作者没有确认。

注意:有两个有毒化学品，甲醇和乙二醇，在这些实验中使用。甲醇可以在人体内被代谢以产生甲醛，然后向甲酸或甲酸盐。这些物质是有毒的中枢神经系统，甚至可能导致死亡。乙二醇可被氧化成乙醇酸，然后可以变成草酸。这可能会导致肾功能衰竭而死亡。不要喝这些化学物质。立即咨询医生，如果发生事故。 1.冷却系统注意:这是非常困难的，以保持盐水在-18℃左右，当环境温度是大约在室温下。重要的是存储乙二醇和盐水罐是公绝缘的合理大小的和，以避免多余的电力消耗，以确保最佳的系统性能。它建议在罐的大小不超过30 L。 <ol><li> 准备二次冷却液 <ol><li>倒入1升乙二醇进入二次冷却罐，罐A（基数:400毫米×200毫米，高度:350毫米）。水约0.6-0.65 L（600-650 G）添加到油箱A. </li><li>重复步骤1.1.1几次，直到有坦克A（25L）足够的液体。 </li><li>搅拌流体，使该流体是均匀的。 </li><li>开关在箱体A两个泵的全容量设置（2,500升/小时）。确保被困在换热器所有的泡沫和管道被释放。 </li><li>关掉泵，以观察是否所有气泡被释放。如果没有，重复步骤1.1.4。 </li></ol></li><li> 盐水的制备 注意:在这个例子中，22％（重量）的盐水中制备。如果需要其他浓度，补充盐分的质量也应该相应改变。参考盐水的浓度和密度值可以在页D-257的第64 个版本（1983年）中找到化学与物理 46 电子CRC手册 。 <ol><li>加入4公斤的水倒入5升的塑料烧杯中。 </li><li>测量电子秤1公斤氯化钠盐，倒入这种盐与水的烧杯中。 </li><li>搅拌混合物直至溶液澄清（ 即，不存在盐粒子或水中的气泡在溶液中可见）。 </li><li>取一个样品，〜10毫升，用10毫升的注射器的溶液。 </li><li>注入流体进入U型管密度计。 </li><li>检查在管气泡。如果有任何，注入更多的流体推他们出去。 </li><li>按"快速设置"，然后选择"密度温度。" Type在20°C，按"确定"。密度计现在将测量在该温度下的流体密度。 </li><li>按下启动并等待结果。 </li><li>密度读数与1164.00千克/ m 3的比较。 </li><li>添加更多的盐，如果读的是下面的试比较氮密度。否则加水。 </li><li>重复步骤1.2.3-1.2.10直到流体密度是正确的（1164.00公斤/米3）。 </li><li>倾该溶液成一个较大的容器中，容器A. </li><li>使用步骤1.2.1-1.2.12，使35-40大号盐水，并把容器成冷柜在-40°C。保持盐水有48-72小时，直到温度达到-19.18°C（冻结这22重量％的盐水点）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.冰的注射和洗水的制备<ol><li> 准备冰为水注入 <ol><li>倒入1升水到一个小容器（200×200×50毫米）。 </li><li>重复步骤2.1.1与另一容器，并放置在冷柜的两个容器在-40℃。 </li><li>保持它们在冷冻10小时或更多，以确保所有的水被冻结。 </li></ol></li><li> 准备洗涤水的冰壳 <ol><li>填有5升烧杯中以5升的水。 </li><li>补的2L烧杯用2L的水。 </li><li>放置两个烧杯放入卧式冷冻在-40℃下为8-10 h后，周围有未冻水冰包裹的厚壳。 </li><li>在3-5米/秒的速度从水龙头使用高速水射流在冰壳的顶部打开一个3厘米直径的孔。 </li><li>沥干水冰壳里面。 </li><li>把两个烧杯放回冷冻。 </li><li>如果冰壳的质量没有达到3公斤和1公斤的两个烧杯，分别重复步骤2.2.1-2.2.5，但在步骤2.2.3保持烧杯在冷冻更长。两个烧杯现在应该能够以包含2 L和1L水，分别</li></ol></li></ol> 3.水简介地位和流变控制实验<ol><li> 在卤水表面水介绍 <ol><li>从容器中倒出2升22％（重量）的冷盐水进入冰淇淋机和开关冷却装置上的铝桶。 </li><li>测量用温度计/热电偶盐水的温度（无论是K型或T型是合适的）。在实验进行，如果盐水是-15℃或更低。 </li><li>在室温下填充用自来水100ml的玻璃注射器。附上一个2毫米内径，1毫米厚，和1米长的硅胶管与注射器的前端。 </li><li>放置注射器在特定的位置，使得在注射器中的水和硅氧烷管的出口之间的头部。静水压力将挤压出来的水管。 </li><li>淹没硅胶管的一定的长度，通常为70厘米，进入盐水洗涤。 </li><li>调节注射器和管出口之间的相对位置，使得流体静压足够大以允许水离开注射器。如果管被堵塞，通过提高注射器向更高的垂直位置，UNT增加头部IL静水压力能够克服所述管内的剪切应力。 </li><li>保持管出口大致为1cm以下的盐水表面上方。 </li><li>调节浸没管的长度和注射器高度，以控制水的出口让温度，以便确定多少冰能够制造或者多少混合在盐水表面发生流速。冻结现象应现在盐水表面进行观察。请参见参考45进一步的方向。 </li></ol></li><li> 通过盐水引入水 <ol><li>重复步骤3.1.1-3.1.6。 </li><li>保持管出口处的盐水内，优选在容器的底部。 </li><li>调节浸没管的长度和注射器的高度。 </li><li>调整管出口的角度，以控制流的流变性。 </li><li>重复步骤3.2.3-3.2.4找到最好耦合流动流变和流动，可以产生最冰速率。 </li></ol></li></ol><ol><li> 制冰 <ol><li>如果有在管道中的气泡，打开箱A内的两个泵以释放气泡出乙二醇循环系统，然后关掉泵。 </li><li>开关上的三个制冷机组，并让他们运行10-16小时，以降温乙二醇溶液。 </li><li>测量用温度计/热电偶的乙二醇溶液。乙二醇的温度应在约-25℃。 </li><li>测量在容器A中的盐水的温度，以确保它是在-19℃进到步骤4.1.5之前。 </li><li>填写卤水罐，罐B，从容器中大约30升盐水和交换机上的坦克A.两个泵</li><li>测量罐A中的乙二醇如果温度低于-19℃的温度，关闭一个或多个冷却单元，以防止冰粒子的析出的热交换器外我Ñ罐B.如果温度高于预期盐水温度高，打开所有的三个冷却单元。开展在-17℃至-19℃的实验。 </li><li>放置冰从步骤2.1在两个预制块到绝缘5升的烧杯中，容器B和倒大致3升的水进入烧杯中。 </li><li>测量水的温度和由如果温度上升实验之间搅拌该混合物保持在2℃。 </li><li>填用100mL的2℃水的玻璃注射器。 </li><li>申请5-10毫升甲醇中，罐B的玻璃窗口以停止缩合和冰的形成。 </li><li>通过调节注射器和管的出口之间的相对位置，以便有一个恒定的静水压力，因此以恒定流速注入水进入盐水洗涤。约70厘米硅胶管，应在盐水被淹没。调整喷射的角度为0°，使得在向上可怕的初始水流速度ction为0米/秒。 注:注射器可以是手持或夹持到一个支架上。当盐水温度是较冷的，因为它需要更多的时间进行调整的支架，和冰可能堵塞管子手持是比较合适的。保持流动流变通过确保以恒定的流速和喷射角（0°）和通过保持冻结前沿的管出口上方大致3厘米整个实验一致。不要让流进它开始转向动荡47的区域。请参见参考45进一步的方向。 </li><li>如步骤4.2和4.3描述收集冰块。在不同温度下的盐水4.1.11 - 重复步骤4.1.8。 </li></ol></li><li> 收集制作冰块和估计有多少冰生产（干集合） <ol><li>通过按比例把一个容器（200×200×50毫米）和零读数的"打开"按钮。 </li><li>使用筛舀出冰抖落盐水。 </li><li>把这个冰在容器中。测量用的刻度冰的质量。 </li><li>冰融化后，用10毫升的注射器取样品。注射液这个样品放入密度计。 </li><li>执行步骤1.2.6-1.2.9。 </li><li>记录密度读数。 </li><li>从其密度计算净水的质量（ 即，水转化成冰的质量）使用下面的公式: <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014eq1.jpg" /> 哪里<img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014eq2.jpg" />是由重量％的盐水的浓度和<img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014eq3.jpg" />和<img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014eq4.jpg" />分别是盐和水，群众。 </li></ol></li><li> 收集制作冰块和估计有多少冰产生（湿集合） <ol><li>填用冰壳（步骤2中的5升烧杯中。2）和室温的自来水。把它放回冷冻在-40°C。 </li><li>倒出从5升烧杯中的冰壳的水倒入2升烧杯中，当它的温度在0℃。填补了5升烧杯中。保留两个烧杯在冷冻。 </li><li>舀出在步骤4.1.8和4.1.9中产生的冰和倾200-500毫升从2升烧杯中的水到冰清洗。应用0℃的水之前，不要摇动筛。 </li><li>抖落在筛中的流体。 </li><li>重复步骤4.2.2-4.2.7。 </li></ol></li></ol>

