to generate a wide array of current amplitudes ranging from 0.1 &#181;A to 15 mA.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative nerve/muscle stimulator with isolation</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>2100</td>
			<td>Isolated Pulse Stimulator: Unit has built-in isolator to produce constant currents.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

ocular kinematics measured by in vitro stimulation of the cranial nerves in the turtle

動物を安楽死させた後死ぬこと彼らの組織を始めます。温血脊椎動物と比べると、カメは彼らの組織の長期生存時間のため利点を提供しています。このため、彼らのターゲットの行動の神経信号を調査する時間の延長期間のカメでの in vitro実験を実行できます。分離ヘッド準備を使用して、カメ、眼球運動の運動を測定したし、脳神経によって運ばれる電気信号によって彼らの変調。脳が頭蓋骨から削除されたり、脳神経のインスタンスはそのままにして、この切り裂かれた頭は眼球運動を調整するジンバルに置かれました。ガラス電極は、脳神経に接続されていた (眼球運動, 滑車神経, と外転)、眼球運動を喚起する電流で刺激。赤外線ビデオ システムと目の定量化された回転を追跡眼球運動を監視しました。電流パルス振幅、周波数の範囲と、電車の時間が応答に及ぼす影響を観察するために使用されました。準備は脳から切り離されているため筋ターゲットに遠心性経路を一元的に処理された感覚情報の欠如の神経シグナリングを調査する単独で調べることができます。