<ol>
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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turbulent+heat+transfer+inside+tubes+and+the+analogy+among+heat,+mass,+and+momentum+transfer.">Turbulent heat transfer inside tubes and the analogy among heat, mass, and momentum transfer.</a> AIChE J. 4, 393-402 (1958).</li><li>Bejan, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constructal-theory+network+of+conducting+paths+for+cooling+a+heat+generating+volume.">Constructal-theory network of conducting paths for cooling a heat generating volume.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 40, 799-816 (1997).</li><li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constructal+theory+of+generation+of+configuration+in+nature+and+engineering.">Constructal theory of generation of configuration in nature and engineering.</a> J. Appl. Phys. 100, 041301 (2006).</li><li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S., Yilbas, B. S., Sahin, A. Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Why+solidification+has+an+S-shaped+history.">Why solidification has an S-shaped history.</a> Sci. Rep. 3, 1711 (2013).</li><li>Lake, R. A., Lewis, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salt+rejection+by+sea+ice+during+growth.">Salt rejection by sea ice during growth.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 75, 583-597 (1970).</li><li>Wettlaufer, J. S., Worster, M. G., Huppert, H. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+convection+during+solidification+of+an+alloy+from+above+with+application+to+the+evolution+of+sea+ice.">Natural convection during solidification of an alloy from above with application to the evolution of sea ice.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 344, 291-316 (1997).</li><li>Paige, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stalactite+Growth+beneath+Sea+Ice.">Stalactite Growth beneath Sea Ice.</a> Science. 167, 171-172 (1970).</li><li>Dayton, P. K., Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observations+of+ice+stalactites+in+McMurdo+Sound,+Antarctica.">Observations of ice stalactites in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 76, 1595-1599 (1971).</li><li>Eide, L. I., Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+formation+of+brine+drainage+features+in+young+sea+ice.">The formation of brine drainage features in young sea ice.</a> J. Glaciol. 14, 137-154 (1975).</li><li>Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+stalactites:+comparison+of+a+laminar+flow+theory+with+experiment.">Ice stalactites: comparison of a laminar flow theory with experiment.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 63, 51-79 (1974).</li><li>Jeffs, K., Attenborough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Frozen Planet: Episode 5 'Winter'. , (2011).</li><li>Fothergill, A., Berlowitz, V., Attenborough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+Winter:+Life+closes+down.">Ch. Winter: Life closes down.</a> in Frozen Planet: A World Beyond Imagination. , (2011).</li><li>Yun, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+formation+in+the+subcooled+brine+environment.">Ice formation in the subcooled brine environment.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 95, 198-205 (2016).</li><li>Weast, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 64, 257-258 (1983).</li><li>Bejan, A., Lage, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Prandtl+Number+Effect+on+the+Transition+in+Natural+Convection+Along+a+Vertical+Surface.">The Prandtl Number Effect on the Transition in Natural Convection Along a Vertical Surface.</a> J. Heat Transfer. 112, 787-790 (1990).</li></ol>