図 1は、解剖を説明するビデオから撮影した画像の静止画を示しています。画像は、前に切断し、脳からの神経の代表的な場所を提供します。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig1.jpg"> 図 1: 解剖のビデオからキャプチャしたイメージの (nII) 視神経、動眼神経 (nIII)、滑車神経節 (nIV) および外転神経 (nVI) の位置を表示する静止画.(A) イメージ脳、髄膜を除去した後のラベルの付いた領域を持つ。白のスケール バー = 10 mm。 (B) ショーの画像の場所新居、nIII、そしてわたし (後大脳の嗅球の除去)、中脳の右側に接続します。(C) 画像は、(中脳の除去) 後脳幹の左側に接続する nVI の場所を示しています。白破線は、神経の周りに描画されます。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版を表示するのにはここをクリックしてください</a>。
図 2瞳孔径発生後の平均の変化を示しています nIII を刺激します。外因性眼球運動もがみられるものの、瞳孔の位置を変更する、虹彩括約筋虹彩による行動の測定の信頼性を維持します。対策は 1 つ準備から、繰り返し現在刺激への応答の典型的な変動を示します。瞳孔径は 1.60 ± 1.95 ± 0.01 mm から減少を意味 0.01 mm。狭い標準偏差は、神経に電極の成功したフィットを示します。異なった準備の間で測定する場合 (N = 5)、典型的な変動は ± 0.08 mm。まだ比較的狭い値は単一の準備から、変動よりも約 8 倍です。
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig2.jpg"> 図 2: 全頭に備えて動眼神経 (nIII) の刺激によって誘発される瞳孔収縮の例。黒い跡は 1 つ準備として、六つの刺激から平均瞳孔径 (PD) と破線表示 ± 標準偏差 (SD)。X 軸上の長方形の波形は、発症と 50 μ A の振幅と 1 ms のパルスの 100 Hz 電車のオフセットを表します。左下のスケッチは、刺激前に目の虹彩の線の方向を示しています、下部に画像表示 (B) の中に (A) の前に代表的な試験からの静かなフレーム前後刺激 (C)。白のスケール バー = 1 mm。この図は、アクセス許可33で転載されています。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版を表示するのにはここをクリックしてください</a>。
瞳孔応答の対策目回転; の校正も必要ありません。しかし、外因性の動きを測定する場合準備 (図 3) の間で比較できるように、ジンバルでヘッドの配置を慎重に行う必要があります。頭に置かれた頭蓋骨の背側表面でジンバル地平線と平行、虹彩線が鼻に向かって地平線からオフセットされます。図 3 Dは、準備で典型的なオフセット (28.6 °) を示しています。3 つの異なる製剤の平均オフセットは 30.1 ± 9.0 ° だった標準偏差内のオフセットの角度は、ジンバル内許容範囲に収まることを示します。
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig3.jpg"> 図 3: 分離タートル ヘッド ジンバルに配置作成します。白い長方形の地域を (A) 機器のセットアップの写真のカメ頭の場所を示しています。白い四角形の表示 (B) 拡大鏡 (7 回)。点線の白い線は、鼻孔から瞳孔中心に画像を描画、地平線のレベルです。白の実線はスーパーイン ポーズと虹彩の線に平行です。(C) 漫画の頭の左側にあります。(D) ビデオベースの目追跡システムのカメラで撮影した眼の画像。ブラック スケール バー: B5 mmD1 mm。この図は、アクセス許可32に変更されています。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版を表示するのにはここをクリックしてください</a>。
図 4は、上斜筋に行くわたしの刺激により誘発される 10 の準備から目の平均回転数を示しています。典型的なピーク回転内方捻転、昇格、および (70 μ A、オレンジ トレースへの応答) の拉致、10.0 ± 5.7 ° 2.8 ± 1.2 ° と 3.0 ± 2.1 ° それぞれ。繰り返し刺激する単一の準備での回転とほとんど同じですより少ない可変性と大きさを測定 (例えばN = 5)、14.8 ± 1.0 ° 内方捻転、3.2 ± 0.2 ° 標高 2.4 ± 0.2 ° 外転のために。単一の準備と比較して異なる準備の間で変動のパターンは (1 つの対数の単位) に匹敵する瞳孔変化の対策のため観察する: 内方捻転の標高、11 倍の 6 倍拉致。
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig4.jpg"> 図 4: 10 準備 (6 の左側と右側にある、5 つの試験のそれぞれの測定に適用される 4 に適用) で 2 ms パルス 500 ms 100 Hz 列車と左滑車神経 (節 nIV) を刺激誘発目回転を意味します。下のプロットの x 軸に長方形の波形は、刺激のタイミングを示します。左と右の目からの応答は、互いと大幅に異なるでした。内方捻転は、標高と拉致 (カメ、その矢印要約眼球運動のコンポーネントの正面ビューの漫画を覆うを参照) を伴っていた。目の動きの振幅がわたしに適用される 7 つの電流振幅に大まかに対応 ([凡例] ボックス内のコードを参照してください)。この図は、アクセス許可32転載されています。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版を表示するのにはここをクリックしてください</a>。
わたしは、上斜筋にだけ行くと対照をなして nIII と nVI の支配する複数の筋肉の動きを解釈するが難しいので。モーター単位の募集に依存する結果として生じる眼球運動 (見なさい議論) (図 5)。その結果、準備に準備から変動は大きくなります。たとえば、nVI 内方捻転、昇格、および拉致 (図 5) を連想させます。拉致は; 外直筋の作用を促進する運動単位から可能性が高い内方捻転や標高リトラクター bulbi や瞬膜などのターゲットに行く他の運動単位代わりにあります。
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig5.jpg"> 図 5: 10、50、100、および 400 Hz 列車 4 の準備の 3 つの脳神経の刺激によって誘発される眼運動反応を意味します。刺激の列車のすべては、500 ms 期間、70 μ A、しきい値を超える値の振幅と 2 ms パルスから成る。眼球運動は、-列Cそれぞれ nIII、わたし、nVI、刺激に対する反応を示す前に表示されます。この図は、アクセス許可32転載されています。<a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/56864/56864fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">この図の拡大版を表示するのにはここをクリックしてください</a>。
NIII innervates 複数のターゲット (上直筋、下直筋、下斜, 内側直筋, と括約筋虹彩)、ので誘発運動の解析が最も複雑です。図 5 aに示す例では、ゆすり、内転、および昇格が発生します。これに基づき、合理的な解釈ことですアクション下斜から大抵内側直筋からの可能な貢献。上直筋、下直筋は互いを取り消すことがあります。NIII 可能性のアクションの高い変動、神経および電極のフィッティングのため、カットの位置の大きい分岐に由来します。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle at JoVE.com

Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

このプロトコルでは、目の動きの運動を測定するため体外に分離されたカメ頭の準備を使用する方法について説明します。頭蓋から脳を除去した後回転目と瞳孔径の変化を定量化する電流脳神経を刺激することができます。

カメの中で脳神経のIn Vitro刺激を用いて眼球運動

After animals are euthanized, their tissues begin to die. Turtles offer an advantage because of a longer survival time of their tissues, especially when ...

ocular-kinematics-measured-vitro-stimulation-cranial-nerves

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

8.4K ビュー.  Lafayette College. このプロトコルでは、目の動きの運動を測定するため体外に分離されたカメ頭の準備を使用する方法について説明します。頭蓋から脳を除去した後回転目と瞳孔径の変化を定量化する電流脳神経を刺激することができます。

ビデオ: Ocular Kinematics Measured by In Vitro Stimulation of the Cranial Nerves in the Turtle

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

TMS：脆弱X症候群と自閉症の可塑性のMechasnismを探検するシータバーストプロトコルを使用する

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

神経科学

The NeuroStar TMS Device: Conducting the FDA Approved Protocol for Treatment of Depression

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic fields. These rapidly alternating fields induce electrical currents within localized, targeted regions of the cortex which are associated with various physiological and functional brain changes.1,2,3
In 2007, O'Reardon et al., utilizing the NeuroStar device, published the results of an industry-sponsored, multisite, randomized, sham-stimulation controlled clinical trial in which 301 patients with major depression, who had previously failed to respond to at least one adequate antidepressant treatment trial, underwent either active or sham TMS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The patients, who were medication-free at the time of the study, received TMS five times per week over 4-6 weeks.4
The results demonstrated that a sub-population of patients (those who were relatively less resistant to medication, having failed not more than two good pharmacologic trials) showed a statistically significant improvement on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and various other outcome measures. In October 2008, supported by these and other similar results5,6,7, Neuronetics obtained the first and only Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the clinical treatment of a specific form of medication-refractory depression using a TMS Therapy device (FDA approval K061053).
In this paper, we will explore the specified FDA approved NeuroStar depression treatment protocol (to be administered only under prescription and by a licensed medical profession in either an in- or outpatient setting).

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the FDA approved depression treatment protocol using the Neuronetics NeuroStar TMS device.

NeuroStar TMSデバイス：うつ病の治療薬としてFDA承認されたプロトコルを実施

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

でProprioceptorsの可視化<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;幼虫および蛹

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Generation of Local CA1 &#947; Oscillations by Tetanic Stimulation

Neuronal network oscillations are important features of brain activity in health and disease and can be modulated by a range of clinically used drugs. A protocol is provided to generate a model for studying CA1 &#947; oscillations (20 - 80 Hz). These &#947; oscillations are stable for at least 30 min&#160;and depend upon excitatory and inhibitory synaptic activity in addition to activation of pacemaker currents. Tetanically stimulated oscillations have a number of reproducible and easily quantifiable characteristics including spike count, oscillation duration, latency and frequency that report upon the network state. The advantages of the electrically stimulated oscillations include stability, reproducibility and episodic acquisition enabling robust characterization of network function. This model of CA1 &#947; oscillations can be used to study cellular mechanisms and to systematically investigate how neuronal network activity is altered in disease and by drugs. Disease state pharmacology can be readily incorporated by the use of brain slices from genetically modified or interventional animal models to enable selection of drugs that specifically target disease mechanisms.