作者什么都没有透露。

用盐水作为二次制冷剂冰生成的过程涉及的热与质量传递的组合。当热传递较大，则水之前冰形成具有与散装流体混合的机会。据观察，当存在引入的水和静止本体盐水之间的相对运动（即盐水内注入水）时，流程有助于传热，并鼓励冰以形成迅速。然而，当存在太多的湍流中的流动，可以产生没有冰。这种技术的最大限制是盐水的混合和稀释。盐水量将继续作为进程继续上升。因此，使得冰时这种方法，要意识到的上升盐水体积和滴盐水盐度的是重要的。此外，有人指出，如果没有收集所生成的冰，它会熔化。这可能是因为盐水是不在其熔化温度，从而允许热和形成的冰和散装流体之间的质量传递。的热与质量传递的方式是通过只扩散，和熔化的速度是缓慢的。然而，由于冰盐水表面上漂浮，来自周围环境的附加热量侵入提高冰融化的速率。由于这个原因，所产生的冰应迅速一旦被产生，以避免在盐水的体积进一步增加收集。 减少稀释或分离水和盐目前正在在我们的实验室研究。一项所述的许多思想是将注入的水重新引入到另一管是直径较大，使得水将只暴露于散装流体为很短的时间内，减少在二次制冷剂的量的变化。当水被暴露于盐水洗涤，随后在更大的管中的冰的生长的完成将发生冰核。通过加入这种固体表面，所产生的冰的堆积盐度是可控的。<html>例如，如果需要在冰较低盐含量，可以向流体在二级管添加更多的"甜水"。该二次管的浸入长度可以容易地改变，这取决于产品所需的冰级分。 流动流变学对接触的表面积和在散装流体流动的面积 - 体积比的显著影响。我们的观察表明，接触的较大面积是鼓励更多的冰，以形成更有利的。接触的面积增加也应提高质量传递，但是还没有在所研究的盐水的温度和浓度范围内被观察到。看来，流进入过渡区，在动荡，流量分离开始发生之前，冰将永远被创建。如果流分离和大湍流存在，水分子的每个簇都需要自己的成核点，和冰可能无法在这些情况下形成。 "&gt;盐水温度和水到冰的转化率之间的关系是线性的，而在恒定盐水浓度。该转换比与盐水温度最佳拟合线的偏移表明盐水浓度也起着重要的作用冰形成/水稀释过程。由于相变，该边界条件是在常规热和质量传递类比研究非常不同的，因此，那些类比不足以用于说明这种情况。 这项研究还表明，由于该冷冻前沿可以被固定到从所述管的出口处的相对稳定的距离，则流程可以达到一个稳定状态。这表明，这种现象可以被用作冰生产行业一个可靠的新机制，因为高得多的蒸发器温度和COP预期相比于现有制冰技术。

<html>冰浆在工业中广泛使用，并且一种特别成功的应用是冰清管技术1，2。相比于常规的泡沫和固体猪，冰猪可以在很长的距离，通过复杂的拓扑行进的，因为液相的润滑效果和它的凝固点的，因为一些冰晶融化3，4，5的高度。即使猪被卡住，可以简单地等待冰浆熔化并在稍后继续清洁过程。管道清洗的这种方法是便宜的，并易于使用。 冰馏分起着冰猪的性能起关键作用。为了测量冰分数，可以使用一个壶煮（法国媒体），以确定是否冰浆是足够厚6，"&gt; 7，一个高的壶煮冰馏分，通常为80％时，进行冰清管时需要。网上冰分数检测最近的研究表明，电磁和超声波适于作业8，9，10，11。 冰猪通常是由一个刮面制冰机从5％（重量）NaCl溶液（盐水）制成。它也是在工业制造冰浆的主要方式。这种类型的制冰机的冻结水或盐水在冷金属表面，通常是光滑的316不锈钢表面，然后循环剪冰粒关闭。液体-金属界面是非常复杂的，并通过广泛的那些对制冰12基本因素的影响。非金属和水之间的接口是非常不同的，一个特别有趣的例子是高岭石。该Kaolinite -水界面是特殊的，因为没有一个有利的冰结构邻近于固体表面，而是鼓励冰状氢键团簇形成在它的13顶，14两性基底流体的层。制作冰猪的另一种方式，而需要高浓度盐水同时加入粉碎预制冰块。对于此方法，所述制冷系统能以高得多的蒸发温度运行，因为没有降凝剂（FPD）之前被冰的形成增加;它因此认为更有效的，由于对于给定的冷却负荷15，16，17中的降低压缩率和减少功耗。 还有另外两个冰制作方法:从生产过冷的水冰，并把制冷剂与水直接接触<sup类="外部参照"&gt; 18，19。过冷方法涉及干扰亚稳定过冷水以产生冰核和生长。这种方法的最大的问题是不希望的冰的形成，可以阻止该系统。因为制冷剂也不润滑油无论是在最终产品的冰都希望直接接触的方法被认为不适合冰清管。 冰的形成需要的热与质量传递由于在过程中产生的熔化潜热。它首先是由Osborn的雷诺兹发现在1874年该热质在气体中的运输是强耦合，并且可以在类似的数学式20来表示。这项工作形成声势，热和质量的流体传递的主题开拓纸和被转载多次21,22。这个题目，然后通过一个研究他人的数目，从既分析和经验方法，对气体，液体，熔融金属23，24，25，26，27，28，29，30，31，32，33。除了热与质量传递，流体需要成核位点，其中树枝状冰增长可以开发。一个现代的洞察冰晶的生长采用构形法，由Adrian Bejan开发，解释为什么冰生长在这种方式34，35，36。 冰的形成在盐水不同于在纯水中非常不同，由于盐的存在。首先，<html>盐变化的流体的热力学和按压其冰点。其次，盐可以不溶解在冰基质（除hydrohalite，当温度达到共晶点，这只能形成），并且当冰开始增长它被拒绝到散装流体。盐的排斥海冰和冰都在实验室中37，38研究发现。由于拒绝高浓度盐水的温度大大低于海水的冰点，因为它下降时，冰生长在流动盐水和静态散装流体之间的界面。这些冰的钟乳石，也叫brinicles，在麦克默多海峡，南极洲被首次发现并进行了实验39，40，41，42研究。 2011年，BBC摄制的冰冻星球系列brinicles形成"外部参照"&gt; 43，44。 在我们的实验室中，人们发现，通过反转时水被引入到冷盐水浴中流动的静止流体，水可以转变成冰的正确条件45下。结果发现，其中，被引入的水的位置，流动流变学，和盐水洗涤温度和浓度是影响多少冰如何可以产生的所有的关键因素。本研究的总体目标是调查，如果一个制冰机可以通过这一机制被开发，以产生冰浆，考虑到提高的蒸发器的温度和液体到液体传热的高速率可以提高能源的使用效率。本文股份实验的关键方面。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>DMA 4500 M</td>
			<td>Anton Paar</td>
			<td>81546022</td>
			<td>Density Metre</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GELATO Chef 2200</td>
			<td>magimix</td>
			<td>0036500504R13</td>
			<td>Ice Cream Maker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>280D</td>
			<td>FREEZE MASTER</td>
			<td>241-1441</td>
			<td>Pipe Freezer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M17.5X2</td>
			<td>BLUE ICE MACHINES</td>
			<td>GK924</td>
			<td>Slushy Puppy Machine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HH68K</td>
			<td>OMEGA</td>
			<td>140045</td>
			<td>Thermometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OHAUS</td>
			<td>TS4KW</td>
			<td>1324</td>
			<td>Scale</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZFC321WA/BNI225</td>
			<td>ZANUSSI</td>
			<td>920672574-00</td>
			<td>Freezer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EIS Heater Matrix</td>
			<td>Vauxhall</td>
			<td>214720041</td>
			<td>Heat Exchanger</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2500LPH</td>
			<td>JBA</td>
			<td>AP-2500</td>
			<td>Pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe</td>
			<td>FORTUNA Optima</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OAT concentrated coolant</td>
			<td>wilko</td>
			<td>P30409014</td>
			<td>Ethylene Glycol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pure dried vacuum salt</td>
			<td>INEOS Enterprise</td>
			<td>1433324</td>
			<td>NaCl Salt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methylated Spirits</td>
			<td>Barrettine</td>
			<td>1170</td>
			<td>Methanol&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine

我们证明用于在过冷盐水环境中的热与质量传递的冷冻现象和研究的方法。我们的试验表明，在适当的条件下，可以在水被引入到冷盐水浴来制造冰。以制造冰的形式，除了具有盐水和水混合，传热的速率必须绕过传质。当在微小液滴的盐水表面的形式被引入的水，热和质量传递的方式是通过扩散。浮力从下方与盐水混合停止水，但随着冰成长厚，它减慢传热率，使得冰更难以成长的结果。当在流动的形式盐水内引入水，许多因素被发现影响多少冰能形成。盐水洗涤温度和浓度，它们的热与质量传递的驱动力，分别可影响水 - 冰转换拉提O;低浴温及盐水浓度鼓励更多的冰形成。流动流变性，它可以直接影响同时传热和传质系数，也是一个关键的因素。此外，流动流变学变化与散装流体的流动的接触面积。

图1比较的水在盐水表面水通过盐水注入引入的影响。在"冰盖"的情况下，形成的冰是固体，因为水不与散装流体混合得多。两种流体之间的温度和密度差异对水产生浮力，防止它们混合。两种流体是静态的（ 即，该传热比质量大得多;钪≈500，镨≈10，以及乐≈50），因此，冰能形成容易。既没有形成在这个实验糊状层也不盐排斥。一旦冰成长厚，它会阻碍热传递的速率，由于其低导热性，影响冰的形成速率。在这一点上，可以清楚地观察到，引入了"甜水"不再能够及时冻结成固体。此外，在没有对流，低热表面盐水本身l的电导率也阻碍了潜热从冷水槽的运输。的冰形成的速度直接与相关联，并且以盐水温度非常敏感。例如，在-15℃盐水洗涤水结冰比-13℃盐水快得多。在水喷射的情况下，冰的形状和大小是相关于流动流变性。在图1所示的冰的杆具有两个独特的部分:直链头后跟一个卷曲的尾巴。卷曲部形成更接近盐水表面，其中该流具有更多湍流给它。卷曲尾巴通常比因为紊流的发病，最大限度地减少热与质量传递速率之间的差的直头薄得多，特别是在流，其中所述热量和质量传输是相同的外层。因此，只有内芯可以冻结成冰块。如果管出口保持水平而不是垂直向上，冰WIL的片材生成湖冰的生成变得更加稳定，其结果是可重复的。最后，我们发现降低流速是不消除混合的有效方法。相反，它显著增加阻塞该管的可能性。 进行水到冰的转化率测量时，水喷射角被保持在0℃于水平轴。盐水洗涤温度和浓度的影响在图2中示出。转换率通常在0.4到0.9报考研究盐水温度和浓度。重要的是要保持冰的形成前沿恒定的流量流变性和位置在整个实验是重要的。大体积在箱体B盐水有助于减少对测量局部热梯度的影响。盐水温度和转化率之间的关系是对所研究的温度响第一阶即对于最佳拟合线的系数列于表1。如果使用不同的喷射角，水到冰转化率将不再按照下列关系，因为接触，因此面积，热和质量传递的速率是不同的。当收集冰中，保持施加到抖落盐水/洗涤水相一致，并尽量减少的水留在筛上的量的力是非常重要的。相似量的用于洗掉盐水应适用于避免不一致的结果。结果发现，如果超过500毫升水用于洗涤冰，任何进一步的盐度减少是不太可能发生。当体积低于200毫升，盐度可以高达4％（重量）。 由于蒸发器的温度高于一个刮面制冰机，它通常采用-40℃，如果这种方法用于生产冰高得多，较高的COP预计根据我们在图3中的计算。如果例如，蒸发器温度上升至-20℃，缔约方会议几乎可以使制冷剂R134A达到3。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig1.jpg" /> 图1:水介入位置。当在盐水表面引入的水的"冰冠"能形成。冰形式一根杆，当管出口保持直立。当水在盐水注入，冰的形状取决于流动流变性。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig2.jpg" /> 图2:在一个最佳拟合线不同浓度的盐水转化率比较。这两个布林È温度和浓度的影响多少水可冻成冰（转化率）时的流速和流变性被保持不变。转化率与盐水温度降低线性增加。在较低浴温盐水较低浓度产生更多的冰。洗涤方法收集较干收集方法更多的冰。 <a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图3" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig3.jpg" /> 图3:在不同的蒸发器的温度为一系列冷却剂的性能系数。较高的蒸发器温度青睐的性能（COP）的冷却系统的系数。这两个过渡性制冷剂（R22和R134A）具有比已经禁止R502和混合物（R404A和R507A）的COP。<a href="https://ecsource-jove-com.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td>盐浓度（重量％） </td><td colspan="2">收集干</td><td colspan="2">湿集合</td></tr><tr><td></td><td> P1 </td><td> P2 </td><td> P1 </td><td> P2 </td></tr><tr><td> 23.3 </td><td> -0.09909 </td><td> -1.34 </td><td> -0.1196 </td><td> -1.439 </td></tr><tr><td> 22 </td><td> -0.1204 </td><td> -1.633 </td><td> -0.1439 </td><td> -1.839 </td></tr><tr><td> 21 </td><td> -0.1261 </td><td> -1.682 </td><td> -0.1545 </td><td> -1.98 </td></tr></tbody></table> 表1: 系数FOr处的最佳拟合线的转换比与盐水温度图。转化率线性地根据下式与盐水温度相关: <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55014/55014eq5.jpg" /> 。无论干法和湿法收集方法在这里列出。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine at JoVE.com