Oscillations are fundamental network properties and are modulated by disease and drugs. Studying brain-slice oscillations allows characterization of isolated networks under controlled conditions. Protocols are provided for the preparation of acute brain slices for evoking CA1 &#947; oscillations.

テタヌス刺激による局所CA1γ振動の発生

Neuronal network oscillations are important features of brain activity in health and disease and can be modulated by a range of clinically used drugs. A ...

Caspase-3 Activity in the Rat Amygdala Measured by Spectrofluorometry After Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) has dramatic mid- and long-term consequences at the physiological and behavioral levels, but the mechanisms involved are still unclear. Our laboratory has developed a rat model of post-MI syndrome that displays impaired cardiac functions, neuronal loss in the limbic system, cognitive deficits and behavioral signs of depression. At the neuronal level, caspase-3 activation mediates post-MI apoptosis in different limbic regions, such as the amygdala &#8211; peaking at 3 days post-MI. Cognitive and behavioral impairments appear 2-3 weeks post-MI and these correlate statistically with measures of caspase-3 activity. The protocol described here is used to induce MI, collect amygdala tissue and measure caspase-3 activity using spectrofluorometry. To induce MI, the descending coronary artery is occluded for 40 min. The protocol for evaluation of caspase-3 activation starts 3 days after MI: the rats are sacrificed and the amygdala isolated rapidly from the brain. Samples are quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen and kept at -80 &#176;C until actual analysis. The technique performed to assess caspase-3 activation is based on cleavage of a substrate (DEVD-AMC) by caspase-3, which releases a fluorogenic compound that can be measured by spectrofluorometry. The methodology is quantitative and reproducible but the equipment required is expensive and the procedure for quantifying the samples is time-consuming. This technique can be applied to other tissues, such as the heart and kidneys. DEVD-AMC can be replaced by other substrates to measure the activity of other caspases.

Myocardial infarction (MI) is not only followed by impaired cardiac function but also by apoptosis in the amygdala, a brain region involved in the behavioral consequences of MI. This protocol describes how to induce MI, collect amygdala tissue and measure caspase-3 activity, a marker of apoptosis, therein.

心筋梗塞後の分光分析により測定したラットの扁桃体におけるカスパーゼ-3活性

Myocardial infarction (MI) has dramatic mid- and long-term consequences at the physiological and behavioral levels, but the mechanisms involved are still ...

Utilizing Combined Methodologies to Define the Role of Plasma Membrane Delivery During Axon Branching and Neuronal Morphogenesis

During neural development, growing axons extend to multiple synaptic partners by elaborating axonal branches. Axon branching is promoted by extracellular guidance cues like netrin-1 and results in dramatic increases to the surface area of the axonal plasma membrane. Netrin-1-dependent axon branching likely involves temporal and spatial control of plasma membrane expansion, the components of which are supplied through exocytic vesicle fusion. These fusion events are preceded by formation of SNARE complexes, comprising a v-SNARE, such as VAMP2 (vesicle-associated membrane protein 2), and plasma membrane t-SNAREs, syntaxin-1 and SNAP25 (synaptosomal-associated protein 25). Detailed herein isa multi-pronged approach used to examine the role of SNARE mediated exocytosis in axon branching. The strength of the combined approach is data acquisition at a range of spatial and temporal resolutions, spanning from the dynamics of single vesicle fusion events in individual neurons to SNARE complex formation and axon branching in populations of cultured neurons. This protocol takes advantage of established biochemical approaches to assay levels of endogenous SNARE complexes and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy of cortical neurons expressing VAMP2 tagged with a pH-sensitive GFP (VAMP2-pHlourin) to identify netrin-1 dependent changes in exocytic activity in individual neurons. To elucidate the timing of netrin-1-dependent branching, time-lapse differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy of single neurons over the order of hours is utilized. Fixed cell immunofluorescence paired with botulinum neurotoxins that cleave SNARE machinery and block exocytosis demonstrates that netrin-1 dependent axon branching requires SNARE-mediated exocytic activity.