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

在这里，我们提出了一个协议，当水被引入到盐水的冷浴，作为二次制冷剂，在一定温度范围内大大低于水的凝固点以证明冰的生成。它可以用作制造用于工业冰的另一种方法。

冰生成和传热传质现象将水引入到盐水冷水浴

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

ice-generation-heat-mass-transfer-phenomena-introducing-water-to-cold

Nanyang Technological University

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Physics

Engineering

Unit 1

Temperature and Heat

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

13.8K 次观看.  University of Bristol. 在这里，我们提出了一个协议，当水被引入到盐水的冷浴，作为二次制冷剂，在一定温度范围内大大低于水的凝固点以证明冰的生成。它可以用作制造用于工业冰的另一种方法。 

视频: Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Controlling the Size, Shape and Stability of Supramolecular Polymers in Water

For aqueous based supramolecular polymers, the simultaneous control over shape, size and stability is very difficult1. At the same time, the ability to do so is highly important in view of a number of applications in functional soft matter including electronics, biomedical engineering, and sensors. In the past, successful strategies to control the size and shape of supramolecular polymers typically focused on the use of templates2,3, end cappers4 or selective solvent techniques5. 
Here we disclose a strategy based on self-assembling discotic amphiphiles that leads to the control over stack length and shape of ordered, chiral columnar aggregates. By balancing electrostatic repulsive interactions on the hydrophilic rim and attractive non-covalent forces within the hydrophobic core of the polymerizing building block, we manage to create small and discrete spherical objects6,7. Increasing the salt concentration to screen the charges induces a sphere-to-rod transition. Intriguingly, this transition is expressed in an increase of cooperativity in the temperature-dependent self-assembly mechanism, and more stable aggregates are obtained. 
For our study we select a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) core connected to a hydrophilic metal chelate via a hydrophobic, fluorinated L-phenylalanine based spacer (Scheme 1). The metal chelate selected is a Gd(III)-DTPA complex that contains two overall remaining charges per complex and necessarily two counter ions. The one-dimensional growth of the aggregate is directed by &pi;-&pi; stacking and intermolecular hydrogen bonding. However, the electrostatic, repulsive forces that arise from the charges on the Gd(III)-DTPA complex start limiting the one-dimensional growth of the BTA-based discotic once a certain size is reached. At millimolar concentrations the formed aggregate has a spherical shape and a diameter of around 5 nm as inferred from 1H-NMR spectroscopy, small angle X-ray scattering, and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). The strength of the electrostatic repulsive interactions between molecules can be reduced by increasing the salt concentration of the buffered solutions. This screening of the charges induces a transition from spherical aggregates into elongated rods with a length &gt; 25 nm. Cryo-TEM allows to visualise the changes in shape and size. In addition, CD spectroscopy permits to derive the mechanistic details of the self-assembly processes before and after the addition of salt. Importantly, the cooperativity -a key feature that dictates the physical properties of the produced supramolecular polymers- increases dramatically upon screening the electrostatic interactions. This increase in cooperativity results in a significant increase in the molecular weight of the formed supramolecular polymers in water.

The goal of this experiment is to determine and control the size, shape and stability of self-assembled discotic amphiphiles in water. For aqueous based supramolecular polymers such level of control is very difficult. We apply a strategy using both repulsive and attractive interactions. The experimental techniques applied to characterize this system are broadly applicable.

控制的大小，形状和稳定性超分子聚合物在水

For aqueous based supramolecular polymers, the simultaneous control over shape, size and stability is very difficult1. At the same time, the ability to do ...

科研

工程学

The Preparation of Electrohydrodynamic Bridges from Polar Dielectric Liquids

Horizontal and vertical liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields (8-20 kV/cm) and polar dielectric liquids. These bridges are unique from capillary bridges in that they exhibit extensibility beyond a few millimeters, have complex bi-directional mass transfer patterns, and emit non-Planck infrared radiation. A number of common solvents can form such bridges as well as low conductivity solutions and colloidal suspensions. The macroscopic behavior is governed by electrohydrodynamics and provides a means of studying fluid flow phenomena without the presence of rigid walls. Prior to the onset of a liquid bridge several important phenomena can be observed including advancing meniscus height (electrowetting), bulk fluid circulation (the Sumoto effect), and the ejection of charged droplets (electrospray). The interaction between surface, polarization, and displacement forces can be directly examined by varying applied voltage and bridge length. The electric field, assisted by gravity, stabilizes the liquid bridge against Rayleigh-Plateau instabilities. Construction of basic apparatus for both vertical and horizontal orientation along with operational examples, including thermographic images, for three liquids (e.g., water, DMSO, and glycerol) is presented.