Light microscopy techniques coupled with biochemical assays elucidate the involvement of SNARE-mediated exocytosis in netrin-dependent axon branching. This combination of techniques permits identification of molecular mechanisms controlling axon branching and cell shape change.

軸索分岐と神経形態形成中に形質膜配信の役割を定義するために組み合わせる方法論を活用

During neural development, growing axons extend to multiple synaptic partners by elaborating axonal branches. Axon branching is promoted by extracellular ...

The Power of Interstimulus Interval for the Assessment of Temporal Processing in Rodents

Temporal processing deficits have been implicated as a potential elemental dimension of higher-level cognitive processes, commonly observed in neurocognitive disorders. Despite the popularization of prepulse inhibition (PPI) in recent years, many current protocols promote using a percent of control measure, thereby precluding the assessment of temporal processing. The present study used cross-modal PPI and gap prepulse inhibition (gap-PPI) to demonstrate the benefits of employing a range of interstimulus intervals (ISIs) to delineate effects of sensory modality, psychostimulant exposure, and age. Assessment of sensory modality, psychostimulant exposure, and age reveals the utility of an approach varying the interstimulus interval (ISI) to establish the shape of the ISI function, including increases (sharper curve inflections) or decreases (flattening of the response amplitude curve) in startle amplitude. Additionally, shifts in peak response inhibition, suggestive of a differential sensitivity to the manipulation of ISI, are often revealed. Thus, the systematic manipulation of ISI affords a critical opportunity to evaluate temporal processing, which may reveal the underlying neural mechanisms involved in neurocognitive disorders.

Temporal processing, a preattentive process, may underlie deficits in higher-level cognitive processes, including attention, commonly observed in neurocognitive disorders. Using prepulse inhibition as an exemplar paradigm, we present a protocol for manipulating interstimulus interval (ISI) to establish the shape of the ISI function to provide an assessment of temporal processing.

刺激間隔の齧歯動物の一時的な処理の評価のための力

Temporal processing deficits have been implicated as a potential elemental dimension of higher-level cognitive processes, commonly observed in ...

Assessing Pupil-linked Changes in Locus Coeruleus-mediated Arousal Elicited by Trigeminal Stimulation

Current scientific literature provides evidence that trigeminal sensorimotor activity associated with chewing may affect arousal, attention, and cognitive performance. These effects may be due to widespread connections of the trigeminal system to the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), to which noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC) belongs. LC neurons contain projections to the whole brain, and it is known that their discharge co-varies with pupil size. LC activation is necessary for eliciting task-related mydriasis. If chewing effects on cognitive performance are mediated by the LC, it is reasonable to expect that changes in cognitive performance are correlated to changes in task-related mydriasis. Two novel protocols are presented here to verify this hypothesis and document that chewing effects are not attributable to aspecific motor activation. In both protocols, performance and pupil size changes observed during specific tasks are recorded before, soon after, and half an hour following a 2 min period of either: a) no activity, b) rhythmic, bilateral handgrip, c) bilateral chewing of soft pellet, and d) bilateral chewing of hard pellet. The first protocol measures level of performance in spotting target numbers displayed within numeric matrices. Since pupil size recordings are recorded by an appropriate pupillometer that impedes vision to ensure constant illumination levels, task-related mydriasis is evaluated during a haptic task. Results from this protocol reveal that 1) chewing-induced changes in performance and task-related mydriasis are correlated and 2) neither performance nor mydriasis are enhanced by handgrip. In the second protocol, use of a wearable pupillometer allows measurement of pupil size changes and performance during the same task, thus allowing even stronger evidence to be obtained regarding LC involvement in the trigeminal effects on cognitive activity. Both protocols have been run in the historical office of Prof. Giuseppe Moruzzi, the discoverer of ARAS, at the University of Pisa.