Horizontal and vertical electrohydrodynamic liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields and polar dielectric liquids. The construction of basic apparatus and operational examples, including thermographic images, for three liquids (e.g., water, DMSO, and glycerol) is presented.

高压直流电桥从极地介电液的制备

Horizontal and vertical liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields (8-20 kV/cm) and ...

A Robotic Platform to Study the Foreflipper of the California Sea Lion

The California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), is an agile and powerful swimmer. Unlike many successful swimmers (dolphins, tuna), they generate most of their thrust with their large foreflippers. This protocol describes a robotic platform designed to study the hydrodynamic performance of the swimming California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). The robot is a model of the animal&#39;s foreflipper that is actuated by motors to replicate the motion of its propulsive stroke (the &#39;clap&#39;). The kinematics of the sea lion&#39;s propulsive stroke are extracted from video data of unmarked, non-research sea lions at the Smithsonian Zoological Park (SNZ). Those data form the basis of the actuation motion of the robotic flipper presented here. The geometry of the robotic flipper is based a on high-resolution laser scan of a foreflipper of an adult female sea lion, scaled to about 60% of the full-scale flipper. The articulated model has three joints, mimicking the elbow, wrist and knuckle joint of the sea lion foreflipper. The robotic platform matches dynamics properties&#8212;Reynolds number and tip speed&#8212;of the animal when accelerating from rest. The robotic flipper can be used to determine the performance (forces and torques) and resulting flowfields.

A robotic platform is described that will be used to study the hydrodynamic performance&#8212;forces and flowfields&#8212;of the swimming California sea lion. The robot is a model of the animal&#39;s foreflipper that is actuated by motors to replicate the motion of its propulsive stroke (the &#39;clap&#39;).

机器人平台研究加州海狮的Foreflipper

The California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), is an agile and powerful swimmer. Unlike many successful swimmers (dolphins, tuna), they generate most ...

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

在圆柱面池沸腾传热强化与混合可湿性模式

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Detecting the Water-soluble Chloride Distribution of Cement Paste in a High-precision Way

To improve the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth of cement paste under cyclic wet-dry conditions, a new method is proposed to obtain a high-precision chloride profile. Firstly, paste specimens are molded, cured, and exposed to cyclic wet-dry conditions. Then, powder samples at different specimen depths are grinded when the exposure age is reached. Finally, the water-soluble chloride content is detected using a silver nitrate titration method, and chloride profiles are plotted. The key to improving the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth is to exclude the error in the powderization, which is the most critical step for testing the distribution of chloride. Based on the above concept, the grinding method in this protocol can be used to grind powder samples automatically layer by layer from the surface inward, and it should be noted that a very thin grinding thickness (less than 0.5 mm) with a minimum error less than 0.04 mm can be obtained. The chloride profile obtained by this method better reflects the chloride distribution in specimens, which helps researchers to capture the distribution features that are often overlooked. Furthermore, this method can be applied to studies in the field of cement-based materials, which require high chloride distribution accuracy.

A protocol for obtaining a water-soluble chloride profile by using a high precision milling method is presented.

高精度水泥浆水溶氯分布的检测

To improve the accuracy of the chloride distribution along the depth of cement paste under cyclic wet-dry conditions, a new method is proposed to obtain a ...

Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer coefficient as a function of the liquid flow rate in a transparent pipe. With certain amendments, the approach is extended to gas-liquid flows, with a particular emphasis on the effect of a single elongated (Taylor) air bubble on heat transfer enhancement. A non-invasive thermography technique is applied to measure the instantaneous temperature of a thin metal foil heated electrically. The foil is glued to cover a narrow slot cut in the pipe. The thermal inertia of the foil is small enough to detect the variation in the instantaneous foil temperature. The test section can be moved along the pipe and is long enough to cover a considerable part of the growing thermal boundary layer.
At the beginning of each experimental run, a steady state with a constant water flow rate and heat flux to the foil is attained and serves as the reference. The Taylor bubble is then injected into the pipe. The heat transfer coefficient variations due to the passage of a Taylor bubble propagating in a vertical pipe is measured as function of the distance of the measuring point from the bottom of the moving Taylor bubble. Thus, the results represent the local heat transfer coefficients. Multiple independent runs preformed under identical conditions allow accumulating sufficient data to calculate reliable ensemble-averaged results on the transient convective heat transfer. In order to perform this in a frame of reference moving with the bubble, the location of the bubble along the pipe has to be known at all times. Detailed description of measurements of the length and of the translational velocity of the Taylor bubbles by optical probes is presented.

This manuscript describes methods aimed at measuring the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients in a single or two-phase pipe flow. A simple optical method to determine the length and the propagation velocity of an elongated (Taylor) air bubble moving at a constant velocity is also presented.

管道单、两相流局部瞬时对流换热的测量

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer ...

Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that characterize the transport phenomena in a rotating channel are identified via the parametric analysis of the momentum and energy equations referring to a rotating frame of reference. Based on these dimensionless flow equations, an experimental strategy that links the design of the test module, the experimental program and the data analysis is formulated with the attempt to reveal the isolated Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on heat transfer performances. The effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy are illustrated using the selective results measured from rotating channels with various geometries. While the Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy impacts share several common features among the various rotating channels, the unique heat transfer signatures are found in association with the flow direction, the channel shape and the arrangement of heat transfer enhancement devices. Regardless of the flow configurations of the rotating channels, the presented experimental method enables the development of physically consistent heat transfer correlations that permit the evaluation of isolated and interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of rotating channels.

Here, we present an experimental method for decoupling the interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer distributions of a rotating channel.

解耦科里奥利力和旋转浮力对旋转通道全场传热性能的影响

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that ...

Design and Fabrication of an Optical Fiber Made of Water

In this report, an optical fiber of which the core is made solely of water, while the cladding is air, is designed and manufactured. In contrast with solid-cladding devices, capillary oscillations are not restricted, allowing the fiber walls to move and vibrate. The fiber is constructed by a high direct current (DC) voltage of several thousand volts (kV) between two water reservoirs that creates a floating water thread, known as a water bridge. Through the choice of micropipettes, it is possible to control the maximal diameter and length of the fiber. Optical fiber couplers, at both sides of the bridge, activate it as an optical waveguide, allowing researchers to monitor the water fiber capillary body waves through transmission modulation and, therefore, deducing changes in surface tension.
Co-confining two important wave types, capillary and electromagnetic, opens a new path of research in the interactions between light and liquid-wall devices. Water-walled microdevices are a million times softer than their solid counterparts, accordingly improving the response to minute forces.

This protocol describes the design and manufacture of a water bridge and its activation as a water fiber. The experiment demonstrates that capillary resonances of the water fiber modulate its optical transmission.

一种水上光纤的设计与制造

In this report, an optical fiber of which the core is made solely of water, while the cladding is air, is designed and manufactured. In contrast with ...

Nerve Stem Cell Differentiation by a One-step Cold Atmospheric Plasma Treatment In Vitro

As the development of physical plasma technology, cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs) have been widely investigated in decontamination, cancer treatment, wound healing, root canal treatment, etc., forming a new research field named plasma medicine. Being a mixture of electrical, chemical, and biological reactive species, CAPs have shown their abilities to enhance nerve stem cells differentiation both in vitro and in vivo and are becoming a promising way for neurological disease treatment in the future. The much more exciting news is that using CAPs may realize one-step, and safely directed, differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) for tissue transportation. We demonstrate here the detailed experimental protocol of using a self-made CAP jet device to enhance NSC differentiation in C17.2-NSCs and primary rat neural stem cells, as well as observing the cell fate by inverted and fluorescence microscopy. With the help of immunofluorescence staining technology, we found both the NSCs showed an accelerated differential rate than the untreated group, and ~75% of the NSCs selectively differentiated into neurons, which are mainly mature, cholinergic, and motor neurons.

Nerve Stem Cell Differentiation by a One-step Cold Atmospheric Plasma Treatment In Vitro

This protocol aims to provide detailed experimental steps of a cold atmospheric plasma treatment on neural stem cells and immunofluorescence detection for differentiation enhancement.

一步冷常压等离子体体外处理神经干细胞分化

As the development of physical plasma technology, cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs) have been widely investigated in decontamination, cancer treatment, ...

Procedure for the Transfer of Polymer Films Onto Porous Substrates with Minimized Defects

The fabrication of devices containing thin film composite membranes necessitates the transfer of these films onto the surfaces of arbitrary support substrates. Accomplishing this transfer in a highly controlled, mechanized, and reproducible manner can eliminate the creation of macroscale defect structures (e.g., tears, cracks, and wrinkles) within the thin film that compromise device performance and the usable area per sample. Here, we describe a general protocol for the highly controlled and mechanized transfer of a polymeric thin film onto an arbitrary porous support substrate for eventual use as a water filtration membrane device. Specifically, we fabricate a block copolymer (BCP) thin film on top of a sacrificial, water-soluble poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) layer and silicon wafer substrate. We then utilize a custom-designed, 3D-printed transfer tool and drain chamber system to deposit, lift-off, and transfer the BCP thin film onto the center of a porous anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) support disc. The transferred BCP thin film is shown to be consistently placed onto the center of the support surface due to the guidance of the meniscus formed between the water and the 3D-printed plastic drain chamber. We also compare our mechanized transfer-processed thin films to those that have been transferred by hand with the use of tweezers. Optical inspection and image analysis of the transferred thin films from the mechanized process confirm that little-to-no macroscale inhomogeneities or plastic deformations are produced, as compared to the multitude of tears and wrinkles produced from manual transfer by hand. Our results suggest that the proposed strategy for thin film transfer can reduce defects when compared to other methods across many systems and applications.

We present a procedure for highly controlled and wrinkle-free transfer of block copolymer thin films onto porous support substrates using a 3D-printed drain chamber. The drain chamber design is of general relevance to all procedures involving transfer of macromolecular films onto porous substrates, which is normally done by hand in an irreproducible fashion.

聚合物薄膜在多孔基板上的转移程序,具有最小化的缺陷

The fabrication of devices containing thin film composite membranes necessitates the transfer of these films onto the surfaces of arbitrary support ...