To verify whether trigeminal effects on cognitive performance involve locus coeruleus activity, two protocols are presented that aim to evaluate possible correlations between the performance and task-related pupil size changes induced by chewing. These protocols may be applied to conditions in which locus coeruleus contribution is suspected.

三叉刺激によって引き起こすローカス・コエルールス媒介性覚醒における瞳孔結合変化の評価

Current scientific literature provides evidence that trigeminal sensorimotor activity associated with chewing may affect arousal, attention, and cognitive ...

Wireless Electrophysiological Recording of Neurons by Movable Tetrodes in Freely Swimming Fish

The neural mechanisms governing fish behavior remain mostly unknown, although fish constitute the majority of all vertebrates. The ability to record brain activity from freely moving fish would advance research on the neural basis of fish behavior considerably. Moreover, precise control of the recording location in the brain is critical to studying coordinated neural activity across regions in fish brain. Here, we present a technique that records wirelessly from the brain of freely swimming fish while controlling for the depth of the recording location. The system is based on a neural logger associated with a novel water-compatible implant that can adjust the recording location by microdrive-controlled tetrodes. The capabilities of the system are illustrated through recordings from the telencephalon of goldfish.

A novel wireless technique for recording extracellular neural signals from the brain of freely swimming goldfish is presented. The recording device is composed of two tetrodes, a microdrive, a neural data logger, and a waterproof case. All parts are custom-made except for the data logger and its connector.

自由に泳ぐ魚における可動テトロデスによるニューロンの無線電気生理学的記録

The neural mechanisms governing fish behavior remain mostly unknown, although fish constitute the majority of all vertebrates. The ability to record brain ...

Assessing Early Stage Open-Angle Glaucoma in Patients by Isolated-Check Visual Evoked Potential

Recently, the isolated-check visual evoked potential (icVEP) technique was designed and has been reported to detect glaucomatous damage earlier and faster. It creates low spatial frequency/high temporal frequency bright stimuli and records cortical activity initiated primarily by afferents in the magnocellular ON pathway. This pathway contains neurons with larger volumes and axonal diameters, and it is preferentially damaged in early glaucoma, which can result in visual field loss. The study presented here uses standard operative procedures (SOP) of icVEP to obtain reliable results. It can detect visual function loss using a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) corresponding to the defects of retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) in early stage open-angle glaucoma (OAG). A setting of 10 Hz and condition of 15% positive-contrast (bright) are selected to differentiate OAG patients and control subjects, with each check containing eight runs. Each run persists for 2 s (for 20 total cycles). A flowchart is constructed, which consists of pupil size and intraocular pressure over a 30 min rest period before each examination. Additionally, the testing order of eyes is performed to obtain reliable electroencephalographic signals. VEPs are recorded and analyzed automatically by software, and SNRs are derived based on a multivariate statistic. An SNR of &#8804; 1 is considered abnormal. A receiver-operating-characteristic (ROC) curve is applied to analyze the accuracy of group classification. Then, the SOP is applied in a cross-sectional study, showing that icVEP can detect glaucomatous visual function abnormality in the central visual field in the form of SNR. This value also correlates with the thickness thinning of RNFL and produces high classification accuracy for early stage OAG. Thus, it serves as a useful and objective diagnostic technology for the early detection of glaucoma.

The isolated-check visual evoked potential (icVEP) method is implemented here to assess the magnocellular ON pathway that is initially damaged in glaucoma. The study shows standard operative procedures using icVEP to obtain reliable results. It is proved to serve as a useful objective diagnosing technology for the early detection of glaucoma.

孤立チェック視覚誘発電位による患者における早期オープンアングル緑内障の評価

Recently, the isolated-check visual evoked potential (icVEP) technique was designed and has been reported to detect glaucomatous damage earlier and ...